Peer-to-peer Systems – Introduction – Napster and its legacy – Peer-to-peer – Middleware – Routing overlays. Overlay case studies: Pastry, Tapestry- Distributed File Systems –Introduction – File service architecture – Andrew File system. File System: Features-File model -File accessing models – File sharing semantics Naming: Identifiers, Addresses, Name Resolution – Name Space Implementation – Name Caches – LDAP.
RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL IN COMMUNICATION AMOGHA A K
In random access ,each station has right to send the data. However , if more than one station tries to send ,collision will occur .To avoid this collision , protocols came into existence.
In random access method , no stations are superior & none is assigned the control over the other .
When a station has a data to send , it uses a procedure defined by a protocol whether to send or not .
Introduction to distributed systems
Architecture for Distributed System, Goals of Distributed system, Hardware and Software
concepts, Distributed Computing Model, Advantages & Disadvantage distributed system, Issues
in designing Distributed System,
Peer-to-peer Systems – Introduction – Napster and its legacy – Peer-to-peer – Middleware – Routing overlays. Overlay case studies: Pastry, Tapestry- Distributed File Systems –Introduction – File service architecture – Andrew File system. File System: Features-File model -File accessing models – File sharing semantics Naming: Identifiers, Addresses, Name Resolution – Name Space Implementation – Name Caches – LDAP.
RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL IN COMMUNICATION AMOGHA A K
In random access ,each station has right to send the data. However , if more than one station tries to send ,collision will occur .To avoid this collision , protocols came into existence.
In random access method , no stations are superior & none is assigned the control over the other .
When a station has a data to send , it uses a procedure defined by a protocol whether to send or not .
Introduction to distributed systems
Architecture for Distributed System, Goals of Distributed system, Hardware and Software
concepts, Distributed Computing Model, Advantages & Disadvantage distributed system, Issues
in designing Distributed System,
distributed system chapter one introduction to distribued system.pdflematadese670
distributed system chapter one introduction to distribued system
Your score increases as you pick a category, fill out a long description and add more tags distributed system chapter one introduction to distribued system distributed system chapter one introduction to distribued system distributed system chapter one introduction to distribued system
4 Module - Operating Systems Configuration and Use by Mark John LadoMark John Lado, MIT
4 Module - Operating Systems Configuration and Use
More on https://www.markjohn.cf/courses
This course will deliberate on the basics of an operating system, which may include Computer Memory, the Operating System, its Graphical User Interface, The Windows Operating System, and Desktop, Operating System Installation.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Overview on Edible Vaccine: Pros & Cons with Mechanism
Chapter 1
1. Presented By
Dr. A. ASHOK KUMAR,
Assistant Professor,
Department Of Computer Science,
Alagappa Government Arts College,
Karaikudi – 630003.
ashokamjuno@rediffmail.com
2. 1. Inherently Distributed Applications
several applications are inherently distributed in nature and
require a distributed computing system
an employee database of a nationwide organization, the data to
a particular employee are generated at the employee's branch
office
• to the global need to view the entire database
• a local need for frequent and immediate access to locally
generated data at each branch office
some processing power be available at the many distributed
locations for collecting, preprocessing, and accessing data,
resulting in the need for distributed computing systems
other examples airline reservation system, a computerized
banking system
3. 2. Information Sharing among Distributed Users
person-to-person communication facility by sharing
information
information generated by one of the users can be easily and
efficiently shared by the users working at other nodes of the
system
For example, a project can be performed by two or more users
who are geographically far off
The use of distributed computing systems by a group of users
to work cooperatively is known as computer-supported
cooperative working (CSCW), or groupware
Groupware applications depend heavily on the sharing of
data objects between programs running on different nodes
of a distributed computing system
Groupware is an emerging technology for software
developers
4. 3. Resource Sharing
Sharing of software resources such as software
libraries and databases
hardware resources such as printers, hard disks,
and plotters
a distributed computing system based on the
workstation-server model
4. Better Price-Performance Ratio
rapidly increasing power and reduction in the
price of microprocessors, combined with the
increasing speed of communication networks
distributed computing systems potentially have a
much better price-performance ratio than a single
large centralized system
5. The processor-pool model can be effectively used
by a large number of users from inexpensive
terminals
Facilitate resource sharing among multiple
computers
A single unit of expensive peripheral devices such
as color laser printers, high-speed storage devices,
and plotters can be shared
6. 5. Shorter Response times and Higher Throughput
Due to multiplicity of processors, distributed
computing systems are expected to have better
performance than single-processor centralized
systems
The two most commonly used performance metrics
are
• response time and
• throughput of user processes
computation can be partitioned into a number of
subcomputations that can run concurrently
DCS with very fast communication networks are
increasingly being used as parallel computers to solve
single complex problems rapidly
7. 6. Higher Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree of tolerance
against errors and component failures in a
system
A reliable system prevents loss of information
even in the event of component failures
The multiplicity of storage devices and
processors increase reliability
• if one of the processors fails, the computation
can be successfully completed at the other
processor
• if one of the storage devices fails, the
information can still be used from the other
storage device
8. An important aspect of reliability is availability, which
refers to the fraction of time for which a system is
available for use
• if the processor of a centralized system fails the entire
