During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
This lecture in neuroanatomy was presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University. It's the first lecture of the spinal cord neuroanatomy (containing introduction and ascending tracts).
The lecture discussed the following topics regarding the spinal cord:
1. Location and function
2. surface features
3. internal structure
4. Ascending tracts
Slideshow: Hip Joint and Pelvic Gateways
The Funky Professor videos can be viewed here;
http://publishing.rcseng.ac.uk/journal/video?videoTaxonomy=FUNK
Adrenal glands are a pair of important
Endocrine glands situated on the
posterior abdominal wall over the upper
pole of kidneys behind the peritoneum.
LOCATION;
Epigastrium, at the upper pole of kidney.
Infront of the crus of the diaphragm,opposite the vertibral
end of the11th intercostal space and12th rib.
SIZE, SHAPE AND WEIGHT
Length-50mm
Bredth-30mm
Thickness-10mm and
Weight-5g
Rt-Triangular or Pyramidal
Lt-Semilunar
Thalamus-Anatomy,Physiology,Applied aspectsRanadhi Das
Thalamus is a very important relay station.
All general and special sensory impulses (except smell) & afferent impulses from RAS are integrated here.
Thalamus however is the center of pain and protopathic sensations.
It has other non sensory functions as well, like motor control, sleep, wakefulness.
It is the largest structure deriving from the embryonic diencephalon, the posterior part of the forebrain situated between the midbrain and the cerebrum.
The thalamus is part of a nuclear complex structured of 4 parts, the hypothalamus, epithalamus, prethalamus (formerly called ventral thalamus) and dorsal thalamus.
Anatomy of Cerebellum professor dr saeed abuel makareem _ Relevant Connection...ssuser6e679b
Prof. Ahmed Fathalla Ibrahim
Professor of Anatomy
College of Medicine
King Saud University
E-mail: ahmedfathala@gmail.com
At the end of the lecture, students should:
❑Describe the external features of the cerebellum
(lobes, fissures).
❑Describe briefly the internal structure of the
cerebellum.
❑List the name of cerebellar nuclei.
❑Relate the anatomical to the functional
subdivisions of the cerebellum.
❑Describe the important connections of each
subdivision.
❑Describe briefly the main effects in case of lesion
of the cerebellum
Blood supply of cerebellum
Nerve supply of cerebellum
How to understand anatomy of the brain
Most important information about brain anatomy brain cortex and lobes and gyrus
Visual region in the brain
white fibers of the cerebrum, commissural fibers, association fibers and radiation fibers, examples of each types of cerebral fibers, corpus callosum, fornix, habenular commisure, anterior commissure, posterior commissure, superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, occipital fasciculus, uncinate fasciculus, projection fibers, corona radiata, optic radiation
This lecture in neuroanatomy was presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University. It's the first lecture of the spinal cord neuroanatomy (containing introduction and ascending tracts).
The lecture discussed the following topics regarding the spinal cord:
1. Location and function
2. surface features
3. internal structure
4. Ascending tracts
Slideshow: Hip Joint and Pelvic Gateways
The Funky Professor videos can be viewed here;
http://publishing.rcseng.ac.uk/journal/video?videoTaxonomy=FUNK
Adrenal glands are a pair of important
Endocrine glands situated on the
posterior abdominal wall over the upper
pole of kidneys behind the peritoneum.
LOCATION;
Epigastrium, at the upper pole of kidney.
Infront of the crus of the diaphragm,opposite the vertibral
end of the11th intercostal space and12th rib.
SIZE, SHAPE AND WEIGHT
Length-50mm
Bredth-30mm
Thickness-10mm and
Weight-5g
Rt-Triangular or Pyramidal
Lt-Semilunar
Thalamus-Anatomy,Physiology,Applied aspectsRanadhi Das
Thalamus is a very important relay station.
All general and special sensory impulses (except smell) & afferent impulses from RAS are integrated here.
Thalamus however is the center of pain and protopathic sensations.
It has other non sensory functions as well, like motor control, sleep, wakefulness.
It is the largest structure deriving from the embryonic diencephalon, the posterior part of the forebrain situated between the midbrain and the cerebrum.
