The chapter discusses social structural theories of criminology including Durkheim's theory of anomie, social disorganization theory, strain theory, subcultural theories, and gang theories. It analyzes how social institutions and culture can influence crime rates. The chapter also evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of these social structural theories and their policy implications.
Topic of Sociology, Crime and Deviance, Norms and Crime/Deviance, Introduction, Legally Deviant Behavior, Illegally Deviant Behavior, Criminal Behavior, Reasons People Commit Crimes and deviance, Deviance and crime, Group deviance, Three views of deviance, Biological, Psychological, Sociological, Structural-Functionalist Perspectives, Reinforcement theories, Differential association theory, Social conflict perspectives, Symbolic integrationists perspectives, Labeling theory, William Chambliss Experiment, Experiment by D.L Rosenhan, Crime, Crime Classification, Types of Crime, How is crime reported?, Recording Crime, Measures of crime, CRIME AND GENDER, CRIME AND AGE, ETHNIC GROUP/ETHNICITY, INSTITUTIONAL RACISM, Crime And Ethnicity, Crime And Social Class, Occupational Crime, Professional Crime Corporate Crime, Computer Crime, The criminal justice system, Police Duties, The criminal justice system, Justifications of punishment, Retributive justice, Social control
Classical Theory: One of the earliest approaches to explaining the causes of crime was classical theory. A product of the Enlightenment, based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it.
Neo-Classical: A modification of classical theory in which it was conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might inhibit the exercise of free will. Premeditation as a measure of the degree of free will.
Mitigating circumstances as legitimate grounds for diminished responsibility.
Topic of Sociology, Crime and Deviance, Norms and Crime/Deviance, Introduction, Legally Deviant Behavior, Illegally Deviant Behavior, Criminal Behavior, Reasons People Commit Crimes and deviance, Deviance and crime, Group deviance, Three views of deviance, Biological, Psychological, Sociological, Structural-Functionalist Perspectives, Reinforcement theories, Differential association theory, Social conflict perspectives, Symbolic integrationists perspectives, Labeling theory, William Chambliss Experiment, Experiment by D.L Rosenhan, Crime, Crime Classification, Types of Crime, How is crime reported?, Recording Crime, Measures of crime, CRIME AND GENDER, CRIME AND AGE, ETHNIC GROUP/ETHNICITY, INSTITUTIONAL RACISM, Crime And Ethnicity, Crime And Social Class, Occupational Crime, Professional Crime Corporate Crime, Computer Crime, The criminal justice system, Police Duties, The criminal justice system, Justifications of punishment, Retributive justice, Social control
Classical Theory: One of the earliest approaches to explaining the causes of crime was classical theory. A product of the Enlightenment, based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it.
Neo-Classical: A modification of classical theory in which it was conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might inhibit the exercise of free will. Premeditation as a measure of the degree of free will.
Mitigating circumstances as legitimate grounds for diminished responsibility.
The whole of Sociology Crime and Deviance, This is only for the exam board - OCR, Suitable for all GCSE Students studying Sociology for their exams at the end of year 11. Once finished look through PowerPoint/Document please look through questions and Pass papers on the official OCR Website - This is the Latest available Pass Paper - http://www.ocr.org.uk/Images/412873-question-paper-unit-b672-01-socialisation-culture-and-identity.pdf
Booklet that I made for criminological theories revision, using resources from the internet. These theories include:
* Classical Theory
* Functionalist Crime Theories (includes Durkheim and Merton)
* Marxist Theory
* Right realism
* Left realism
* Labelling (Interactionism)
* Individualistic theories (learning theories, psychological theories and psychodynamic theories)
* Eysenck's theory
* Family crime theories
* Neurophysiological (brain damage)
* Neurochemical
* Kohlberg's moral development
* Behaviourist theory
The school was headed by medical Criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. The termLombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism...
The whole of Sociology Crime and Deviance, This is only for the exam board - OCR, Suitable for all GCSE Students studying Sociology for their exams at the end of year 11. Once finished look through PowerPoint/Document please look through questions and Pass papers on the official OCR Website - This is the Latest available Pass Paper - http://www.ocr.org.uk/Images/412873-question-paper-unit-b672-01-socialisation-culture-and-identity.pdf
Booklet that I made for criminological theories revision, using resources from the internet. These theories include:
* Classical Theory
* Functionalist Crime Theories (includes Durkheim and Merton)
* Marxist Theory
* Right realism
* Left realism
* Labelling (Interactionism)
* Individualistic theories (learning theories, psychological theories and psychodynamic theories)
* Eysenck's theory
* Family crime theories
* Neurophysiological (brain damage)
* Neurochemical
* Kohlberg's moral development
* Behaviourist theory
The school was headed by medical Criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. The termLombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism...
