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VALUES OF COMMERCE EDUCATION
Commerce education has certain values that make it relevant in education. The
valuable services render to the individual as well as the society form the basis for
the educational values. These are:
1. Practical or Utilitarian value
Commerce education has great significance in preparing individuals and
the society in general for taking up and indulging in commercial activities
efficiently. Commerce education provides us with the understandings,
insights, attitudes and skills for taking up sucj activities. Also it gives
proper guidance for systematically extending customer services, thus
meeting the everyday requirements of peoples in terms of various
commodities essentially required for the very sustenance of life. This may
be considered as the practical value of commerce education.
2. Cultural Value: commerce education helps to transmit many cultural values
like systematic dealings, social and service orientation, fair dealings with
customers, good salesmanship, honesty in commercial dealings, etc. this is
the cultural values of commerce education.
3. Social Value: commerce education is directly connected with the everyday
life of human beings. Comfortable life in a society depends upon how
efficiently and fairly the dealings associated with commercial transactions
like trade, distribution, service, etc related to good take place in the society.
Performing all these dealings with a social commitment depends upon how
well the members of the society gets educated in these. Commerce
education meets this social value also.

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4. Disciplinary value: modern commercial theory and practice applies
scientific methods for analyzing various components, planning various
tasks, gathering a variety of data, systematically processing interpreting
them, etc. commerce education reflects all these characteristics of scientific
thinking and hence helps the learners of the science to acquire systematic
ways of thinking and doing. This is the disciplinary value of commerce
education.
5. Vocational Value: the individual must be able to earn money for leading a
successful social life. Commerce education has a significant role in
providing employment opportunities for individuals in the society. This
will help a person to gain adequate monetary benefit to service in the
society. In other words, commerce education can train the individual to
become a self-sufficient personality. This will also help to increase the
production and national wealth. But, it is significant that the vocational
aspects of commerce education should not be restricted to income. It
should also inculcate some other qualities such as job satisfaction, social
responsibility, social ethics, etc. moreover the commerce education should
enhance the vocational competency of an individual also.
2.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Review of related studies is very significant pre-requisite to actual planning
and execution of any research work. It is highly useful in the intelligent

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understanding of the problem under study . For any worthwhile study in any
field, the research workers need an adequate familiarity with the work which has
already been done in the areas of his choice. He needs to acquire up to date
information about what has been thought and done in the particular area. He has
to build up on the accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past. The
investigator draws maximum benefit from the previous findings , take many hints
from the designs and procedures of previous researches ,matches his conclusions
draw earlier and tries to add from his side a line or two the existing store of
knowledge. Thus the review o f related material is a fruit phase of any research
programme.
The Review of Related Literature implies locating reading and evaluating
report as well as report of causal observation and opinion that are related to
individuals planned research project.(J.C.Aggarwal 1985)
A study of related literature provides the investigator with an understanding of
the work that has been done in the field of enquiry. Every investigator must know
what source are available in the field of enquiry which are those he is to use and
where and who to find them. A study of literature implies locating, studying and
evaluating reports of relevant researches, studies of published articles, going
though related portions of encyclopedias and research abstracts, studies of
pertinent pages out of comprehensive books on the subject and going through
manuscript if any. The review of literature gives the research an understanding of
the research methodology which refers to the way the study is to be conducted. It
provides insight in to the validity of results is to be established. Therefore the
essential part of the research project is the review of related literature.
Studies related to Practical Knowledge and Theoretical Knowledge

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Theoretical reason tries to assess the way things are. Practical reason decides how
the world should be and what individuals should do. A theoretical proposition is
good if it conforms to reality, while a practical proposition has more complicated
and debatable standards, (For the idea of "direction of fit" see John Searle's 1983
Intentionality. ) While practical reason decides what to do, it cannot remake
reality any way it likes. The successful practical agent must take into account
truths about the world. Some have inferred from this that practical reason consists
largely (or entirely) in using such knowledge for practical purposes. Similarly,
while theoretical reason tries to conform to the world, its proceedings are
influenced by the practical needs of inquirers. Some have concluded from this
that theoretical reason is the specification of the norms of practical reason to the
practical project of theoretical inquiry. How individuals ought to believe is then a
practical question.
Some of the interest in practical reason comes from trying to understand its
failures. Theoretical irrationality is simply a mistake. But practical irrationality
may invite more detailed explanations than theoretical irrationalities, because
there is more to explain. (The most influential modern discussion of weakness of
will is in Donald Davidson's 1980 "How Is Weakness of the Will Possible?" For
Aristotle on akrasia —literally "without power over oneself," but often translated
as weakness of will—see Dahl.)
Formally, there are four possible relations between theoretical and practical
reason. Penetrating philosophers cannot always be so easily categorized, but these
possibilities set the agenda for philosophers trying to understand the relation
between theoretical and practical reason.

