The document discusses different types of biomolecules found in the human body, focusing on carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates and classifies them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their structure. Common carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, and sucrose are described in detail. The cyclic and linear structures of glucose are explained. Carbohydrates serve important functions as an energy source and building blocks in the body.
1. The human body is composed of biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and nucleic acids. These biomolecules interact and allow life processes in cells, tissues, organs and the whole living organism.
2. Carbohydrates play important roles in the human body, providing energy and performing structural functions. Genetic information is transferred from parents to offspring through DNA and RNA.
3. A balanced diet with proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals is important for human health and well-being.
The document discusses biomolecules and carbohydrates. It begins by explaining that living systems are composed of non-living molecules and biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It then classifies and describes carbohydrates in detail, including monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like starch. The summary provides the essential information about the topic and structure of the document.
This document discusses biomolecules and carbohydrates. It begins by defining biomolecules and explaining their importance in living systems. It then classifies and describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose and maltose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. It discusses the structures, properties, and functions of these carbohydrates. The document also briefly mentions proteins and amino acids.
1) Biomolecules are organic compounds that form the basis of life and build up living systems. They are responsible for growth and maintenance.
2) Carbohydrates are one class of biomolecules that includes sugars, starches, and fibers. They are classified based on their structure and whether they are monomers, oligomers, or polymers.
3) Glucose is a common monosaccharide (monomer) that serves as an important energy source. It exists in both open-chain and cyclic forms that interconvert through a process called mutarotation.
nucleic acid, glucose, fructose, preparation of sucrose, monosaccahrides, disaccharides, pedptide bond, glycosidic linkage, gluconic acid, DNA, RNA, Structure of amines, zwitter ion of amino acids, fibrous and globular protein,denaturation of proteins, Chemical properties of glucose, alpha helix and beta folded structure, ring structure of glucose and fructose, biomolecules, polyhydroxy aldose, poly hydroxy ketose
This document provides information about biochemistry and carbohydrates. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides include sucrose and lactose. Polysaccharides discussed are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. The document also provides details about proteins, including the structure of amino acids, classification of amino acids, and the four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. Vitamins are also briefly discussed as essential organic nutrients required in small amounts.
Ncert biomolecules you can read and enjoy very beneficial for competitive exams klkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkeoksnbwjrkieowlsniqoqkueiorkeusiknej3irognnruigkfnr4hhgkgoifdnh3urowkjsqildjhdowndhufnfehejksndksjtoeosjsnqhskdueubayjsnwhjendnsnshdjmsjhidknsnssnsjsks
Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as energy sources and structural components in living systems. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short chains of sugars), and polysaccharides (long chains of sugars). Common examples are glucose, sucrose, starch, and cellulose. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure, number of monomer units, and whether they are reducing or non-reducing. Glucose and fructose are important monosaccharides that exist in both open-chain and cyclic forms. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose consist of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic linkages, while polysaccharides contain many monomer units
1. The human body is composed of biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and nucleic acids. These biomolecules interact and allow life processes in cells, tissues, organs and the whole living organism.
2. Carbohydrates play important roles in the human body, providing energy and performing structural functions. Genetic information is transferred from parents to offspring through DNA and RNA.
3. A balanced diet with proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals is important for human health and well-being.
The document discusses biomolecules and carbohydrates. It begins by explaining that living systems are composed of non-living molecules and biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It then classifies and describes carbohydrates in detail, including monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like starch. The summary provides the essential information about the topic and structure of the document.
This document discusses biomolecules and carbohydrates. It begins by defining biomolecules and explaining their importance in living systems. It then classifies and describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose and maltose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. It discusses the structures, properties, and functions of these carbohydrates. The document also briefly mentions proteins and amino acids.
1) Biomolecules are organic compounds that form the basis of life and build up living systems. They are responsible for growth and maintenance.
2) Carbohydrates are one class of biomolecules that includes sugars, starches, and fibers. They are classified based on their structure and whether they are monomers, oligomers, or polymers.
3) Glucose is a common monosaccharide (monomer) that serves as an important energy source. It exists in both open-chain and cyclic forms that interconvert through a process called mutarotation.
nucleic acid, glucose, fructose, preparation of sucrose, monosaccahrides, disaccharides, pedptide bond, glycosidic linkage, gluconic acid, DNA, RNA, Structure of amines, zwitter ion of amino acids, fibrous and globular protein,denaturation of proteins, Chemical properties of glucose, alpha helix and beta folded structure, ring structure of glucose and fructose, biomolecules, polyhydroxy aldose, poly hydroxy ketose
This document provides information about biochemistry and carbohydrates. It discusses the classification of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides include sucrose and lactose. Polysaccharides discussed are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. The document also provides details about proteins, including the structure of amino acids, classification of amino acids, and the four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. Vitamins are also briefly discussed as essential organic nutrients required in small amounts.