CJCJ's Executive Director Daniel Macallair, is a practitioner-in-residence at San Francisco State University (SFSU)'s Department of Criminal Justice Studies. These slides are from his Juvenile Justice course materials.
CJCJ's Executive Director Daniel Macallair, is a practitioner-in-residence at San Francisco State University (SFSU)'s Department of Criminal Justice Studies. These slides are from his Juvenile Justice course materials.
Chapter 4Social Structure and Process TheoriesSocialWilheminaRossi174
Chapter 4
Social Structure and Process Theories
Social Factors
All Social Delinquency theories are based on the belief that crime is caused by a person’s interaction with conflicts in society. What can cause conflict?
Poor relations with school, family and the government
Poor Community conditions
Exposure to Violence
Social Change (divorce, immigration, religion)
Poverty and perceived economic disparity
Racial Inequality
Two Classes
The concept of social conflict has been developed into two distinct theories of juvenile delinquency. They are:
Social Structure Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s place in the
economic structure of society.
Social Process Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s interaction with corrupt or
disturbed members of society
Social Structure
All Social Structure Theories are based on the concept that modern capitalist society is divided (stratified) based on economic levels
Crime is most likely to form in the underclasses of society, where a culture of poverty changes the civic values and ethics of children, from generation to generation.
As children are more formative and fragile, they are more prone to the negative effects of poverty.
Racial inequality also fuels the cycle of poverty, as certain classes in society have less opportunities.
The Three forms of Structure
1) Social Disorganization
Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay first developed the social disorganization theory. The premise of this theory is that the breakdown of the sense of community creates social unrest. The connection of a person to their community is the single greatest deterrent to criminal behavior.
People are less likely to participate in crime, if there is a social stigma or shame, to being identified as a criminal against the community.
Modern Disorganization
Shaw and McKay based their theories on the concept that as a city expanded, neighborhoods would break down, and the city as a whole would lose it’s sense of continuity.
As American society has become more mobile and transient, cities have radically changed. The modern Disorganization Theory is Social Ecological Theory.
Social Ecology
Social Ecology states that criminal behavior is directly linked to breakdowns in a community structure. These breakdowns come from:
Seeing physically abandoned buildings and decay
Poverty
Fear of crime or corrupt law enforcement
Siege Mentality
Loss of a community identity (race, religion, ethnicity)
Loss of social controls (family, peers, mentors, role models)
A Strain on us all
2) Strain Theory
Strain Theory holds that while most people have the same goals and desires out of life, the feeling of being locked out, or not having the opportunity to achieve those same goals, is the impetus for criminal behavior.
While some children will continue to seek to overcome their limitations, and others will simply accept their place in society, the delinquent portion of disaffected ...
1
3
Chapter 7 SummaryCHAPTER SUMMARY
Contemporary Integrative Theories
This chapter describes theoretical efforts to integrate macro-level theories that deal with the structures and institutions of society with micro-level theories of everyday life. These integrative theories aim to overcome the limitations of either approach by balancing our understanding that individuals are free to interpret, influence, and act with our understanding of organizational and institutional constraints, power, and social reproduction. Richard Emerson’s exchange theory, Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory, and Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice each take distinctive approaches to this central problem in social theory.
A More Integrated Exchange Theory
Building on the work of George Homans, Richard Emerson (1925-1983) asserted that power was central to exchange, that actors are not entirely rational, and that social relations and networks could be used to explain both micro- and macro-level phenomena. Emerson’s exchange theory focuses on the rewards and costs of social interaction and takes social structure as a variable dependent on exchange. The theory assumes that people act rationally within the context of situations, thereby allowing the situations to occur. It also assumes that as people become satiated with the rewards they obtain from a situation, those situations will be of declining importance to them. Last, it assumes that benefits obtained depend on the benefits of exchange.
According to Emerson, social structure is produced and reproduced through exchange mechanisms. The exchange network is a web of social relationships that involves a number of individuals or groups. All individuals and groups have opportunities to exchange with others. These relationships interrelate with one another to form network structure. Each exchange relationship is embedded in a larger exchange network.