The thalamus is part of a nuclear complex structured of 4 parts, the hypothalamus, epithalamus, prethalamus (formerly called ventral thalamus) and dorsal thalamus.
Anatomy of Cerebellum professor dr saeed abuel makareem _ Relevant Connection...ssuser6e679b
Prof. Ahmed Fathalla Ibrahim
Professor of Anatomy
College of Medicine
King Saud University
E-mail: ahmedfathala@gmail.com
At the end of the lecture, students should:
❑Describe the external features of the cerebellum
(lobes, fissures).
❑Describe briefly the internal structure of the
cerebellum.
❑List the name of cerebellar nuclei.
❑Relate the anatomical to the functional
subdivisions of the cerebellum.
❑Describe the important connections of each
subdivision.
❑Describe briefly the main effects in case of lesion
of the cerebellum
Blood supply of cerebellum
Nerve supply of cerebellum
How to understand anatomy of the brain
Most important information about brain anatomy brain cortex and lobes and gyrus
Visual region in the brain
white fibers of the cerebrum, commissural fibers, association fibers and radiation fibers, examples of each types of cerebral fibers, corpus callosum, fornix, habenular commisure, anterior commissure, posterior commissure, superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, occipital fasciculus, uncinate fasciculus, projection fibers, corona radiata, optic radiation
gross Anatomy of Mid Brain.location an relation of midbrain. external an internal features of mid brain. cross section at the level of superior and inferior colliculus. Anterior and posterior view of midbrain.
clinical correlation of midbrain.
In Detail Central Nervous System
Introduction
Functions Of CNS
Neuron
Types of Neuron
Brain
Parts of Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous system
During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
3. Spinal cord
It is elongated, slightly flattened
dorsoventrally, located in upper
2/3rd of spinal canal. It is 42-45
cm long in adults with
maximum transverse diameter
being 10-12 mm.
Starts or continuous with
brain stem and ends at
Conus medullaris at the level
of L1.
Conus medullaris is conical
shaped it tapers into filum
terminale consisting of pia
matter and neuroglial
elements .
Protected by vertebras,
Meninges and a cushion of
CSF
4.
5.
6. Enlargement of spinal cord
In thoracic region it is almost
circular.
In cervical and lumbosacral area it is
enlarged due to greatly increased
nervous neurons in number.
The cervical enlargement includes
segments C4-T1 with most of the
spinal nerves forming brachial
plexus
Segments L2-S3 are included in
lumbosacral enlargement and the
corresponding nerves constitute
most of lumbosacral plexuses.
7. External Longitudinal fissures and sulci
1. Anterior median (ventral)
fissure
2. Posterior median (dorsal)
sulcus
3. Dorsal and ventral nerve root
4. Lateral sulcus
8. Segments of spinal cords
The part of spinal cord
associated with emergence of a
pair of spinal nerves is called a
segment of spinal cord.
Spinal cord is divided into 31
segments
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
They vary in length and are
about twice as long in the mid
thoracic region as in cervical or
upper lumbar area.
There are no sharp boundaries
within them
9. Vertebral Level of spinal cord segments
In the third month of fetal life the spinal
cord fills the length of vertebral canal but
from then on vertebral column grows more
rapidly than the spinal cord.
At birth spinal cord extends to L3 while in
adults it ends at the lower border level of
body of L1. It is important in surgery.
A dorsal and ventral root unite to form a
spinal nerve which emerge from vertebral
canal via corresponding Intervertebral
foramina.
Lumbar and sacral roots descend for a
considerable distance in subarachnoid space
before reaching their respective
Intervertebral foramina.
The large number of lumbosacral roots
surrounding the filum terminale is known as
cauda equina.
12. Internal Structure of Spinal Cord Grey matter
The Grey matter is
rich in nerve cell
bodies, which form
longitudinal column
along the cord
Its form and quantity
varies as its proportion
to white matter is
greatest in
lumbosacral and
cervical region.
In transverse section,
the column form a “H”
–shaped appearance in
the central regions of
the cord.
13. Columns Of Gray Matter and Central Canal
It consists of the cell columns or horns
Around the central canal is the grey commissure, connecting the grey matter of two sides. It
encompasses the central canal, which is lined with ependymal cells and filled with CSF. It opens
into inferior portion of 4th ventricle.