Ncert biomolecules you can read and enjoy very beneficial for competitive exams klkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkeoksnbwjrkieowlsniqoqkueiorkeusiknej3irognnruigkfnr4hhgkgoifdnh3urowkjsqildjhdowndhufnfehejksndksjtoeosjsnqhskdueubayjsnwhjendnsnshdjmsjhidknsnssnsjsks
Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as energy sources and structural components in living systems. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short chains of sugars), and polysaccharides (long chains of sugars). Common examples are glucose, sucrose, starch, and cellulose. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure, number of monomer units, and whether they are reducing or non-reducing. Glucose and fructose are important monosaccharides that exist in both open-chain and cyclic forms. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose consist of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic linkages, while polysaccharides contain many monomer units
🔬 Unlock the Wonders of Biomolecules - Class 12 Biology Series! 🔍
🌐 Welcome to our comprehensive YouTube series dedicated to Class 12 Biology, where we delve deep into the fascinating universe of biomolecules. 🧬 Get ready to explore the building blocks of life, understand their structures, and unravel the biological mysteries that make our existence possible.
📚 In this series, we cover essential topics such as #Carbohydrates, #Lipids, #Proteins, and #NucleicAcids, offering a detailed insight into their roles and significance in cellular processes. 🤯 Discover the magic behind #Enzymes and their catalytic prowess, unraveling the secrets of biochemical reactions.
💡 Whether you're a student preparing for exams or a curious mind eager to grasp the foundations of biochemistry, our engaging content is tailored just for you! 🎓 Let's make learning biology an exciting and enriching experience together.
🔗 Don't forget to hit subscribe and ring the notification bell to stay updated on each insightful episode! 🛎️ Join us on this educational journey as we decode the wonders of biomolecules for Class 12 Biology.
🧪 Ready to enhance your biological understanding? Let's dive into the captivating world of biomolecules! 🌟 #Class12Biology #BiomoleculesExplained #ScienceEducation #Biochemistry101
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and behavior during hydrolysis. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can further cyclize to form rings. Glucose forms a 6-membered pyranose ring while fructose forms a 5-membered furanose ring. Carbohydrates can also be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on whether their functional groups are free to participate in reduction reactions. Glucose and fructose both exist as alpha and beta cyclic isomers differentiated by the orientation of their hydroxyl group. Characteristic reactions and inability to explain properties with an open chain form indicate carbohydrates exist predominantly in ring structures.
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and behavior during hydrolysis. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can further cyclize to form rings. Glucose forms a 6-membered pyranose ring while fructose forms a 5-membered furanose ring. Carbohydrates can also be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on whether their functional groups are free to participate in reduction reactions. Glucose and fructose both exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers formed by the addition of the hydroxyl group to the carbonyl carbon. Their open chain forms do not fully explain properties like crystallization behavior and lack of reactivity of functional groups.
CARBOHYDRATES (monosaccharides and oligosaccharides).pptxashrafnisha714
This document provides information about carbohydrates including monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their chemical properties and formula. Carbohydrates functions include serving as an energy source, storing energy, acting as structural components, and providing dietary fiber. The document classifies carbohydrates and discusses important monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. It describes isomerism in carbohydrates including ketose-aldose isomerism, D and L isomerism, optical isomerism, epimerism, and anomerism. The document also discusses mutarotation, derivatives of monosaccharides, and classification of carbohydrates.
1. Biomolecules are complex organic compounds that form the basis of life and include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and hormones.
2. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be further broken down, while oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are made of multiple monosaccharide units.
3. Important carbohydrates include the monosaccharide glucose, the disaccharide sucrose, and the polysaccharides starch and cellulose. Glucose is a fundamental energy source while starch and cellulose have structural functions.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starch (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides are single sugars that cannot be broken down further. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides bond together, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Plants and animals use carbohydrates for energy storage and structural support.
Carbohydrates can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that produce such units upon hydrolysis. They are commonly known as sugars and saccharides. Carbohydrates can be classified based on their molecular structure, taste, and nature. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides differ in the number of monomer units present. Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and exists in two crystalline forms, alpha and beta. Sucrose hydrolysis produces dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose, resulting in an overall laevorotatory mixture known as invert sugar. Starches like amylose and amylopectin are
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
carbohydrates-131204014552-phpapp02.pdf for agricultural department in nutritionsharanjain0
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an energy source. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short-chain sugars), and polysaccharides (long-chain sugars). Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic unit of carbohydrates and provide energy through cellular respiration. Plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose through photosynthesis. Polysaccharides like starch and cellulose function as energy storage and provide structure to plants. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and number of monosaccharide units. They play essential roles in energy storage, structure, and metabolism.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as a source of energy. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Sugars are small carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Multiple sugars can be linked together to form larger carbohydrates like oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Starch is a polysaccharide made of linked glucose units that plants store as an energy source. Glycogen serves the same function as starch but is found in animals. Cellulose, another polysaccharide made of glucose, gives structure to plant cell walls.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides details about their classification and properties. It begins by defining carbohydrates and noting they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are highlighted. Common disaccharides and polysaccharides are also listed such as sucrose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. In closing, it emphasizes that polysaccharides serve important structural or energy storage functions in plants and animals.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It discusses that there are three main classes of carbohydrates based on size: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and include important examples like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, with examples being maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The document discusses carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates and explains their essential functions in the body as energy sources and structural components. It describes the structures of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses stereoisomers, anomers, epimers, and the optical activity of carbohydrates. Key reactions like mutarotation, reduction, and oxidation of carbohydrates are also summarized. Important carbohydrates and their properties are defined, including glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, starch, glycogen and cellulose.
1. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that serve as an important energy source for living organisms. Plants produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis.
2. Glucose is the principal sugar in blood and is a monosaccharide. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure.
3. Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and exists as both an open-chain and cyclic structure. It contains an aldehyde functional group, five hydroxyl groups, and six carbon atoms as evidenced through various chemical reactions.
This document discusses carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates and describes the main types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose. It describes their cyclic and linear structures using Fischer projections. It also covers properties of reducing sugars and examples of important disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Finally, it summarizes key polysaccharides like amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharides joined together. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharides and include starches, glycogen, and fibers. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components in plants, and as a way for cells and organisms to store energy.
This document discusses concepts related to motion including position, relative and absolute position, distance and displacement, speed and velocity, uniform and non-uniform motion, and uniformly accelerated motion. It defines key terms and concepts and provides examples to illustrate them. Position can be relative or absolute depending on the reference point used. Distance refers to the total path travelled, while displacement refers to the net or direct distance between two points. Speed is the rate of change of distance and velocity is the rate of change of displacement, making velocity a vector quantity. Uniform motion involves equal distances in equal times while non-uniform motion does not. Uniformly accelerated motion follows three equations of motion and has constant acceleration.
This document provides information about atoms, molecules, ions and chemical formulas. It discusses key concepts such as:
- Dalton's atomic theory which states that matter is made of tiny indivisible particles called atoms that combine in small whole number ratios.
- Atoms have symbols to represent them and an atomic mass that is measured relative to carbon-12. Molecules are groups of atoms that are chemically bonded.
- Chemical formulas show the types and numbers of atoms or ions that make up a compound. Formulas are written with the cation written first followed by the anion.
🔬 Unlock the Wonders of Biomolecules - Class 12 Biology Series! 🔍
🌐 Welcome to our comprehensive YouTube series dedicated to Class 12 Biology, where we delve deep into the fascinating universe of biomolecules. 🧬 Get ready to explore the building blocks of life, understand their structures, and unravel the biological mysteries that make our existence possible.
📚 In this series, we cover essential topics such as #Carbohydrates, #Lipids, #Proteins, and #NucleicAcids, offering a detailed insight into their roles and significance in cellular processes. 🤯 Discover the magic behind #Enzymes and their catalytic prowess, unraveling the secrets of biochemical reactions.
💡 Whether you're a student preparing for exams or a curious mind eager to grasp the foundations of biochemistry, our engaging content is tailored just for you! 🎓 Let's make learning biology an exciting and enriching experience together.
🔗 Don't forget to hit subscribe and ring the notification bell to stay updated on each insightful episode! 🛎️ Join us on this educational journey as we decode the wonders of biomolecules for Class 12 Biology.
🧪 Ready to enhance your biological understanding? Let's dive into the captivating world of biomolecules! 🌟 #Class12Biology #BiomoleculesExplained #ScienceEducation #Biochemistry101
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and behavior during hydrolysis. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can further cyclize to form rings. Glucose forms a 6-membered pyranose ring while fructose forms a 5-membered furanose ring. Carbohydrates can also be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on whether their functional groups are free to participate in reduction reactions. Glucose and fructose both exist as alpha and beta cyclic isomers differentiated by the orientation of their hydroxyl group. Characteristic reactions and inability to explain properties with an open chain form indicate carbohydrates exist predominantly in ring structures.
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and behavior during hydrolysis. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose can further cyclize to form rings. Glucose forms a 6-membered pyranose ring while fructose forms a 5-membered furanose ring. Carbohydrates can also be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on whether their functional groups are free to participate in reduction reactions. Glucose and fructose both exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers formed by the addition of the hydroxyl group to the carbonyl carbon. Their open chain forms do not fully explain properties like crystallization behavior and lack of reactivity of functional groups.
CARBOHYDRATES (monosaccharides and oligosaccharides).pptxashrafnisha714
This document provides information about carbohydrates including monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their chemical properties and formula. Carbohydrates functions include serving as an energy source, storing energy, acting as structural components, and providing dietary fiber. The document classifies carbohydrates and discusses important monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. It describes isomerism in carbohydrates including ketose-aldose isomerism, D and L isomerism, optical isomerism, epimerism, and anomerism. The document also discusses mutarotation, derivatives of monosaccharides, and classification of carbohydrates.
1. Biomolecules are complex organic compounds that form the basis of life and include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and hormones.
2. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be further broken down, while oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are made of multiple monosaccharide units.
3. Important carbohydrates include the monosaccharide glucose, the disaccharide sucrose, and the polysaccharides starch and cellulose. Glucose is a fundamental energy source while starch and cellulose have structural functions.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starch (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides are single sugars that cannot be broken down further. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides bond together, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Plants and animals use carbohydrates for energy storage and structural support.