system breaks down and no useful work can be
performed
• distributed computing system, a few parts of the system
can be down without interrupting the jobs of the users
workstation-server model fails, only the user of that
workstation is affected
the processor-pool model, if some of the processors in
the pool are down at any moment, the system can
continue to function normally
9. 7. Extensibility and Incremental Growth
it is possible to gradually extend the power and
functionality of a distributed computing system by
simply adding additional resources
Additional processors can be easily added to the
system to handle the increased workload
existing and proposed applications it is practically
impossible to predict future demands of the
system
distributed computing systems that have the
property of extensibility and incremental growth
are called open distributed systems
10. 8. Better Flexibility in Meeting Users' Needs
Different types of computers are usually more suitable for
performing different types of computations
computers with ordinary power are suitable for ordinary data
processing jobs
whereas high-performance computers are more suitable for
complex mathematical computations
In a centralized system, the users have to perform all types of
computations on the only available computer
In a distributed computing system from the different types of
computers, the most appropriate one selected for processing a
user's job depending on the nature of the job
interactive jobs can be processed at a user's. own workstation
the processors in the pool may be used to process
noninteractive
11. An operating system as a program that controls
• the resources of a computer system and
• provides its users with an interface
the two primary tasks of an operating system are
• To present users with a virtual machine that is easier to
program than the underlying hardware
• To manage the various resources of the system
The OS commonly used for distributed computing systems can
be broadly classified into two types
• Network operating systems and
• distributed operating systems
The three most important features commonly used to
differentiate between these two types
12. 1. System image
Network Operating System Distributed operating
system
1 the users view the distributed
computing system as a collection of
distinct machines connected by a
communication subsystem
hides the existence of multiple
computers and provides a single-
system image to its users
it makes a collection of networked
machines act as a virtual
uniprocessor
2 a user is required to know the
location of a resource to access it
need not keep track of the
locations of various resources for
accessing them
3 different sets of system calls have to
be used for accessing local and
remote resources
the same set of system calls is used
for accessing both local and
remote resources
13. 2. Autonomy
Network Operating System Distributed operating system
1 built on a set of existing centralized
operating systems handles the
interfacing and coordination of remote
operations and communications
between these operating systems
single system wide operating system and
each computer of the distributed
computing system runs a part of this global
operating system
2 each computer of the distributed
computing system has its own local
operating system
when two processes of different
computers communicate with each
other, they must use a mutually agreed
on communication protocol
they work in close cooperation with each
other for the efficient and effective
utilization of the various resources of the
system
3 Each computer functions
independently of other computers
processes and several resources are
managed globally (some resources are
managed locally)
a single set of globally valid system calls
available on all computers of the
distributed computing system
14. The set of system calls that an operating system
implemented by a set of programs called the kernel
of the operating system
The kernel manages and controls the hardware of
the computer system
system calls globally valid, with a distributed
operating system identical kernels are run on all the
computers
The kernels of different computers often cooperate
with each other in making global decisions
The degree of autonomy in distributed computing
system that uses a network operating system is high
as compared to distributed operating system
15. 3. Fault tolerance capability
A network operating system provides little or no
fault tolerance capability
distributed operating system, most of the users
are normally unaffected by the failed machines
and can continue to perform their work normally
the fault tolerance capability of a distributed
operating system is usually very high as
compared to that of a network operating system
A distributed computing system that uses a
network operating system is usually referred to as
a network system
one that uses a distributed operating system is
usually referred to as a true distributed system
16. 1. Transparency
To make the existence of multiple computers invisible
(transparent)
Provide a single system image to its users
Collection of distinct machines connected by a
communication subsystem appears to its users as a
virtual uniprocessor
Achieving complete transparency is a difficult task
Several different aspects of transparency be supported
by the distributed operating system
8 forms of transparency identified by the International
Standards Organization’s Reference Model for Open
Distributed Processing
Access, Location, replication, failure, migration,
concurrency, performance and scaling transparency
17. Access transparency
It means that users should not need or be able to
recognize whether a resource is remote or local
The DOS allow users to access remote resources in
the same way as local resources
The user interface takes the form of a set of system
calls
It should not distinguish between local and remote
resources
It should be the responsibility of DOS to locate the
resources and to arrange for servicing user requests
in a user-transparent manner
18. Location transparency
Two main aspects of location transparency are
Name transparency
The name of the resource should not reveal any hint as to
the physical location of the resource
The name of the resource is independent of the physical
connectivity or topology of the system or the current
location of the resource
The resource name must be unique systemwide
User mobility
Fact that no matter which machine a user is logged onto
User should be access a resource with the same name
i.e the user should not be required to use different names
to access the same resource from two different nodes
User can freely log on to any machine in the system and
access any resource without making extra effort.