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First, in Plato's representation of Socrates, theoretical and practical reasoning are
only superficially distinct. Truth and goodness are convertible, as are the modes
of reasoning that lead to apprehension of truth and goodness. To know the good is
to desire it. The good life is the philosophical life, characterized not by
knowledge but by eros. Anyone who fully understands the good must try to
achieve it; no one can know the better, yet choose the worse. Vice is a practical
form of ignorance.
Second, theoretical reasoning is a form of practice, judged by practical standards
of effectiveness, appropriateness, and productivity. This position has reappeared
in history under different names—sophism among the Greeks, humanism in the
Renaissance, and now pragmatism and anti-foundationalism. The myth of
Prometheus that Protagoras recounts to Socrates in Plato's Protagoras sees that
the only difference between the knowledge of justice and piety and the
knowledge embodied in the arts is that practical reason is universally distributed,
while the arts are more specialized. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and
Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) stress, in different ways, that one can only know
what one has made. Theory is a moment in practice, sometimes a means of
avoiding action and sometimes a means of domination. Theoretical reasoning is
what happens to practical reasoning when one temporarily abstracts from the
usual conditions of practical decision—limited information, time constraints, a
need to be responsive to desires and opinions, even those that are not well-grounded.
Max Weber's essay, "The Profession and Vocation of Politics," can be
taken as an exemplar of this version of theory and practice. Practical reasoning,
for Weber, requires a distinction between an ethics of conviction—which too
closely mirrors theoretical reasoning—and an ethics of responsibility. If the
virtuous do not teach virtue, maybe the fault lies in their teaching ability, not in

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their virtue. If reason does not always rule, maybe it shouldn't—maybe the
competing claims of tradition or emotion should prevail.
Third, practical reason is the application of theoretical reasoning and its
conclusions to concrete, practical situations. Even theoretical reasoning needs
practical judgment to reach definite conclusions. Practical reasoning is
instrumental, calculating how to achieve an end that is not itself rationally
determined. To be practically rational is intelligently to pursue one's interest.
"Reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions" (Hume, p. 415), and it
is not irrational to "prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of
my finger" (p. 416). If reason is a slave of the passions, then practical reasoning is
simply the name for reasoning that concerns itself with desires and the means of
satisfying them. Practical reasoning does not differ from theoretical reasoning
except in content: it is reasoning that is about preferences, desires, obstacles, and
resources. If good people do not teach virtue, it is simply because they choose not
to pass on their cleverness; virtue is taught by conditioning or persuading people
to desire and take pleasure in the right things. This conception of the relation of
theoretical to practical reason can argue that it is only through progress in the
sciences that the emergence of democracy and human freedom can take place.
The more one can calculate, the less one has to argue. But there is a problem
within this line of thought. Without objective ends, goals are not rationally
justified. Therefore, only means are justified and rational. But only ends motivate.
This leaves a gap between justification and motivation. Sensing that gap, Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) sets a new problem for practical reason when he
asks how a free act of will can create obligations: what motivation could a free
being have for entering a world in which he must justify what he does?

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Finally, practical and theoretical reasoning are distinct forms of reasoning.
Science and practical wisdom are irreducible to each other, and each, in its own
sphere, gives orders to the other. In Aristotle, politics decides which sciences are
studied but metaphysics determines truths according to which practice operates.
Political science "prescribes which of the sciences ought to be studied in cities"
(Ethics, I.2). "Phronesis is not in authority over wisdom or the better part of the
intellect, any more than medical science is in authority over health. Medical
science does not control health, but studies how to procure it; hence it issues
orders in the interests of health, but not to health" (Ethics, VI.13). Aristotle also
takes up Socrates' challenge that knowing the better yet choosing the worse is
impossible, and provides (Ethics, VII) logical and physical explanations for
akrasia.
Aristotle argues that practical reasoning infers in the opposite direction from both
theoretical reasoning and the deliberation involved in productive activity. In the
arts, barring chance, the inference from product to artist is secure: looking at a
painting can tell the observer if it was skillfully produced, while courageous or
just acts do not always indicate the presence of a virtuous agent. On the other
hand, a virtuous person can be counted on to act virtuously; the virtuous person,
unlike the artist, cannot say, "I could have acted virtuously but I didn't want to."
The virtues are not rational in that way.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), too, sees both theoretical and practical reason as
supreme, each in their own way. He states that everything acts according to laws,
but "only a rational being has the capacity of acting according to the conception
of laws, that is, according to principles" (Critique of Pure Reason, G412).
Practical reason understands laws of freedom. In Kant, theoretical reason has