Carbohydrates can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that produce such units upon hydrolysis. They are commonly known as sugars and saccharides. Carbohydrates can be classified based on their molecular structure, taste, and nature. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides differ in the number of monomer units present. Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and exists in two crystalline forms, alpha and beta. Sucrose hydrolysis produces dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose, resulting in an overall laevorotatory mixture known as invert sugar. Starches like amylose and amylopectin are
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
carbohydrates-131204014552-phpapp02.pdf for agricultural department in nutritionsharanjain0
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an energy source. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short-chain sugars), and polysaccharides (long-chain sugars). Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic unit of carbohydrates and provide energy through cellular respiration. Plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose through photosynthesis. Polysaccharides like starch and cellulose function as energy storage and provide structure to plants. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and number of monosaccharide units. They play essential roles in energy storage, structure, and metabolism.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as a source of energy. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Sugars are small carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Multiple sugars can be linked together to form larger carbohydrates like oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Starch is a polysaccharide made of linked glucose units that plants store as an energy source. Glycogen serves the same function as starch but is found in animals. Cellulose, another polysaccharide made of glucose, gives structure to plant cell walls.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides details about their classification and properties. It begins by defining carbohydrates and noting they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are highlighted. Common disaccharides and polysaccharides are also listed such as sucrose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. In closing, it emphasizes that polysaccharides serve important structural or energy storage functions in plants and animals.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It discusses that there are three main classes of carbohydrates based on size: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and include important examples like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, with examples being maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The document discusses carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates and explains their essential functions in the body as energy sources and structural components. It describes the structures of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses stereoisomers, anomers, epimers, and the optical activity of carbohydrates. Key reactions like mutarotation, reduction, and oxidation of carbohydrates are also summarized. Important carbohydrates and their properties are defined, including glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, starch, glycogen and cellulose.
1. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that serve as an important energy source for living organisms. Plants produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis.
2. Glucose is the principal sugar in blood and is a monosaccharide. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure.
3. Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and exists as both an open-chain and cyclic structure. It contains an aldehyde functional group, five hydroxyl groups, and six carbon atoms as evidenced through various chemical reactions.
This document discusses carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates and describes the main types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose. It describes their cyclic and linear structures using Fischer projections. It also covers properties of reducing sugars and examples of important disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Finally, it summarizes key polysaccharides like amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharides joined together. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharides and include starches, glycogen, and fibers. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components in plants, and as a way for cells and organisms to store energy.
This document discusses concepts related to motion including position, relative and absolute position, distance and displacement, speed and velocity, uniform and non-uniform motion, and uniformly accelerated motion. It defines key terms and concepts and provides examples to illustrate them. Position can be relative or absolute depending on the reference point used. Distance refers to the total path travelled, while displacement refers to the net or direct distance between two points. Speed is the rate of change of distance and velocity is the rate of change of displacement, making velocity a vector quantity. Uniform motion involves equal distances in equal times while non-uniform motion does not. Uniformly accelerated motion follows three equations of motion and has constant acceleration.
This document provides information about atoms, molecules, ions and chemical formulas. It discusses key concepts such as:
- Dalton's atomic theory which states that matter is made of tiny indivisible particles called atoms that combine in small whole number ratios.
- Atoms have symbols to represent them and an atomic mass that is measured relative to carbon-12. Molecules are groups of atoms that are chemically bonded.
- Chemical formulas show the types and numbers of atoms or ions that make up a compound. Formulas are written with the cation written first followed by the anion.
1. The document discusses concepts related to gravitation including Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, gravitational force, and acceleration due to gravity.
2. Key points covered include Newton's inverse square law formula for gravitational force, Kepler's three laws of planetary motion, and definitions of free fall and acceleration due to gravity.
3. The document also discusses properties of gravitational force and provides examples to illustrate concepts like why objects on Earth do not continuously accelerate towards each other due to gravitational attraction.
This document defines key concepts in matter, including:
- Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space, and can be made of elements, molecules, or compounds.
- Elements are the simplest forms of matter and cannot be broken down further into simpler substances. Atoms are the smallest particle of an element.
- Atoms bond together to form molecules or bond with different elements to form compounds like salt or water.
- All matter is made of atoms in constant motion according to kinetic theory. Atoms are arranged in the periodic table by atomic number.
- Atoms contain a nucleus of protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting the nucleus in shells. The number of protons determines the element.
This document defines key concepts in matter, including:
- Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space, and can be made of elements, molecules, or compounds.
- Elements are the simplest forms of matter and cannot be broken down further into simpler substances. Atoms are the smallest particle of an element.
- Atoms bond together to form molecules or bond with different elements to form compounds like salt or water.
- All matter is made of atoms that are always in motion according to kinetic theory. Heavier atoms move slower than lighter ones.
- The periodic table organizes all known elements by their atomic structure.
This document provides an overview of the classification of living organisms. It discusses the need for classification, the basis used for classification including cell structure and nutrition type, and the hierarchical system used from kingdoms down to species. The five kingdom system is described, including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Details are given on the classification of plants into five groups and animals into ten groups, with examples provided. The classification of living organisms arranges organisms into taxonomic groups based on similarities to allow for organized study.
Sound is a form of energy that propagates as longitudinal waves, requiring a medium. It is produced by vibrating objects and transmitted through compression and rarefaction variations in the medium. The human ear can detect sounds between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound with frequencies above this range has applications like medical imaging and industrial cleaning, while infrasound below 20 Hz is used for communication by some animals. Sonar uses ultrasound for underwater detection of objects.