19. Replication transparency
For better performance and reliability all DOS have
provision to create replicas of files and other resources
on different nodes
The existence of multiple copies of replicated resource
and replication activity to be transparent to users
Two important issues are
Naming of replicas
Responsibility of the system to name the various copies of
resources
To map a user-supplied name of the resource to an appropriate
replica of the resource
Replication control
How many copies of the resource to be created
Where should each copy to be placed
When should a copy be created /deleted automatically in a
user-transparent manner
20. Failure transparency
Deals with masking from the users partial failure in
the system
Such as a communication link failure, a machine
failure, or a storage device crash
A DOS with this property will continue to function,
in a degraded form, in the face of partial failure
Example of file server failure in case of file service
Complete transparency is not achievable
Failure of communication network of a disrupts the
work of its users and is noticeable by the users
21. Migration transparency
For better performance, reliability, and security
reasons , an object is capable of being moved
It is often migrated from one node to another in a
distributed system
This ensure that the movement of the object is
handled automatically by the system in a user-
transparent manner
Three important issues are
Migration decisions – which object is to be moved from
where to where should be made automatically by the
system
Migration of an object from one node to another should
not require any change in its name
When migration object is a process – the IPC machanism
ensure that a message sent to the migrating process
reaches it with out the need of resend it
22. Concurrent transparency
Multiple users who are spatially separated use the
system concurrently
It is economical to share the system resources
among the concurrently executing user processes
Number of available resources in a computing
system is restricted
One user process influence the action of another
process as it competes for resources
Four properties are
An event ordering property ensures that all access
request to various system resources are properly ordered
A mutual exclusion property
A no-starvation property
A no-deadlock property
23. Performance transparency
To allow system to be automatically reconfigured to
improve performance , as load vary dynamically in
the system
One processor is overloaded with jobs while another
processor is idle should not be allowed to occur
The processing capability should be uniformly
distributed among the currently available jobs
This uses the intelligent resource allocation and
process migration facilities
Scaling transparency
To allow the system to expand in scale without
disrupting the activities of the users
Use the scalable algorithms for designing the DOS
components
24. 2. Reliability
Distributed systems are more reliable than
centralized systems due to the existence of multiple
instances of resources
Multiple resources alone cannot increase the
system’s reliability
A fault is a mechanical or algorithmic defect that may
generate an error
A fault in a system causes system failure
System failures are two types:
Fail-stop failure – system stops functioning after changing to a
state in which its failure can be detected
Byzantine failure – the system continues to function but
produces wrong results
Byzantine failures are more difficult to deal with than fail-stop
failures
Fault handling mechanisms designed properly to
avoid faults, to tolerate faults, and to detect and
recover from faults
25. Commonly used methods used for faults is
Fault avoidance
Deals with designing the components of the system in
such a way that the occurrence of faults is minimized
High reliability components are often employed for
improving the system reliability
Software components test the hardware components to
make these components highly reliable
Fault Tolerance
Ability of a system to continue functioning in the event of
partial system failure
Performance degraded but the system functions
properly
Concepts to improve the fault tolerance ability is:
