2. Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence motivation?
2. What are the process theories of motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Management 11e Chapter 15 2
3. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Motivation—the forces within
the individual that account for
the level, direction, and
persistence of effort
expended at work
Management 11e Chapter 15 3
4. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Needs
Unfulfilled physiological and psychological
desires of an individual
Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior
Good managers and leaders facilitate
employee need satisfaction
Management 11e Chapter 15 4
5. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow
Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes
Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs
Desires for physical and social well being
Higher-order needs:
Esteem and self-actualization needs
Desire for psychological growth and development
Management 11e Chapter 15 5
6. Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of
human needs
Management 11e Chapter 15 6
7. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs
theory
Deficit principle
A satisfied need is not a
motivator of behavior
Progression principle
A need at one level does
not become activated until
the next lower-level need
is satisfied
Management 11e Chapter 15 7
8. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer
Three need levels
Management 11e Chapter 15 8
Existence
needs
• desires for
physiological
and material
well-being
Relatedness
needs
• desires for
satisfying
interpersonal
relationships
Growth needs
• desires for
continued
psychological
growth and
development
9. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory
Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time
Frustration-regression principle
An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated
Management 11e Chapter 15 9
10. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg
Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context
Sources of job dissatisfaction
Satisfier factors:
Elements of the job content
Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
Management 11e Chapter 15 10
12. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland
People acquire needs through their life
experiences
Needs that are acquired:
Management 11e Chapter 15 12
Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
Need for
Power
(nPower)
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)
13. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more efficiently,
to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
Involves individual responsibility for results
Involves achievable but challenging goals
Provides feedback on performance
Management 11e Chapter 15 13
14. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people
Personal power versus social power
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
Involves control over other persons
Has an impact on people and events
Brings public recognition and attention
Management 11e Chapter 15 14
15. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and
warm relations with other persons
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
Involves interpersonal relationships
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval
Management 11e Chapter 15 15
16. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Process theories of motivation …
How people make choices to work hard or not
Choices are based on:
Individual preferences
Available rewards
Possible work outcomes
Types of process theories:
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Management 11e Chapter 15 16
17. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory
Developed by J. Stacy Adams
When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation
Perceived inequity
Perceived equity
Management 11e Chapter 15 17
18. Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison
Management 11e Chapter 15 18
19. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory
People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing …
Work inputs
Rewards received
Comparison points
Situation
Management 11e Chapter 15 19
20. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of equity theory—
Underpaid people experience anger
Overpaid people experience guilt
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes
Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source
of equity controversies in the workplace
Gender equity
Comparable worth
Management 11e Chapter 15 20
21. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory
Developed by Victor Vroom
Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result
in desired level of performance
Instrumentality — belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards
and other work related outcomes
Management 11e Chapter 15 21
22. Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation
Management 11e Chapter 15 22
23. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory
Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality
(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in
a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low
Management 11e Chapter 15 23
24. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy
theory—
To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability
Train workers to use ability
Support work efforts
Clarify performance goals
Management 11e Chapter 15 24
25. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy
theory—
To maximize instrumentality, managers
should:
Clarify psychological contracts
Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
Identify rewards that are contingent on
performance
Management 11e Chapter 15 25
26. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy
theory—
To maximize valence in a positive direction,
managers should:
Identify individual needs
Adjust rewards to match individual needs
Management 11e Chapter 15 26
27. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke
Properly set and well-managed task goals
can be highly motivating
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work
Clarify performance expectations
Establish a frame of reference for feedback
Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management
Management 11e Chapter 15 27
28. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
• Set specific goals
• Set challenging goals
• Build goal acceptance and commitment
• Clarify goal priorities
• Provide feedback on goal
accomplishment
• Reward goal accomplishment
Key issues and principles in
the goal-setting process:
Management 11e Chapter 15 28
29. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting
unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation
when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist
Management 11e Chapter 15 29
30. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory
a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
Capability directly affects motivation
higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting
Management 11e Chapter 15 30
31. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory
Enactive mastery
person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling
learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion
encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal
high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
Management 11e Chapter 15 31
32. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
Focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior
Law of effect — impact of type of
consequence on future behavior
Management 11e Chapter 15 32
33. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner
Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences
Management 11e Chapter 15 33
34. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant
