This document discusses carbohydrates, including their classification and properties. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that produce these compounds upon hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain upon hydrolysis. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose, which can exist as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone functional group. The document provides detailed information on the structure, properties, and isomers of glucose and fructose. It also discusses specific di- and polysaccharides like maltose, sucrose, and glycogen.

1. Carbohydrates are the hydrates of carbon
Cx(H2O)y as named erlier. These are made of
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

2. Carbohydrates are often refered as
Saccharides (Saccharum = sugar) because of
sweet taste of its simpler members.
But higher membranes are not sweet in
taste.

3. Starch
Hydrolysis

4. Chemically carbohydrates are defined as the
polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones or substances which produce these
compounds on hydrolysis .

5. Monosaccharide:
Simplest carbohydrate which cannot be
further hydrolysed
glyceraldehyde Glucose Fructose

6. Monosaccharide may be Aldoses or Ketoses
based on the fuctional group present
Aldoses Ketoses

7. Monosaccharide may be trioses, tetroses,
pentoses or hexose based on the number of
carbon atoms in a molecule.
trioses hexoses
tetrose Pentose

8. Oligosaccharide:
Carbohydrate which can be further
hydrolysed to get two or few
monosaccharide molecules
Disaccharide-glucose Tetra saccharide
stachyose
Trisaccharide
raffinose

9. Polysaccharide:
Carbohydrate which can be further
hydrolysed to get two or few
monosaccharide molecules Eg Starch,
Cellulose, Glycogen.

10. Reducing sugars Sugars which reduces Tollens’s reagent
and Fehling ‘s solution Eg Glucose, Fructose, maltose
Non-reducing sugars Sugars which do not reduces Tollens’s
and Fehling ‘s solution Eg Sucrose

11. Sugars
Carbohydrate
Non-Sugars
PolysaccharidesoligosaccharidesMonosaccharides
Aldoses Ketoses Disaccharides TetrasaccharidesTriaccharides

12. It is a
Monosaccharide
Sugar
A Dextrose
Aldose
Hexose
Grape Sugar
Two isomers
α-D-Glucose
β-D-Glucose

13. 1. Elemental qualitative analysis – CHO
2. Quantitative analysis – C6H12O6
3. Parent carbon chain- Hexane is formed
when treated with HI/Red P

14. 4. Aq. Solution is neutral so –COOH group is
absent.
One mole of glucose react with one
mole of HCN to form glucocyanohydrin.
Condenses with one mole of
hydroxylamine to give glucose oxime.
This shows that Glucose contain either
aldehydic ( -CHO) or (–C=O)ketonic
group

15. 5. With Br water it gives Gluconic acid
It reduces Tollen’s reagent
It reduces Fehling’s solution
Shows that -CHO group is present in glucose
6. Position of aldehyde group
the above reaction we get compound
with same carbon atoms. This implies
that –CHO group is at the end.

16. 7. Number of –OH group
In presence of pyridine acetylation takes
place with 5 moles of acetic anhydride

17. 8. Position of –OH group
If two –OH groups were on the same
carbon atom molecule becomes
unstable but Glucose is very stable
compound. Shows that 5 –OH groups
are on different carbon.

18. 9. Based on this Baeyer in 1870 suggested
In 1886 Killiani confirmed by synthesis
2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal

19. But Glucose dose not react with Schiff’s reagent, Sodium
bisulphite and grignard reagent. This shows that –CHO
group is not free for many reaction. Therefore
Fischer suggested the following ring structure
Alcoholic –OH group 5th carbon attacks the carbonyl
carbon to form hemiacetal

20. This leads to formation of C1 as assymetric . If it has –OH
group on right side is called α-Glucose, If it has –OH
group on left side is called β-Glucose

21. Fischer structure does not exactly indicate the special
arrangement of atoms so W.N Haworth suggested
3D model called Haworth Projection formula.
Convertion
α-D-(+) glucopyranose β-D-(+) glucopyranose

22. It is a
Monosaccharide
Sugar
A Dextrose
Ketose
Hexose
Fruit Sugar
Two isomers
α-D-Fructose
β-D-Fructose

23. 1. Elemental qualitative analysis – CHO
2. Quantitative analysis – C6H12O6
3. Parent carbon chain- Hexane is formed
when treated with HI/Red P

24. 4. Aq. Solution is neutral so –COOH group is
absent.
One mole of fructose react with one
mole of HCN to form cyanohydrin.
Condenses with one mole of
hydroxylamine to give oxime. This
shows that fructose contain either
aldehydic ( -CHO) or (–C=O)ketonic
group

25. 5. With HNO3 it gives tartaric acid and
Glycollic acid
It reduces Tollen’s reagent
It reduces Fehling’s solution
Shows that -CHO group is present in glucose
6. Position of ketone group
the above reaction we get compound
with different carbon atoms. This implies
that –C=O group is at the 2nd position.

26. 7. Number of –OH group
In presence of pyridine acetylation takes
place with 5 moles of acetic anhydride

27. 8. Position of –OH group
If two –OH groups were on the same
carbon atom molecule becomes
unstable but Glucose is very stable
compound. Shows that 5 –OH groups
are on different carbon.

28. 9. Baeyer suggested structure
1,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexa-2-one

29. But Glucose dose not react with Schiff’s reagent, Sodium
bisulphite and grignard reagent. This shows that –CHO
group is not free for many reaction. Therefore
Fischer suggested the following ring structure
Alcoholic –OH group 5th carbon attacks the carbonyl (2nd )
to form hemiketal

30. This leads to formation of C2 as assymetric . If it has –OH
group on right side is called α-Fructose, If it has –
OH group on left side is called β-fructose
Fructofuranase
Fructopyranaose

31. Fischer structure does not exactly indicate the special
arrangement of atoms so W.N Haworth suggested
3D model called Haworth Projection formula.
Convertion
α-D-(+) glnoseucopyra β-D-(+) glucopyranose

32. Maltose
1,4 linkage between Alpha Glucose and Alpha Glucose
to form glycosidic linkage

33. 1,2 linkage between Alpha Glucopyranose and beta-
fructofuranose to form glycosidic linkage
Sucrose

34. Polysaccharides
Glycogen