Redundancy techniques
To avoid single point of failure by replicating critical hardware
and software components
Additional system overhead is needed to maintain two or more
copies of a replicated resource
Keep all copies of a resource consistent
26. How much replica is enough?
K-fault tolerant if it can continue to function even in the event
of the failure of k components
If the system is to be designed to tolerate k fail-stop failures,k+1
replicas are needed
If the system is tolerate k byzantine failures, a minimum of 2k+1
replicas are needed
Because a voting mechanism to be used the majority k+1 of the
replicas when k replicas behave abnormally
Distributed control
Distributed control mechanism to avoid single points of
failure
Highly available distributed file system have multiple and
independent file servers controlling multiple and
independent storage devices
It is also used for name servers, scheduling algorithms,
and other executive control functions
27. Fault Detection and Recovery
Commonly used methods are
Atomic transactions
Computation consisting of operations take place
indivisibly in the presence of failures and concurrent
computations
Either all of the operations performed successfully or
none of their effects prevails
Other processes executing concurrently cannot modify or
observe intermediate state of the computation
If a process halts unexpectedly due to a hardware faults
or a software fault before a transaction is completed
The system subsequently restores any data objects that
were undergoing modification to their original states
Stateless servers
Two service paradigms: stateful or stateless
28. Stateful approach depend on the history of the serviced
requests
Stateless approach does not depend on it
Stateless server makes crash recovery very easy because
no client information is maintained by server
Stateful paradigm requires complex crash recovery
procedures
Both server and client need to reliably detect crashes
Acknowledgement and timeout-based
retransmissions of messages
Retransmission based on acknowledgement and timeouts
Receiver return acknowledgement
Within the fixed timeout period message is re transmitted
It results duplicate messages
Need mechanism for handling duplicate messages using
sequence numbers
29. 3. Flexibility
Most important feature for open distributed
systems
Flexibility due to the following reasons
Ease of modification
System designers often need to be replaced/modified
either because some bug is detected
The dsign is no longer suitable for the changed system
environment or new-user requirements
Incorporate changes in the system in a user-transparent
manner or with minimum interruption caused to the user
Ease of enhancement
New functionalities have to be added from time to time to
make it more powerful and easy to use
User group has the flexibility to add their own services
30. Flexibility of a distributed OS is the model used for
designing kernel
The kernel of an OS is its central controlling part that
provides the system facilities
It operates in a separate address space that is
inaccessible to user processes
It is the only part of the OS that a user cannot replace or
modify
The two commonly used models for kernel
Monolithic kernel
Most operating system services such as process management, memory
management, device management, file management, name
management, and interprocess communication are provided by the
kernel
Unix is monolithic type
Micro kernel
The kernel is very small nucleus of software that provides only the
minimal facilities
Only service provided in this model is IPC, low-level device
management, low-level process management, and some memory
management
Other services implemented as user level processes
31. 4. Performance
To achieve performance various components of
the distributed system be designed properly
Some design principles are
Batch if possible
Transfer of data across the network in large chunks rather than
individual pages
Piggybacking of acknowledgement of previous message with the
next message.
Cache whenever possible
Caching of data at clients sites frequently improves overall system
performance
It makes the data available
Saves large amount of computing time and network bandwidth
Minimize copying of data
To avoid copying of data, to make optimal use of memory
management
It helps eliminating data movement between the kernel, block I/O
devices, clients and servers
32. Minimize network traffic
Performance also improved by reducing internode
communication costs
Access to remote resources require communication
through intermediate nodes
Migrating a process to closer to the resources it is using will
reduce network traffic
Cluster two or more processes that frequently communicate
with each other on the same node of the system
Take advantage of fine-grain parallelism for
multiprocessing
Threads used for structuring server process
Concurrency control of simultaneous access by multiple
processes to a shared resources
33. 5. Scalability
Refers to the capability of a system to adopt to increased
service load
Distributed system will grow
DOS should be designed to easily cope with the growth
of nodes and users in the system
It should not cause disruption of service or significant
loss of performance
Some principles for designing scalable distributed
systems
Avoid centralized entities
Use of centralized entities such as a single file server or a single
database for the entire system makes nonscalable
a) The failure of the centralized entity brings the entire system down
b) Performance becomes a system bottleneck when contention for it
increases
c) Connection between centralized entity with other nodes gets saturated
d) Several interconnected LAN is inefficient to a particular type of request
serviced at a server node
34. Avoid centralized algorithms
Centralized algorithm operates by collecting information from all nodes, processing this
information on a single node and then distributing the results to other nodes
Decentralized algorithms used , need not collect data
It uses locallaly available information
Performa most operations on client workstations
An operation should be performed on the clients own workstation rather than on a
server machine
Server is a common resource for several clients and hence server cycles are more
precious than the cycles of client workstations
6. Heterogeneity
Designing heterogeneous distributed systems is more difficult than
designing homogeneous systems
Heterogeneous system needs some form of translation is necessary
for interaction between two incompatible nodes.