The document discusses natural resources and the four main spheres of Earth - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. It describes each sphere and their composition. The document then discusses various natural resources like air, water, soil minerals, and their importance. It also discusses pollution of these resources and processes like the water cycle and biogeochemical cycles.
This document discusses factors related to health and disease. It defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Important characteristics of good health include being free from sickness, anxiety, and tensions. Health can fail due to poor physical/social environments, economic conditions, or lack of social equality. The document distinguishes between "healthy" and "disease-free," and outlines different types of diseases including acute, chronic, infectious/communicable, and non-infectious/non-communicable diseases. It describes causes of disease such as pathogens, genetic disorders, pollution and malnutrition. Means of disease transmission include air, water, food, vectors, contact and sexual contact. Principles of treatment are to
Here are the answers:
a) Disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body or mind that impairs normal functioning and causes discomfort.
b) The two major categories of human diseases are:
1. Infectious diseases - caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.
Examples: Malaria (caused by protozoan Plasmodium), Tuberculosis (caused by bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
2. Non-infectious diseases - not caused by pathogens. Develop due to genetic reasons, unhealthy lifestyle or environmental factors.
Examples: Cancer (uncontrolled cell growth), Heart disease (caused by risk factors like hypertension, smoking, obesity)
Here are the answers:
a) Disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body or mind that impairs normal functioning and causes discomfort.
b) The two major categories of human diseases are:
1. Infectious diseases - caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.
Examples: Malaria (caused by a protozoan parasite), Tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria)
2. Non-infectious diseases - not caused by pathogens. These include genetic diseases, cancer, heart diseases, mental illnesses etc.
Examples: Diabetes (caused due to malfunctioning of pancreas), Asthma (caused due to hypersensitivity of airways
Here are the key causes of cancer:
- Genetic factors - Some people inherit gene mutations from their parents that increase their risk of certain cancers.
- Tobacco use - Smoking or chewing tobacco is linked to cancers of the lung, esophagus, larynx, mouth, bladder, kidney, liver, stomach, pancreas, and colon/rectum. Tobacco contains chemicals that can damage DNA.
- Diet and obesity - A diet high in red/processed meats and low in fruits and vegetables increases cancer risk. Obesity is linked to several cancers. Excess weight increases hormone levels and inflammation.
- Radiation - Both natural sources like radon and man-made sources like X-rays can damage
Here are the key causes of cancer:
- Genetic factors - Some people inherit gene mutations from their parents that increase their risk of certain cancers.
- Tobacco use - Smoking or chewing tobacco is linked to cancers of the lung, esophagus, larynx, mouth, bladder, kidney, liver, stomach, pancreas, colon and rectum, and acute myeloid leukemia.
- Diet and obesity - A diet high in red/processed meats and low in fruits and vegetables increases the risk of several cancers. Obesity is linked to increased risk of multiple cancers.
- Alcohol use - Heavy drinking is linked to cancers of the mouth, esophagus, throat, liver and breast.
-
Sound is a form of energy that propagates as longitudinal waves, requiring a medium. It is produced by vibrating objects and transmitted through compression and rarefaction variations in the medium. The human ear can detect sounds between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound with frequencies above this range has applications like medical imaging and material cleaning, while infrasound below 20 Hz is used by some animals. Sonar also uses ultrasound for underwater object detection.
1. The document discusses Heinrich Hertz's experiments with sound and how it is produced through vibration and propagates as longitudinal waves through a medium like air.
2. Key experiments shown include using a vibrating tuning fork to produce compressions and rarefactions in air, demonstrating that sound needs a material medium to travel, and that the speed of sound depends on the medium and temperature.
3. Applications of sound reflection, resonance, infrasound, ultrasound, and SONAR are also summarized.
This document describes various concepts related to motion including:
1. Motion is defined as the change in position of a body over time. Distance moved is the total path travelled, while displacement is the shortest distance between initial and final positions.
2. Uniform motion means equal distances are travelled in equal times, while non-uniform motion means unequal distances in equal times. Examples of each are given.
3. Speed, velocity, average speed, average velocity, acceleration, and equations of motion relating these quantities are defined and explained with examples. Distance-time graphs and their use in representing motion are also described.
This document provides an overview of the classification of living organisms. It discusses the need for classification, the basis used for classification including cell structure and nutrition type, and the hierarchical system used from kingdoms down to species. The five kingdom system is described, including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. An overview of the classification of plants and animals is also provided, outlining the main groups within each kingdom.
1. Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. 2. Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms using their similarities and differences. A key aspect is assigning each organism a unique scientific name. 3. The binomial system of nomenclature assigns every organism a genus and species name, allowing for uniform identification worldwide.
Plants and animals are made of different types of tissues due to differences in their structure and function. In multicellular organisms, cells are grouped together into tissues to efficiently perform specialized functions. In plants, tissues include epidermis, a protective outer layer of flat cells covered with a waxy cuticle. Meristematic tissues contain actively dividing cells and produce permanent tissues through differentiation. Permanent tissues include parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma, which provide structure and support to plants. Stomata in the leaf epidermis allow for gas exchange and transpiration. As plants age, cork replaces the epidermis and protects the bark.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
2. Previous Knowledge Testing:
You are familiar with the words, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Vitamins, DNA and RNA.