Canal usually disappears in adults except at cervical level.
The Horns:
The posterior horn extends posterolaterally, Somatic sensory nucleus .
The anterior horn extends anterolaterally, Somatic motor nucleus .
Lateral horn b/w the anterior and posterior from T1 to L3 (anterior portion is General visceral
motor; posterior portion is General visceral sensory)
14. Laminae in Gray Matter
Based upon the cytoarchitecture of
neuronal cell bodies, a cross section of gray
matter is classified into ten Rexed’s
Laminae
They are:
Lamina I Posteromarginal Nucleus
Lamina II Substantia Gelatinosa of Rolando
Lamina III
Lamina IV, V, VI ----- Nucleus Proprius
Lamina VII
- Intermediate Gray
- Intermediolateral cell column (ILM)
- Clarke’s column (Nucleus dorsalis)
- Intermediomedial cell column (IMM)
Lamina VIII
Lamina IX ---------- Anterior Horn (Motor)
Cell
Lamina X ----------- Gray Commissure
15. White matter
Surrounds the gray matter and is rich in
nerve cell processes, which form large
bundles or tracts that ascend and descend
in the cord to other spinal cord levels or
carry information to and from the brain.
It consists of ascending ,descending fibers
(tracts), and fasciculus proprius
It is customary to divide spinal cord into
three pairs of funiculi.
1. The posterior funiculus lies between the
posterior horn and posterior median
septum.
2. The lateral funiculus lies between the
dorsal and ventral horns.
3. The anterior funiculus lies between the
anterior median fissure and the
emerging ventral rootlets.
Anterior to the grey commissure is the
ventral white commissure . It connects
the white matter on both sides.
16. Neural pathways
In general, neural pathway (neural tractor
fasiculi) indicates the functional fiber
bundles having the same origin, course
and termination.
Serve as to join the spinal cord with the
brain. Long tracts connect the spinal cord
with the brain
1. Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses
from spinal cord to the brain.
2. Descending tracts carry the motor
impulses from the brain to spinal cord.
Long tracts tend to be located
peripherally, while shorter propriospinal
tracts tend to be situated adjacent to
gray matter.
17. Fasciculus propius
• Ascending and descending
association fiber systems of the
spinal cord which lie deep in the
anterior, lateral & posterior
funiculi adjacent to the gray
matter.
• These neurons are confined to
spinal cord and constitute the
propriospinal or intersegmental
tracts. Mostly they are located in
laminae V-VIII.
• Fasciculi proprii aka Flechsig's
fasciculi or Ground bundles
consist of anterior, lateral &
intersegmental fasciculi
19. Ascending tracts
• A . Spinothalamic tract
• B. Dorsal / Posterior column
• C. Spinocerebellar tract
20. Ascending Tract
Dorsal column (Fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus)
Modality: position and vibration
sens.
They ascend without crossing in
posterior funiculus of spinal cord
to lower brain stem.
Fasciculus gracilis: , conducts lower
half of body. I
Fasciculus cuneatus: lies between
fasciculus gracilis and dorsal
gray column, transmits input
from upper half of body .
The posterior column contains
fibers from all segments of
ipsilateral half of the body
arranged in an orderly fashion
from medial to lateral, called as
somatotopic organization
21. Spinothalamic tract
Modality: Pain & Temperature
Sensation, Touch.
Anterior spinothalamic tract: located
in anterior funiculus.
Lateral spinothalamic tract: located in
lateral funiculus .
22. Spinocerebellar tract
The spinocerebellar tract is a set
of axonal fibers originating in the spinal
cord and terminating in the ipsilateral
cerebellum .
function- co ordination of movement.
Posterior spinocerebellar tract:
Anterior spinocerebellar tract:
23. Descending Tracts
corticospinal tract
Important for controlling of voluntery
movement.
This system arises from cells in
precentral, motor cortex, the
postcentral gyrus and adjacent parietal
cortex descends throughout the
internal capsule and brain stem .
It divides into three tracts:
1. Lateral corticospinal tracts: 75- 90%
of fibers.
