The integumentary system comprises the skin and its appendages. Skin + derivatives= Integument.
It aims to protect the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or damages from outside.
The integumentary system in chordates includes hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
It may serve to water proof, and protect the deeper tissues.
Excrete wastes, and regulate body temperature.
It is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
The integumentary system comprises the skin and its appendages. Skin + derivatives= Integument.
It aims to protect the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or damages from outside.
The integumentary system in chordates includes hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
It may serve to water proof, and protect the deeper tissues.
Excrete wastes, and regulate body temperature.
It is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature.
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside and surrounding cells are composed of water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.
The video lectures of Biology in easy way are available on youtube channel.
https://youtu.be/Qg_SXsAwMmA
Basic Information about Osmoregulation in Animals
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside and surrounding cells are composed of water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.
The video lectures of Biology in easy way are available on youtube channel.
https://youtu.be/Qg_SXsAwMmA
Basic Information about Osmoregulation in Animals
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
Osmoregulation Mechanisms and Adaptations in Various Organisms.pdfNAGENDRA SINGH
Osmoregulation is the process by which living organisms regulate the concentration of water and solutes (such as salts) in their bodies to maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal environment. This is especially important in aquatic organisms, which are surrounded by water of varying salt concentrations, but also in terrestrial organisms that need to conserve water.
In animals, osmoregulation involves a variety of physiological processes such as filtration, reabsorption, and secretion by the kidneys. Fish, for example, have specialized organs called gills that are adapted to exchange water and solutes with their environment. They also have kidneys that regulate the concentration of ions in their bodies. Other animals, such as birds, excrete waste products in the form of uric acid, which conserves water.
Plants also engage in osmoregulation, using a process called osmosis to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. They also use various mechanisms, such as opening and closing stomata, to control water loss through transpiration.
Overall, osmoregulation is an essential process for maintaining the internal environment of living organisms and ensuring their survival.
Sure, here are some additional details about osmoregulation:Types of Osmoregulation: There are two types of osmoregulation, depending on the organism's environment. In freshwater environments, organisms have to regulate the inflow of water and outflow of salts. In contrast, marine organisms have to regulate the outflow of water and inflow of salts.
Osmoregulatory Organs: Different organisms have evolved various osmoregulatory organs to maintain the balance of water and solutes in their bodies. For example, insects have Malpighian tubules, which remove waste and excess water from the body. Terrestrial animals such as reptiles, birds, and mammals have kidneys that filter blood and excrete waste products in the form of urine.
Osmolarity: Osmoregulation maintains the balance of osmolarity in the body, which is the concentration of solutes in a solution. Osmolarity is measured in units of osmoles per liter (osmol/L) and is important for the regulation of water balance in organisms.
Regulation of Salt Balance: In addition to regulating water balance, osmoregulation also involves the regulation of salt balance. Salt balance is critical for cellular functions such as enzyme activity, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
Osmoregulation and Adaptation: Different organisms have evolved various mechanisms for osmoregulation to adapt to their environment. For example, some desert animals conserve water by producing dry feces or uric acid instead of urea, which conserves water. Some marine organisms, such as sharks, have a high concentration of urea in their blood, which helps them retain water in the ocean's salty environment.
Osmoregulation and Human Health: Osmoregulation is essential for human health, and disruptions in the body's water and salt balance can lead to health problems such a
There needs to be a balance between water ingested and water eliminated.
In order to maintain homeostatic levels of water, the body must undergo osmoregulation.
It is all about the response of organisms to its environment with reference to maintenance of osmoregulation and osmoconformation. It is useful for the PG students and teachers who teach animal physiology at the Masters level.
visit this link to get all notes
https://taleemcity.com/2nd-year-notes-of-all-subjects-in-pdf
12th Class Biology Notes for All Chapters, Biology Subject 12th Class FSC Part 2 Notes , 2nd year biology notes chapter 1 homeostasis pdf,
2nd year biology notes chapter 1 homeostasis
2nd year biology notes chapter 1 homeostasis pdf
college biology 2nd year pdf
2nd year biology notes adamjee
federal board biology book 2nd year pdf download
biology notes for class 12 federal board
2nd year biology book punjab board pdf
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
4. Introduction
Maintaining steady-state equilibrium in the
internal environment of aquatic and marine
organisms is challenging.