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priority because it can have knowledge where practical reason merely has
conviction and belief. At the same time, practical reason has priority because the
knowledge of theoretical reason is only knowledge of phenomena—how things
appear to us—while practical reason orients itself to things as they really are.
Moreover, even theoretical reason depends on practical reason, since Kant insists
that "reason has no dictatorial authority; its verdict is always simply the
agreement of free citizens" (A738–9/ B766–67).
Kant's "critical philosophy" asks how both theoretical and practical reason are
possible. It takes for granted the existence and successful operations of theoretical
reason in the sciences, and thus the Critique asks for the conditions that could
justify this use of reason. At the same time, the Critique exposes as empty the
claims of theoretical reason to transcend the empirical conditions that make
scientific knowledge possible. The situation for practical reason is different. It
cannot take some existing practices of practical reason as data to be explained. It
is only by transcending the empirical conditions that limit practical reason to an
instrumental role that one discovers, in pure practical reason, the legitimate moral
employment of rationality. It is known that desires cause actions. Kant asks
whether reason can lead to action on its own, and not only concludes that it can,
but argues that actions caused by reason alone are identical with morally good
acts.
For a final example, John Stuart Mill begins Utilitarianism (1863) by noticing
this difference between theoretical and practical reasoning: "Though in science
the particular truths precede the general theory, the contrary might be expected to
be the case with a practical art, such as morals or legislation. All action is for the
sake of some end, and rules of action, it seems natural to suppose, must take their

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whole character and color from the end to which they are subservient. When we
engage in a pursuit, a clear and precise conception of what we are pursuing would
seem to be the first thing we need, instead of the last we are to look forward to"
(Ch. 1, para.
Studies related to vocational competencies
Esther Winther and Viola Katharina Klotz (2013) conduct A Study on
Measurement of Vocational Competences : An Analysis of the Structure and
Reliability of Current assessment Practices in Economic Domains. In this study
both fostering and measuring action competence remain central targets of
vocational education and training research; adequate measurement approaches
clearly are prerequisites for international, large scale assessments for the German
Chamber of Commerce and industry, competence assessments of industrial
managers rely mainly on final examinations that attempt to measure not just
knowledge but also action competence to evaluate this test instrument, this
article considers two questions:-
1. Can test assess action competence with validity
2. How reliable bare the corresponding assessment results?
As a result the current examination appears neither adequate nor accurate
as an instrument to capture action competence.
Lengelle et.al(2013) wrote an articles on ‘The Effects of Creative, Expressive
and Reflective Writing on Carrier Learning: An explorative Study.’ This study
investigates whether creative, expressive and relative writing contributes to the
formation of a work life narrative that offers both meaning and direction among
students in higher education. The content of writing done by students who

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participated in an two day writing course at the start (or in preparation) of their
work placements and of a control group who didn’t take part in the course were
compared. Writing samples are analyzed using the Lingustic Index Word Count
Program (Pennebaker, Booth and Francis 2007) and an instrument based on
Dialogical Self Theory (Hermann – Konopka,2010). Result show writing
promotes the development of carrier narratives.
Helen Colley (2003) wrote an article ‘Learning as Becoming in Vocational
Education and Training: class, gender and the role of vocational habits.’ It implies
that official account of learning and training emphasizes the acquisition of
technical skills and knowledge to foster behavioral competence in the workplace.
However, such accounts fail to acknowledge the relationship between learning
and identity. Drawing on detailed case studies of three vocation courses- in
childcare, healthcare and engineering- in English further education colleges, with
in the project. Transforming Learning Cultures in Further Education, it is argued
that learning is a process of becoming learning culture and vocational culture in
which they are steeped transform those who enter them: The authors develop the
concept of vocational habits to explain a central aspect of students experience, as
they have to orient to a particular set of disposition both idealized and realized.
Predisposition related to gender, family background and specific location within
the working class are necessary, but not sufficient for effective learning.
Vocational habits reinforce and develop these in line with demands of the work
place, although it may reproduce social inequalities at the same time. Vocational
habits involves developing not only a ‘sense’ of hoe to be, but also sensibility,
requisite feelings and morals and the capacity for emotional labour.
The purpose of the present study is to identify the Relationship that exists
between Achievement in Commerce and Practical Knowledge in Commerce

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among Students at Post Graduate level. The investigator went through the
different types of research works like dissertations, journals thesis and varieties of
relevant books on educational psychology in India and abroad. A number of
studies have been conducted on the topic Achievement. But only a few studies
have been conducted that relates to Practical Knowledge in Commerce. The
investigator tries to find the relationship between Achievement in Commerce
Practical Knowledge in Commerce among students at post graduate level such a
study has never been undertaken by any other research worker