2. Anterior corticospinal tracts
3. Anterolateral corticospinal tracts of
Barnes: uncrossed corticospinal
fibers of lateral tract
24. Function of Corticospinal Tract
Lateral tract control distal limb
muscles of hand and foot
Anterior tract . It also projects to
cervical and upper thoracic spinal
cord and thus may be preferentially
involved in control of neck, shoulder
and upper trunk muscles.
Anterolateral tract provide synaptic
input to lower motor neurons
controlling axial muscles involved in
maintaining body posture.
25. • Reticulospinal tract- The reticulospinal tract that descends from the
reticular formation(a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the
brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum,
and mediating the overall level of consciousness.) in two tracts to
act on the motor neurons supplying the trunk and proximal limb
muscles.
• Rubrospinal tract- controlling limb muscle and regulating voluntary
movement.
• Vestibulospinal tract- maintaining balance
• tectospnal tract- visual and auditory stimulation .
27. Brain stem
The major divisions of the brainstem:
medulla oblongata, the pons and midbrain
It is stalk like in shape and connects the
narrow spinal cord with expanded forebrain
The superior boundary is optic tract while its
inferior boundary is upper border of first
cervical nerve roots.
Three important functions
1. Serve as conduct for tracts, connecting
brain and spinal cord.
2. Contains important reflex centers
associated with CVS and control of
respiration, also associated with control of
consciousness.
3. Contains important nuclei of cranial nerve
III through XII
28. Medulla oblongata
• The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the hindbrain, anterior to
the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata is a cone-shaped neuronal mass
responsible for multiple autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from
vomiting to sneezing. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory,
vomiting and vasomotor centers and therefore deals with the autonomic
functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
29.
30. It connects pons with spinal cord. The junction b/w medulla and
spinal cord is at the level of foramen magnum .It is conical in
shape, broad extremity being directed superiorly. The central
canal of spinal cord continues upward into lower half of medulla,
in the upper half it expands as the cavity of 4th ventricle.
Anterior median fissure divides medulla into Right and Left half
symmetrically .
Pyramid is located beside the Anterior median fissure,
Olive is located lateral to the Pyramid which are oval elevations
produced by the underlying inferior olivary nuclei. Posterior to
olives are inferior cerebellar peduncles which connect medulla to
cerebellum.
Rootlets of Hypoglossal nerve emerge from between the Pyramid
and Olive
In the groove b/w the olive and inferior cerebellar peduncle
emerge the roots of Glossopharyngeal ,Vagus and Accessory
emerge from superior to inferior.
The posterior surface of superior half of medulla forms the lower
part of floor of 4th ventricle(rhomboid fossa) while posterior
surface of inferior half is continuous with posterior half of spinal
cord. On each side of midline there is gracile tubercle and lateral
to it is cuneate tubercle. Superior to gracile tubercle is inferior
cerebellar peduncle.
31. pons
Pons is convex and is continuous
laterally with the cerebellum . It connects
medulla oblongata to midbrain. It is
about 2.5 mm long
It is superior to medulla and is separated
by Pontomedullary sulcus.
Ventral surface of pons is closely
associated with four pairs of cranial
nerves Ⅴ, Ⅵ, Ⅶ, Ⅷ
Three pairs of cranial nerves Ⅵ,Ⅶ,Ⅷ
emerge from the Pontomedullary sulcus .
The posterior surface of pons is hidden
from view by cerebellum. It forms upper
half of floor of 4th ventricle and is
triangular.
32. midbrain
The midbrain is smallest and least differentiated brain stem
segments. It connects pons and cerebellum with forebrain. It is
traversed by a narrow channel, the cerebral aqueduct which is
filled with CSF.
On posterior surface Four rounded eminences are arranged in
pairs, are called superior and inferior colliculi. (Quadrigemina
corpora).
The superior colliculi are associated with the optic system,
The inferior colliculi are associated with the auditory pathway .
Cranial nerve Ⅳ ( trochlear nerve ) emerges from the midbrain.
On the dorsal surface of brain stem, there are pairs of superior,
middle and inferior peduncles which connect brainstem with
cerebellum. Oculomotor nerve emerging from the medial to the
cerebellar peduncle.