Much is done involuntarily (hormones, enzymes,
osmoregulation, etc.) so little physical action is
required, however…
“Pick-up-and-move” still an option!
(Poor environment.)
5. Definitions
Homeostasis = maintaining steady state
equilibrium in the internal environment of an
organisms
Solute homeostasis = maintaining equilibrium
with respect to solute (ionic and neutral solutes)
concentrations (i.e. salts)
Water homeostasis = maintaining equilibrium
with respect to the amount of water retained in
the body fluids and tissues
6. Definitions, continued
Osmotic concentration - Total
concentration of all solutes in an aqueous
solution.
Units
osmolals = 1 mole of solute/liter of water
milliosmolals = 1/1000th of one osmolal
7. Osmoregulation in different environments
Challenge to homeostasis depends on
Solute concentration of body fluids and
tissues…
…concentration of environmental solutes
marine: ~34 ppt salinity = 1000 mosm/l
freshwater: < 3 ppt salinity = 1 - 10 mosm/l
8. Osmoregulation in different environments
Each species has a range of environmental
osmotic conditions in which it can function:
stenohaline - tolerate a narrow range of
salinities in external environment
euryhaline - tolerate a wide range of salinities
in external environment
short term changes: estuarine - 10 - 32 ppt,
intertidal - 25 - 40
long term changes: diadromous fishes
(salmon)
9. Four osmoregulatory strategies in fishes
1. Isosmotic (nearly isoionic, osmoconformers)
2. Isosmotic with regulation of specific ions
3. Hyperosmotic (fresh H20 fish)
4. Hyposmotic (salt H2O fish)
11. Osmoregulation Strategies
Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, rays, chimeras)
Maintain internal salt concentration ~ 1/3 seawater,
make up the rest of internal salts by retaining high
concentrations of urea & trimethylamine oxide
(TMAO).
Bottom line…total internal osmotic concentration
equal to seawater!
How is urea retained?
Gill membrane has low permeability to urea so it is
retained within the fish. Because internal inorganic
and organic salt concentrations mimic that of their
environment, passive water influx or efflux is
minimized.
12. Osmotic regulation by marine teleosts...
ionic conc. approx 1/3 of seawater
drink copiously to gain water
Chloride cells eliminate Na+ and Clkidneys eliminate Mg++ and SO4=
advantages and disadvantages?
14. active
passive
Chloride Cell fig 6.2:
sea water
PC
pavement
cell
Cl-
+
carrier
internal
PC
Na+
Na+
Cl-
Na+, Cl-
gut
accessory
cell
Na+
Cl-
Na+
Cl-
K
+
chloride cell
pump
Na+
Na+ K+ ATPase
mitochondria
tubular system
15. Osmotic regulation by FW teleosts
Ionic conc. Approx 1/3 of seawater
Don’t drink
Chloride cells fewer, work in reverse
Kidneys eliminate excess water; ion loss
Ammonia & bicarbonate ion exchange mechanisms
advantages and disadvantages?
18. Freezing Resistance:
What fishes might face freezing?
hagfishes?
isotonic
marine elasmobranchs?
isotonic
freshwater teleosts?
hypertonic
marine teleosts?
hypotonic
19. Solution for Antarctic fish
Macromolecular
{
compounds
peptides (protein)
glycopeptides
(carbohydrate/protein)
rich in alanine
molecules adsorb (attach) to ice crystal surface
interfere with ice crystal growth (disrupt matrix)
Why is this important???
ice ruptures cells; hinders osmoregulation
20. What about rapid ion flux?
Euryhaline
Short-term fluctuations in osmotic state of
environment, e.g. in intertidal zone or in
estuaries where salinity can range from 10
to 34 ppt with the daily tidal cycle:
these fish have both kinds of chloride cells
when salinity is low, operate more like FW fishes
when salinity is high, operate like marine fishes
kidneys function only under low salinity conditions
21. Euryhaline
Diadromous fishes (spend part of life in salt
water, part in freshwater – catadromous
(migrate seaward) or anadromous (migrate
up river)
hormone-mediated changes associated
with metamorphosis - convert from FW
adaptations to SW or vice versa, depending
on direction of migration
22. What about stress??
Stressors (handling, sustained exercise such as
escape from predator pursuit) cause release of
adrenaline (epinephrine) - for mediating escape, etc.