Q.1. What is the composition of Human body?
Q.2.What is role of carbohydrates in human body?
Q.3. How transference of genetic information take place from one generation to other?
Q.4. Why we prefer a balance diet?
3. Introduction
3
• A living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself. The most amazingthing
about a living system is that it is composed of non-living atoms and molecules
• The pursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within a living system falls
in the domain of biochemistry
• Living systems are made up of various complex biomolecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc.
• Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of our food.These
biomolecules interact with each other and constitute the molecular logic of life
processes
• In addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the functions of organisms
4. Biomolecules are the lifeless organic compounds which form the basis of life,
i.e., they build up the living system and responsible for their growth and
maintenance. E.g. Carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, lipids etc.
The sequence that relates biomolecules to living organism is
Biomolecules →Cells → Tissues → Organs → Living organism
4
Biomolecules
5. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are produced by plants and form a very large group of naturally
occurring organic compounds.
Examples: cane sugar, glucose, starch
Most of them have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as
hydrates of carbon. (Old definition)
The molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,
C6(H2O)6.
5
6. 6
But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be classified as
carbohydrates. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general formula,
C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate.
Similarly, Rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this
definition.
7. Modern Definition of Carbohydrates:
Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce
such units on hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also called saccharides
7
8. I. Classification of Carbohydrates
(on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis)
1. Monosaccharides
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
8
9. 1. Monosaccharide
Carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of poly
hydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide.
About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. Some common
examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
9
10. 10
2. Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on
hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetra
saccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides,
they provide on hydrolysis.
Disaccharides are most common. The two monosaccharide units
obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide may be same or different.
1. Sucrose + water glucose and fructose
2. Maltose + water two glucose molecules only.
11. 11
3. Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units
on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides.
Examples: starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
Starch + n water n (Glucose)
Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also called non-
sugars. They are amorphous and insoluble in water.
13. 13
Classification of Carbohydrates on the basis of Nature :
Reducing Sugars Non Reducing Sugars
All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to
as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides
whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars
All those carbohydrates which cannot reduce
Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are
referred to as reducing sugars.
e.g. Glucose or Fructose e.g. Sucrose
Free Aldehydic or Ketonic group is present Free Aldehydic or Ketonic group is not present
14. Classification of Monosaccharides
(Based on number of carbon atoms and functional group)
If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and
a keto group, it is known as a ketose.
14
15. Glucose: Preparation and Structure
Glucose is colourless crystalline solid
Soluble in water
Sweet in taste
16. Preparation of Glucose
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. It is
present in sweet fruits and honey. Ripe grapes also contain glucose in
large amounts.
16
17. Structure of Glucose
Glucose is an aldohexose and is also
known as dextrose.
It is the monomer of many of the larger
carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose.
It is probably the most abundant organic
compound on earth.
It belongs to D-series and is
a dextrorotatory compound.
17
18. Structure of glucose based on below evidences
1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6
2. On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the six
carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain.
3. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule of
hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions confirm the presenceof
a carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose
oxime
18
cyanohydrin
19. 5. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction
with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl
group is present as an aldehydic group.
6. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a
dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the presence of a primary
alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
19
21. D and L notations (It’s base Glyceraldehydestructure)
Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom.
Exists in two enantiomeric forms.
21
22. Cyclic Structure of Glucose
Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as α
and β.
The α-form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation from
concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K
while the β-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and
saturated aqueous solution at 371 K
22
23. This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure for glucose.
It was proposed that one of the —OH groups may add to the —CHO group and
form a cyclic hemiacetal structure. It was found that glucose forms a six-
membered ring in which —OH at C-5 is involved in ring formation. This explains
the absence of —CHO group and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown
below
23
24. Mutarotation
Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of the change in the
equilibrium between two anomers, when the corresponding stereocenters
interconvert. Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and β anomeric forms
interconvert.
=+112o =+52.7o =+19o
24
26. Anomeric carbon and anomers
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the configuration of the
hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon (the aldehyde carbon before
cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., α-form and β-form, are called anomers.
The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose
structure
(α or β), in analogy with pyran.
Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom and five carbon
atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is more correctly
represented by Haworth structure as given below.
Haworth structure
26
27. Structure of Fructose (C6H12O6)
Fructose exists in two cyclic forms (Anomers)
Haworth structures
Keto-FG
2
It belongs to D-series and is a
laevorotatory compound.
Seen in
Glucose
27
28. Disaccharides
Glycosidic linkage:
The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the
loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units
through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
Eg. Two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage
between C1 of α-glucose and C4 α-glucose.
28
29. Disaccharides
Glycosidic linkage:
The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the
loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units
through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
(i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis
gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose.
29
30. These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage
between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose.
Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic
bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar.
NO Free
anomeric C,
Non-
reducing
sugar
30
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than
dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory.
Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to
laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar
31. (ii) Maltose: It’s a disaccharide, maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in
which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II).
The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it
shows reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.
Free anomeric
C, Reducing
sugar
31
32. (iii) Lactose: (milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk)
It is composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose.