33. Rhomboid fossa
• The anterior part of the fourth
ventricle is named, from its
shape, the rhomboid fossa,
and its anterior wall, formed
by the back of
the pons and medulla
oblongata, constitutes the
floor of the fourth ventricle.
34. Internal structure
Compared with spinal cord, the internal structure of brain stem appears the
following characters:
1. The structure of medulla oblongata’s inferior part is similar to spinal cord. The
central canal still remains.
2. The gray matter of brain stem don’t continue and form gray column which run
lengthwise through the total length of brain stem like that in spinal cord, but get
together forming all kinds of nucleus separated with each other.
3. The nucleus groups of gray substance of brain stem all link with cranial nerve
basically.
4. it contains many important nuclear groups of vital center, such as center of
heartbeat, blood pressure and respiratory.
35. Grey matter of brain stem
1.Nuclei of cranial nerves
2.non-cranial nerves
nuclei
3. relay nucleus
4.reticular nucleu
somatic motor fiber
visceral motor fiber
visceral sensory fiber
somatic sensory fiber
1. nuclei of cranial nerves
(1)general somatic motor
nuclei (4 pairs)
* dominate skeletal muscle
(lingual muscle,
extraocular muscles)
nucleus of oculomotor nerve
nucleus of trochlear nerve
nucleus of abducent nerve
nucleus of hypoglossal nerve
36. (2)special visceral motor nuclei (4 pairs)
-Motor nucleus of trigeminal nerve
-Nucleus of facial nerve
-Nucleus ambiguus ( send fiber to
glossopharyngeal, vagus and
accessory)
-Accessory nucleus ( supply SCM
muscle and trapezius)
(3)general visceral motor
nuclei (4 pairs)
Dominate smooth muscle、cardiac
muscle and glands
-accessory nucleus of oculomotor nerve
-superior salivatory nucleus
-inferior salivatory nucleus
-dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
37. (4)general and special visceral sensory nucleus (1 pair)
Receives visceral afferent fibers from
the facial, glossopharyngeal and
vagus nerves, which enter the brain
stem by passing through the
posterolateral sulcus.
Nucleus of solitary tract
38. Non cranial nerve nuclei
1) Gracile and cuneate nuclei- touch and vibration
2) Inferior olivery nuclei - give olive cerebellar fiber
which take part in controlling and regulating
movement .
3) Pontine nuclei- relay station for cerebral cortex to
cerebellum.
4) Nucleus of inferior colliculus- relay station for auditory
pathway.
5) Nucleus of superior colliculus- receive fiber from optic
tract and visual cortex .
6) pretectal nucleus – receive fiber fron retina through
optic tract . Related to the pupillary light reflex.
7) Red nucleus- take part in somatic movement.
8) Substantia niagra – release of dopamine , tremor,
parkinsons dideases .
39. 1. long ascending tracts
(1) medial lemniscus-gracile and cuneate nuclei → ventral
posterolateral nuleus of thalamus
Conducting proprioceptive impulses.
(2) spinothalamic lemniscus-Conducting the impulses of pain,
thermal and tactile sensations from opposite side of body.
(3) lateral lemniscus- Cochlear nuclei → trapezoid body →
inferior colliculus → nucleus of medial geniculate body
Conducting the auditory senses on both sides.
(4) trigeminal lemniscus-Conducting the tactile, pressure, pain
and thermal impulses of head and face of the opposite side.
(5) medial longitudinal fasciculus – extraocular
muscle , coordinate eye movement
2. long descending tracts
(1) pyramidal tract 1. corticospinal tract
2. corticobulbar tract
(1) tectospinal tract- the tectospinal tract (also known as
colliculospinal tract) is a nerve pathway that coordinates head and eye
movements.
Voluntary movement of skeletal
muscle
40. Reticular formation
• The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are
located throughout the brainstem. The reticular formation is not
anatomically well defined because it includes neurons located in
diverse parts of the brain.
Traditionally the nuclei are divided into three columns
• In the median column – the raphe nuclei
• In the medial column – gigantocellular nuclei (because of larger size
of the cells)
. In the lateral column – parvocellular nuclei
function
1. Somatic motor control –
2. Cardiovascular control –
3. Pain modulation
4. Sleep and consciousness – .
5. Habituation
41. cerebellum
• The cerebellum ( little brain)
though small in size , serve
important functions for
maintaining tone ,posture and
equilibrium of the body .
