ch15.ppt

Management11e John Schermerhorn
Chapter 15
Motivation Theory
and Practice

Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence motivation?
2. What are the process theories of motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Management 11e Chapter 15 2

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 Motivation—the forces within
the individual that account for
the level, direction, and
persistence of effort
expended at work

 Needs
 Unfulfilled physiological and psychological
desires of an individual
 Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
 Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior
 Good managers and leaders facilitate
employee need satisfaction

 Hierarchy of needs theory
 Developed by Abraham Maslow
 Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes
 Lower-order needs:
 Physiological, safety, and social needs
 Desires for physical and social well being
 Higher-order needs:
 Esteem and self-actualization needs
 Desire for psychological growth and development

Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of
human needs

 Hierarchy of needs
theory
 Deficit principle
 A satisfied need is not a
motivator of behavior
 Progression principle
 A need at one level does
not become activated until
the next lower-level need
is satisfied

 ERG theory
 Developed by Clayton Alderfer
 Three need levels
Existence
needs
• desires for
physiological
and material
well-being
Relatedness
needs
• desires for
satisfying
interpersonal
relationships
Growth needs
• desires for
continued
psychological
growth and
development

 ERG theory
 Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time
 Frustration-regression principle
 An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated

 Two-factor theory
 Developed by Frederick Herzberg
 Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context
 Sources of job dissatisfaction
 Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content
 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

Figure 15.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory

 Acquired needs theory
 Developed by David McClelland
 People acquire needs through their life
experiences
 Needs that are acquired:
Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
Need for
Power
(nPower)
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)

 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Desire to do something better or more efficiently,
to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
 People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
 Involves individual responsibility for results
 Involves achievable but challenging goals
 Provides feedback on performance

 Need for Power (nPower)
 Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people
 Personal power versus social power
 People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
 Involves control over other persons
 Has an impact on people and events
 Brings public recognition and attention

 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 Desire to establish and maintain friendly and
warm relations with other persons
 People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
 Involves interpersonal relationships
 Provides for companionship
 Brings social approval

Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Process theories of motivation …
 How people make choices to work hard or not
 Choices are based on:
 Individual preferences
 Available rewards
 Possible work outcomes
 Types of process theories:
 Equity theory
 Expectancy theory
 Goal-setting theory

 Equity theory
 Developed by J. Stacy Adams
 When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation
 Perceived inequity
 Perceived equity

Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison

 Equity theory
 People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing …
 Work inputs
 Rewards received
 Comparison points
 Situation

 Managerial implications of equity theory—
 Underpaid people experience anger
 Overpaid people experience guilt
 Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes
 Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated
 Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source
of equity controversies in the workplace
 Gender equity
 Comparable worth

 Developed by Victor Vroom
 Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result
in desired level of performance
 Instrumentality — belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards
 Valence — value a person assigns to rewards
and other work related outcomes

Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation

 Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality
(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in
a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

 Managerial implications of expectancy
theory—
 To maximize expectancy, managers should:
 Select workers with ability
 Train workers to use ability
 Support work efforts
 Clarify performance goals

theory—
 To maximize instrumentality, managers
should:
 Clarify psychological contracts
 Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
 Identify rewards that are contingent on
performance

theory—
 To maximize valence in a positive direction,
managers should:
 Identify individual needs
 Adjust rewards to match individual needs

 Developed by Edwin Locke
 Properly set and well-managed task goals
can be highly motivating
 Motivational effects of task goals:
 Provide direction to people in their work
 Clarify performance expectations
 Establish a frame of reference for feedback
 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management

• Set specific goals
• Set challenging goals
• Build goal acceptance and commitment
• Clarify goal priorities
• Provide feedback on goal
accomplishment
• Reward goal accomplishment
Key issues and principles in
the goal-setting process:

 Participation in goal setting
 unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
 management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation
 when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist

 Self-Efficacy Theory
 a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
 Capability directly affects motivation
 higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
 self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting

 Self-Efficacy Theory
 Enactive mastery
 person gains confidence through positive experience
 Vicarious modeling
 learning by observing others
 Verbal persuasion
 encouragement from others that one can perform a task
 Emotional arousal
 high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
 Focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior
 Law of effect — impact of type of
consequence on future behavior

 Operant conditioning:
 Developed by B.F. Skinner
 Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences

 Operant conditioning strategies:
 Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant
consequence
 Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant
consequence

 Operant conditioning strategies:
 Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent presentation of an unpleasant
consequence
 Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent removal of an pleasant
consequence

 Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on
 Law of contingent reinforcement —
 Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited
 Law of immediate reinforcement —
 More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has

• Clearly identify desired work behaviors
• Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
• Inform everyone about what must be
done to get rewards
• Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards
• Follow the laws of immediate and
contingent reinforcement
Guidelines for using positive
reinforcement:

 Schedules of reinforcement:
 Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs
 Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically
 Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement
 Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent
 Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it

 Guidelines for using punishment:
 Tell the person what is being done wrong
 Tell the person what is being done right
 Match the punishment to the behavior
 Administer punishment in private
 Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement

Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality
management

Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Job
 A collection of tasks performed in support of
organizational objectives
 Job design
 The process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals
and groups
 Jobs should be designed so that both
performance and satisfaction result

motivation?
 Job simplification
 Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and highly
specialized tasks
 Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and
low in job depth
 Automation
 Total mechanization of a job
 Most extreme form of job simplification

motivation?
Potential advantages of
job simplification:
• Easier and quicker
training of workers
• Workers are less
difficult to supervise
• Workers are easier to
replace
• Development of
expertise in doing
repetitive tasks
Potential disadvantages
of job simplification:
• Productivity suffers
• Cost increases due to
absenteeism/ turnover
of unhappy workers
• Poor performance may
result from worker
boredom/ alienation

Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives
Please insert figure 15.6 here

motivation?
 Job rotation and job enlargement:
 Expands job scope
 Job rotation
 Increases task variety by periodically shifting
workers among jobs involving different task
assignments
 Job enlargement
 Increases task variety by combining two or more
tasks previously assigned to separate workers
 Horizontal loading

motivation?
 Job enrichment
 Building more opportunities for satisfaction
into a job by expanding its content
 Increases job depth by adding work planning
duties normally performed by a supervisor

motivation?
 Job characteristics model
 Satisfaction and performance are influencec
by three critical psychological states:
 Experienced meaningfulness of work
 Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes
 Knowledge of actual results of work activities

motivation?
 The three critical psychological states are
influenced by five core job characteristics:
 Skill variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback

motivation?
 How to improve core job characteristics:
 Form natural units of work
 Combine tasks
 Establish client relationships
 Open feedback channels
 Practice vertical loading

Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model
Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
Please insert figure 15.7 here

motivation?
 Flexible working hours
 Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily work
hours
 Core time — all employees must be at work
 Flextime — allows employees to schedule around
personal and family responsibilities

motivation?
 Potential benefits of flexible working
hours:
 People have greater autonomy in work
scheduling while ensuring maintenance of
work responsibilities
 Organizations can attract and retain
employees who have special non-work
responsibilities
 Worker morale may be improved

motivation?
 Compressed workweek
 Allows a full-time job to be completed in less
than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts
 Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting
costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially
improved performance
 Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family
adjustment problems, increased scheduling
problems, possible customer complaints, and
union opposition

motivation?
 Job sharing
 One full-time job is split between two or more
persons
 Work sharing
 An agreement between employees to cut
back their work hours to avoid layoffs or
termination

motivation?
 Potential advantages of work sharing
 Trained and loyal workers can be retained
while temporarily cutting labor costs
 Continued work  but with reduced earnings
 for those who would otherwise be laid off
 Potential disadvantages of work sharing
 Employees who might otherwise be
protected by seniority may suffer an income
loss

motivation?
 Telecommuting
 A work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed
outside of the office
 Hoteling
 Virtual offices

motivation?
 Potential advantages of telecommuting:
 Freedom from
 Constraints of commuting
 Fixed hours
 Special work attire
 Direct contact with supervisors
 Increased productivity
 Fewer distractions
 Being one’s own boss
 Having more personal time

motivation?
 Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
 Working too much
 Having less personal time
 Difficulty in separating work and personal life
 Less time for family
 Feelings of isolation
 Loss of visibility for promotion
 Difficulties supervising
work-at-home employees
from a distance

motivation?
 Contingency workers
 Part-time workers who supplement the full-
time workforce, often on a long-term basis
 Part-time work
 Work done on any schedule less than the
standard 40-hour workweek and does not
qualify person as a full-time employee

motivation?
 Implications of part-time work:
 Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labor costs and dealing with
cyclical labor demands
 Temporary workers may lack commitment
and be less productive
 Contingency workers are often paid less and
don’t receive important fringe benefits

Chapter 15 Case
 The Three Doctors: Determined to
succeed

For activities and assessments, please visit…
 www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn

ch15.ppt

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