Data translation performed at the sender’s node or at the receivers
nodes
This translation process can be greatly reduced by using
intermediate standard data format
Each node requires a translation software for converting from its
own format to standard format, and from standard format to its own
format.
35. 7. Security
Security is difficult because of the lack of a single point of
control
Use of insecure networks for data communication
In a centralized system all users are authenticated by the
system at login time
In a distributed system server should know who is the client
request for service
Client identification field in the message cannot be trusted
Because an intruder may change or act as a client during
transmission
Distributed system has the following requirements
Sender should be know that the message was received by the
intended receiver
Receiver should know the message was sent by the genuine
sender
Sender and receiver guaranteed that message were not changed
during transfer
8. Emulation of existing Operating system
Moving to the new DOS will allow both types of software to
be run side by side
36. Introduction To Distributing Computing
Environment (DCE)
DCE was defined by the Open Software
Foundation(OSF)
It is a consortium of computer manufacturers
It is not an OS, nor is it an application
It is an integrated set of services and tools on
the top of existing OS
Serve as a platform for building and running
distributed applications
A primary goal of DCE is vendor independence
It runs on different kinds of computers, OS, and
networks
DCE is a middleware software layered between
the DCE applications layer and the operating
system and networking layer
37. Each machine has its own local OS
The DCE software layer on top of the OS and
networking layer
DCE applications
DCE software
Operating systems and
networking
38. DCE Components
Thread package
Provides a simple programming model for building
concurrent applications
It includes operations to create and control multiple threads
of execution in a single process
Synchronize access to global data within the application
Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
It provide tools to build client-server applications
DCE RPC is basis for all communication in DCE
It is ease to use
It is network- and protocol-independent
Provides secure communication between client and server
Hides differences in data requirements by converting data to
appropriate format
39. Distributed Time Service (DTS)
It synchronize the clocks of all the computers in the system
Also permits the use of time values from external time
sources
It synchronize the clocks of computers in the system with
external time
Used to synchronize the clocks of the computers of one
distributed environment with another.
Name services
Includes Cell Directory service (CDS), Global Directory Service
(GDS), and the Global directory Agent (GDA)
These allows servers, files, devices to be uniquely named and
accessed in a location-transparent manner
40. Security service
Provides tools for authentication and authorization to protect
system resources
Distributed File Service (DFS)
It provides systemwide file system
It has characteristics such as location transparency, high
performance, and high availability
Unique feature of DCE DFS is also provide file services to clients of
other file systems
The DCE components are tightly integrated
Interdependencies of DCE components are recursive
Component Name Other Components Used
by It
Threads None
RPC Threads, name, security
DTS Threads, RPC, name,
security
Name Threads, RPC, DTS,
Security
Security Threads, RPC, DTS, name
41. DCE cells
A cell is a group of users, machines, or other
resources
The minimum cell configuration requires a cell
directory server, a security server, a distributed
time server and one or more client machines
Each DCE client machine has client processes for
security service, cell directory service, distributed
time service, RPC facility, and threads facility
Setting up a DCE system is to decide cell
boundaries
Four factors to be considered for decision making
Purpose
Users working on the same goal should be put in the same cell
They need easy access to a common set of system resources
42. Administration
Each system needs an administrator to register new users in
the system
And decide the access rights to the system resources
All the machines and their users manageable by a
administrator put in a single cell
Security
Machines of those users who have greater trust in each other
should be put in the same cell
Cell boundaries act like a firewalls that accessing resources
belongs to another cell
Overhead
Name resolution, user authentication incur overhead when
they performed between cells than when they are performed
within the same cell
Machines of users who frequently interact with each other and
the resources accessed frequently placed in same cell