• it is situated in posterior cranial
foss behind the pons and
medulla.
EXTERNAL FEATURES:
• Two cerebellar hemisphere
united by median vermis
• each hemisphere is divided into
three lobes: anterior , middle/
posterior, flocculonodular lobe.
PARTS OF CEREBELLUM
• Horizontal fissure , primary
fissure. Uvulonodular fissure.
42.
43. Morphological and functional division of cerebellum
• 1. Archiocerebellum- it is made up
of flocculonodular lobe and
lingula.it controll the bilateral
movement used for locomotion
and maintanance of equilibrium.
• 2. paleocerebellum- it is made up
of anterior lobe ,pyramid and
uvula. Its connection are chiefly
spinocerebellar. It controls tone,
posture, and crud movement of
limb.
• 3. neocerebellum- made up of
posterior middle lobe. It is
concerned with regulation of fine
movement.
47. DIENCEPHALON
Between the brain stem and the
hemispheres of the cerebrum
-dorsal thalamus
-hypothalamus
-Metathalamus ( MGB & LGB)
-Epithalamus (pineal BODY)
-subthalamus (ventral thalamus)
48. THALAMUS
• Large mass of grey matter situated
in the lateral wall of third venticle.
• The grey matter is divided to form
several nuclei.
anterior nuclei , medial nuclei ,
ventral nuclei, intralaminar nuclei .
- proprio ceptive impulses ascend
throught it .
METATHALAMUS
- Medial geniculate body - auditory
impulse to cerebral cortex
- lateral geniculate body - visual
pathway to occipital cortex
50. hypothalamus
• It lies below the dorsal thalamus
and forms the floor and inferior part
of lateral wall of third ventricle.
• When observeed from below
,hypothalamus is seen to be related
to the following structure from
anterior to posterior –
• optic chiasma
• tuber cinerium
• infundibulum
• mamillary body
• Function- endocrine fxn ,
neurosecretion ,tempreature
regulation, regulation of food and
water intake, emotion fear ,
pleasure reward.
Paraventricular nucleus
supraoptic nucleus
51. Telencephalon ( cerebrum)
• Largest part of brain .
• Cerebrum is made up of two
hemispheres which are incompletely
seperated from each other by
median longitudinal fissure .
• the hemisphere connected together
by corpous callosum
EXTERNAL FEATURE
1) Three surface- superiolateral ,
medial ,inferior
2) four border- superomedial,
inferiolateral,medialorbital, medial
occipital
3) Three poles – frontal, occipital ,
temporal
4) four lobes – frontal ,parietal,
temporal, occipital
55. Cerebral cortex
• The cerebral cortex is the cerebrum's
(brain) outer layer of neural
tissue in humans and other mammals. It
is divided into two cortices, along
the sagittal plane: the left and
right cerebral hemispheres divided by
the medial longitudinal fissure. The
cerebral cortex plays a key role
in memory, attention, perception, aware
ness, thought,language,
and consciousness.
• Divided into 6 layers
. molecular
• external granular
• external pyramidal
• Internal granular
• Internal pyramidal
• polymorphic
57. • A) primary somato sensory
area- it occupies the
postcentral gyrus and
posterior part of para
centra gyrus.
• B) primary motor area – it
is located into pre central
gyrus .
58. Medullary area
• A..Corpus callosum - is the
largest commisure of the
brain which connect two
cerebral hemisphere.
• 4 parts - rostrum ,genu ,
trunk and splenium .
• Function- help in
coordinating activity in two
hemisphere.
• B.. Anterior commisure
• C.. fornix
59. Basal ganglia
• A region of the base of the brain
that consists of three clusters of
neurons (caudate nucleus,
putamen, and globus pallidus) that
are responsible for involuntary
movements such as tremor,
athetosis, and chorea. The basal
ganglia are abnormal in a number
of important neurologic conditions,
including Parkinsons
disease and Huntington's disease.
• Corpus striatum= putamen +
caudate
• Corpous lentiform= putamen + gp