Adrenaline causes diffusivity of gill epithelium to
increase, i.e. “leaky cell membranes” water & ions)
This accentuates the normal osmoregulatory
challenge for FW or marine fishes
23. How to reduce stress in stressed fishes?
Minimize the osmotic challenge by placing
fish in conditions that are isosmotic
add salt to freshwater, e.g. in transporting fish
or when exposing them to some other shortterm challenge
dilute saltwater for same situation with marine
species
25. Temperature effects on fish
Temperature exhibits the greatest influence on
fish’s lives!
Affects metabolism
Affects digestion
Signals reproductive maturation and behavior
26. Fish are conformers (well, sort of...)
Body temperature is that of the environment
(poikilothermic ectothermy)
Each species has particular range of
temperatures that they can tolerate and that
are optimal
Big difference!
27. Behavioral Thermoregulation in Fishes
Although fish are ectotherms, they can
alter their body temperature by moving to
habitats with optimal temperature
28. Hot Fishes
Some fish can maintain body temperature greater than
ambient - tunas, billfishes, relatives (nearly endothermic)
Tuna use retia (similar to rete mirable) in muscles to
conserve heat & exchange O2.
Also, red muscle is medial rather than distal
Billfishes have warm brains - heat organ from muscles
around eye
34. Thyroid Gland
isolated follicles distributed in connective tissue
along ventral aorta
controls metabolic rate
affects metamorphosis, maturation
facilitates switch between fresh & salt water
35. Gonads
gamete and sex hormone production
controls gametes maturation
cause formation of secondary sex
characteristics: color, shape, behavior
in fish, several sex hormones also serve
as pheromones - e.g. goldfish males
respond to hormones released with
ovulation
36. Other endocrine tissues in fishes
chromaffin tissues-located near kidneys & heart
produce adrenaline/noradrenaline – “fight or flight”
increases blood flow through gills, ventilation rate
interrenal (inside kidney) tissues
produce cortisol, cortisone - stress response
hormones (reduce inflamation)
37. Other endocrine tissues in fishes
pancreatic islets
produce insulin - controls glucose, glycogen
metabolism (glucagon production)
corpuscles of Stannius
produce stanniocalcin - controls Ca2+ uptake at gills
39. Introduction
Obviously, the immune system is important in
homeostatic processes.
Immune systems of fish have two components:
non-specific and specific.
As we will see, both are involved in protecting
fish from visible as well as invisible disease
causing agents.
40. Non-specific immunity
Skin & Scales—specific solid layers of protection
from pathological and chemical stressors.
Mucus secretion—traps microorganisms;
preventing entry into body cavity or circulation
Macrophages (phagcytes) and cytotoxic cells—
part of the inflamatory response which destroy
pathogens within the body before they can do
harm.
41. Specific Immune Response
More of an active response
where an “invader” is detected
and destroyed.
Primary organs: kidney,
thymus, spleen, intestine.
Antigens—invading
compounds which provoke an
immune response.
Source: Cancer Research Institute (2002) www.cancerresearch.org/immhow.html
42. Specific immune response: What if something does get in??
White blood cells called B lymphocyte cells (B cells) and
T lymphocyte cells (T cells)—bind to foreign cells and
begin replication and attachement to antigens (sort of
markers for things to come...).
Occasionally, invader actually goes trough a
macrophage first...then B cell responds...
Once B cells replicate, antibodies are produced which
bind specifically to pathogens and tag them for
destruction (eating) by macrophages!