The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose.
Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
Free anomeric C,
Reducing sugar
32
33. 33
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide
units joined together by glycosidic linkages.
Polysaccharides are the most commonly encountered
carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as the food storage
or structural materials.
34. 34
I. Starch:
1. Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
2. It is the most important dietary source for human beings. High content of starch
is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables.
3. It is a polymer of α-glucose, consists of two components
1. Amylose
2. Amylopectin
35. 1. Amylose
35
i. It’s water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20%
of starch.
ii. Chemically amylose is a long unbranched chain with 200-1000
α-D-(+)-glucose units held by C1– C4 glycosidic linkage.
36. 2.Amylopectin
i. It’s insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-85% of starch.
ii. It is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose units in which chain is formed
by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic
linkage
36
38. II. Cellulose
1. Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic
substance in plant kingdom.
2. It’s a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
3. Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose
units which are joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit
and C4 of the next glucose unit.
C1
C4
38
39. III Glycogen:
1. The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
2. It is also known as animal starch because its structure is
similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched.
3. It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
4. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen
down to glucose.
5. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
amylopectin
39
Compone
nt of
starch
42. 42
Importance of Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals. They form amajor
portion of our food.
2. Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’in
ayurvedic system of medicine.
3. Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogenin
animals. Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose.
4. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood and clothe ourselves
with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
5. They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper,
lacquers and breweries.
6. Two aldopentoses namely, D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are present in nucleic
acids.
7. Carbohydrates are found in bio-system in combination with many proteinsand
lipids.
43. Proteins
1. Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of
the living system.
2. Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese,
pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
3. They occur in every part of the body and form
the fundamental basis of structure and functions
of life.
4. They are also required for growth and
maintenance of body. The word protein is
derived from Greek word, “proteios” which
means primary or of prime importance.
5. All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
Protein rich Food
43
44. Amino Acids
1. Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH)
functional groups.
2. Depending upon the relative position of amino group with
respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be classified
as α, β, γ, δ and so on. Only α-amino acids are obtained on
hydrolysis of proteins.
3. They may contain other functional groups also.
4. All α-amino acids have trivial names, which usually reflect
the property of that compound or its source.
5. Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek
glykos means sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from
cheese (in Greek, tyros means cheese.)
6. Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter
symbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used.
Glycine
44
46. Classification of AminoAcids
Acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino and
carboxyl groups in their molecule.
Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more number of
amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more carboxyl groups as compared
to amino groups makes it acidic.
Acidic (Pka=3.9)
46
Acidic Amino Acids
Basic Amino Acids
Aspartic acid
Glutamic Acid
Lysine
Arginine
Histidine
47. Classification of AminoAcids
The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as
Nonessential amino acids. (11)
On the other hand, those which cannot be synthesised in the body and must
be obtained through diet, are known as Essential amino acids.(9)
47
49. Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids.
Amino acids are water-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather
than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence of
both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same
molecule.
In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group can
accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion.
This is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges. In zwitter ionic
form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react both with acids and
bases.
aqueous
49
50. Except glycine, all other naturally occurring
α-amino acids are optically active,
since the α-carbon atom is asymmetric.
These exist both in ‘D’ and ‘L’forms.
Most naturally occurring amino acids have L-
configuration. L-Amino acids are represented
by writing the –NH2 group on left hand side. L
Optically
inactive
No asymmetric carbon
50
51. Structure of Proteins
Proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids and they are connected to each other
by peptide bond or peptide linkage.
Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between
–COOH group and --NH2 group.
when carboxyl group of
glycine combines with
the amino group of
alanine we get a
dipeptide, glycylalanine.
51
glycine alanine
dipeptide
52. 52
If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a
tripeptide. A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two
peptide linkages.
Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective
products are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,
respectively.
When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then the
products are called polypeptides. A polypeptide with more thanhundred
amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000 u is
called a protein.
Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called proteins
if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein.
Example: Insulin which contains 51 amino acids, It’s a protein.
53. 53
Classification of Proteins
(Based on the basis of their molecularshape)
(a) Fibrous proteins
1. When the polypeptide chains
run parallel and are held together
by hydrogen and disulfide bonds,
then the fiber-like structure is
formed.
2. These proteins are generally
insoluble in water. These are
water-insoluble proteins.
Example: keratin (present in hair,
wool, and silk)
myosin (present in muscles), etc.
Example: Insulin and albumins
are common examples of
globular proteins
(b) Globular proteins
1. This structure results when
the chains of
polypeptides coil around to
give a spherical shape.
2. These are usually soluble in
Water.
55. Structure and shape of proteins
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level
being more complex than the previous one.
1. Primary structure of proteins:
i. Proteins may have one or more polypeptide
chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has
amino acids linked with each other in a
specific sequence and it is this sequence of
amino acids that is said to be the primary
structure of that protein.
ii. Any change in this primary structure i.e.,
the sequence of amino acids creates a
different protein.
55
56. 2. Secondary structure of proteins:
i.The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which along
polypeptide chain can exist.
ii. They are found to exist in two different types of structures
iii. α-helix and β-pleated sheet structure.
iii. These structures arise due to the regular folding of the backbone of the
polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between -C=O and –NH–
groups of the peptide bond.
iv. α-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain
forms all possible hydrogen bonds by twisting into a right handed
screw (helix) with the –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen
bonded to the C=O of an adjacent turn of the helix.