consequence
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant
consequence
Management 11e Chapter 15 34
35. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:
Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent presentation of an unpleasant
consequence
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent removal of an pleasant
consequence
Management 11e Chapter 15 35
36. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement —
More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has
Management 11e Chapter 15 36
37. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
• Clearly identify desired work behaviors
• Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
• Inform everyone about what must be
done to get rewards
• Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards
• Follow the laws of immediate and
contingent reinforcement
Guidelines for using positive
reinforcement:
Management 11e Chapter 15 37
38. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs
Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically
Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement
Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent
Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it
Management 11e Chapter 15 38
39. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Guidelines for using punishment:
Tell the person what is being done wrong
Tell the person what is being done right
Match the punishment to the behavior
Administer punishment in private
Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement
Management 11e Chapter 15 39
40. Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality
management
Management 11e Chapter 15 40
41. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job
A collection of tasks performed in support of
organizational objectives
Job design
The process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals
and groups
Jobs should be designed so that both
performance and satisfaction result
Management 11e Chapter 15 41
42. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job simplification
Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and highly
specialized tasks
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and
low in job depth
Automation
Total mechanization of a job
Most extreme form of job simplification
Management 11e Chapter 15 42
43. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential advantages of
job simplification:
• Easier and quicker
training of workers
• Workers are less
difficult to supervise
• Workers are easier to
replace
• Development of
expertise in doing
repetitive tasks
Potential disadvantages
of job simplification:
• Productivity suffers
• Cost increases due to
absenteeism/ turnover
of unhappy workers
• Poor performance may
result from worker
boredom/ alienation
Management 11e Chapter 15 43
44. Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives
Management 11e Chapter 15 44
Please insert figure 15.6 here
45. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job rotation and job enlargement:
Expands job scope
Job rotation
Increases task variety by periodically shifting
workers among jobs involving different task
assignments
Job enlargement
Increases task variety by combining two or more
tasks previously assigned to separate workers
Horizontal loading
Management 11e Chapter 15 45
46. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job enrichment
Building more opportunities for satisfaction
into a job by expanding its content
Increases job depth by adding work planning
duties normally performed by a supervisor
Management 11e Chapter 15 46
47. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job characteristics model
Satisfaction and performance are influencec
by three critical psychological states:
Experienced meaningfulness of work
Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes
Knowledge of actual results of work activities
Management 11e Chapter 15 47
48. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
The three critical psychological states are
influenced by five core job characteristics:
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Management 11e Chapter 15 48
49. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
How to improve core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work
Combine tasks
Establish client relationships
Open feedback channels
Practice vertical loading
Management 11e Chapter 15 49
50. Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model
Management 11e Chapter 15 50
Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
Please insert figure 15.7 here
51. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Flexible working hours
Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily work
hours
Core time — all employees must be at work
Flextime — allows employees to schedule around
personal and family responsibilities
Management 11e Chapter 15 51
52. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential benefits of flexible working
hours:
People have greater autonomy in work
scheduling while ensuring maintenance of
work responsibilities
Organizations can attract and retain
employees who have special non-work
responsibilities
Worker morale may be improved
Management 11e Chapter 15 52
53. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Compressed workweek
Allows a full-time job to be completed in less
than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts
Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting
costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially
improved performance
Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family
adjustment problems, increased scheduling
problems, possible customer complaints, and
union opposition
Management 11e Chapter 15 53
54. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Job sharing
One full-time job is split between two or more
persons
Work sharing
An agreement between employees to cut
back their work hours to avoid layoffs or
termination
Management 11e Chapter 15 54
55. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential advantages of work sharing
Trained and loyal workers can be retained
while temporarily cutting labor costs
Continued work but with reduced earnings
for those who would otherwise be laid off
Potential disadvantages of work sharing
Employees who might otherwise be
protected by seniority may suffer an income
loss
Management 11e Chapter 15 55
56. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Telecommuting
A work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed
outside of the office
Hoteling
Virtual offices
Management 11e Chapter 15 56
57. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
Constraints of commuting
Fixed hours
Special work attire
Direct contact with supervisors
Increased productivity
Fewer distractions
Being one’s own boss
Having more personal time
Management 11e Chapter 15 57
58. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
Working too much
Having less personal time
Difficulty in separating work and personal life
Less time for family
Feelings of isolation
Loss of visibility for promotion
Difficulties supervising
work-at-home employees
from a distance
Management 11e Chapter 15 58
59. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the full-
time workforce, often on a long-term basis
Part-time work
Work done on any schedule less than the
standard 40-hour workweek and does not
qualify person as a full-time employee
Management 11e Chapter 15 59
60. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Implications of part-time work:
Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labor costs and dealing with
cyclical labor demands
Temporary workers may lack commitment
and be less productive
Contingency workers are often paid less and
don’t receive important fringe benefits
Management 11e Chapter 15 60