56
57. In β-structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum
extension and then laid side by side which are held together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
The structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known
as β-pleated sheet.
57
58. 3. Tertiary structure of proteins:
i. The tertiary structure of proteins
represents
polypeptide
overall
chains
folding of the
i.e., further
folding of the secondary structure.
ii. It gives rise to two major molecular
shapes. Namely, fibrous and globular.
The main forces which stabilise the
2° and 3° structures of proteins are
hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages,
van der Waals and electrostatic forces
of attraction.
58
59. 4. Quaternary structure of proteins:
i. Some of the proteins are composed of two
or more polypeptide chains referred to as
sub-units.
ii. The spatial arrangement of these subunits
with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure.
59
62. Denaturation of Proteins
Native Protein:
Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-
dimensional structure and biological activity is called a native
protein.
Denaturation:
i. When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical
change like change in temperature or chemical change like
change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this,
globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its
biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein.
ii. During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but
1º structure remains intact.
i. Examples:
The coagulation of egg white on boiling.
curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of lactic
acid by the bacteria present in milk.
62
63. Enzymes
(Biocatalysts works under mild conditions in living organisms)
Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that
significantly speed up the rate of the chemical reactions that
take place within cells.
They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important
functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion
and metabolism.
Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins.
Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a
particular substrate.
They are generally named after the compound or class of
compounds upon which they work.
63
64. Example: Hydrolysis of Maltose by Maltase enzyme
Example: Oxidoreductase
The enzymes which catalyse the oxidation
of one substrate with simultaneous
reduction of another substrate are named
as oxidoreductase enzymes
Note: The ending of the name of an enzyme is -ase
64
65. Mechanism of Enzyme Action
1. There is a lock and key
arrangement between the an
enzyme and a substrate.
2. Substrates bind at active site,
temporarily forming an
enzyme-substrate (E-S)
complex.
3. The E-S complex undergoes
internal rearrangements that
form the product.
4. The enzyme gets regenerated
for the next molecule of the
substrate.
65
66. VITAMINS
66
Vitamines are complex organic molecules which cannot be
produced by the body and must be supplied in small amounts
in diet to carry out essential metabolic reactions which are
required for normal growth and maintenance of the body.
Classification :
Water soluble vitamins : Soluble in
water. Must be supplied regularly in diet
as they are regularly excreted in urine
(except vitamin B12)
Vitamin- B1, B2, B6, B12 and C
Fat soluble vitamins :
Soluble in fat and oils. Stored in
liver and adipose tissues e.g.,
Vitamin- A, D, E and K
67. 67
Name of Vitamin Important Sources Deficiency Diseases
Vitamin A
Fish liver oil, Milk, butter,
egg yolk, green and yellow
vegetables.
Night blindness,
Xerophthalmia (hardening of
cornea of eye).
Vitamin B1
Yeast, milk, green vegetables,
cereals, fruits, egg yolk.
Beriberi (loss of appetite,
retarded growth)
Vitamin B2
Egg yolk, liver, milk, green
leafy vegetables.
Cracked lips, sore tongue,
digestive disorders and burning
sensation of the skin.
Vitamin B6
Milk, egg yolk, cereals, yeast,
legumes.
Nervous disturbances and
convulsions.
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, kidney, eggs.
Pernicious anaemia (RBC
deficient in haemoglobin)
68. 68
Vitamin C
Citrus fruits, amla and green
leafy vegetables.
Scurvy (bleeding gums)
Vitamin D
Exposure to sunlight, fish
and egg yolk
Rickets (bone deformities in
children) and osteomalacia
(soft bones and joint pain in
adults)
Vitamin E
Milk, ghee, vegetable oils
like wheat germ oil,
sunflower oil, cotton seed
oil.
Increased fragility of RBCs
and muscular weakness
Vitamin H Milk, yeast, liver, kidney. Loss of hair, dermatitis.
Vitamin K
Green leafy vegetables, fish,
meat, cereals.
Increased blood clotting time
69. Structure of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides
present in nucleus of all living cells and play an
important role in transmission of the hereditary
characteristics and biosynthesis of proteins
69
70. Nitrogenous bases or often simply bases, are
nitrogen-
containing biological compounds that form
nucleosides.
70
Nitrogenous
bases
71. Nucleoside:
A unit formed by the attachment of a base to1'
position of sugar is known as nucleoside.
Nucleotide:
When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5′-position
of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide.
nucleoside
71
nucleotide
72. Amount of purine bases is
always equal to that of
pyrimidine bases. Purine base
of one strand of DNA
molecule pairs with pyrimidine
base of the other strand.
Adenine (A) pairs with thymine
(T)through two H-bonds
(A=T) and guanine (G) pairs
with cytosine (C) through three
H-bonds (G=C).
In case of RNA, adenine (A)
pairs with uracil
(U), (AU).
72
75. Referenc
e
75
NCERT Text Book Class XII
Images are taken from different websites and open sources available in google images.
Chemistry Reference books
Thanks