In exchange theory, power is defined as the potential cost that one actor can induce another to accept. Dependency is the potential cost that an actor is willing to accept within an exchange relationship. Mutual dependencies condition the nature of an interaction. When there is an imbalance of power and dependency between two actors, the one with more power and less dependence will have an advantage that can be used to collect rewards or distribute punishments. Exchange theorists argue that the relative power of an actor is determined by the position of an actor in an exchange network. The amount of dependence of the entire structure on the position will determine its power. This perspective can be used to examine both the social behavior of individuals and social structure. It can also be used to examine how changes in power-dependency at the micro-level affect macro-level phenomena and vice-versa.
Structuration Theory
Structuration theory focuses on the mutual constitution of structure and agency. Anthony Giddens (1938- ) argues that structure an.
sociology presentation.pptx on environmental science11aaditipandey
It is a sociology presentation of bachelor of technology second year environment science audit course........In t2 syllabus: Indirect method, FM demodulation (3 tech) , superheterodyne receiver, sampling ( instantaneous sampling and natural sampling , brief intro of Flat top sampling , reconstruction), TDM, uniform quantization, quantization error, basic idea of non uniform quantization, PCM, DPCM, DM............................................
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
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I have heard many times that architecture is not important for the front-end. Also, many times I have seen how developers implement features on the front-end just following the standard rules for a framework and think that this is enough to successfully launch the project, and then the project fails. How to prevent this and what approach to choose? I have launched dozens of complex projects and during the talk we will analyze which approaches have worked for me and which have not.
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As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
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- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
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- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
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https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
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2. Chapter Summary
Chapter Four is a discussion of sociological criminology
based in the social structural school of thought.
The Chapter begins with an analysis of Durkeim’s theory
of anomie, and how this theory gave way to many other
theories of crime, such as social disorganization and
strain theory.
After a full discussion of social organization and
strain, the author discusses theories of the criminal
subculture.
3. Chapter Summary
One prominent subculture is criminal gangs, which the author
explores in detail.
In the concluding section of the Chapter, the author
analyzes and evaluates the social structural theories of
crime, as well as the policy implications derived from these
theories.
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Understand functionalism
Explain Durkheim’s theory of anomie
4. Chapter Summary
Discuss strain and the different theories of strain.
Explain subculture theories
Describe opportunity structures and focal concerns.
Discuss gangs both historically and presently
Analyze and critique social structural theories of crime.
Understand the policy implications of social structural
theories of crime.
5. The Social Structural Tradition
The task of sociological criminology is to discover why
social animals commit antisocial acts.
6. The Social Structural Tradition
Social structure:
- how society is organized by social institutions
- family, educational, religious, economic, & political institutions
- stratified based on various roles & statuses.
7. The Social Structural Tradition
Structural theorists are more interested in seeking causes
of group crime rates rather than why particular individuals
commit crimes.
The consensus or functionalist perspective is
one that views society as a system consisting of
mutually sustaining parts and characterized by
broad normative consensus.
All the various social institutions have their own
particular specialized social functions to keep
society running smoothly.
8. Sociological Positivism
Causes of crime favored by sociologists in this tradition are
compounds of a variety of social phenomena which are
summarized by terms such as “social disorganization,”
“anomie,” or “group conflict.”
The appreciation of the social context of criminal behavior
is sociology’s greatest contribution to our understanding of
crime.
9. Durkheim, Modernization, & Anomie
AnomieMeaning “lacking in rules” or “normlessness,” used to
describe the condition of normative deregulation in society.
Mechanical solidarity exists in small, isolated & self-sufficient
prestate society in which individuals, because they share
common experiences & circumstances, share common values and
develop strong emotional ties to the collectivity.
10. Durkheim, Modernization, & Anomie
Organic solidarity: Characteristic of modern
societies in which there is a high degree of
occupational specialization.
Durkheim argued that because crime is found at all
times and in all societies, it is a normal and
inevitable phenomenon.
Criminals and other deviants are useful in that
they serve to identify the limits of acceptable
behavior.
All people are said to aspire to maximize their
pleasures, but deficiencies in “natural talent” will
thwart some from attaining their goals
legitimately.
12. The Chicago School of Ecology
Shaw & McKay: the majority of delinquents always came
from the same neighborhoods regardless of the ethnic
composition of those neighborhoods.
13. The Chicago School of Ecology
The first criminological theory to be developed in the
United States was the Chicago school of human ecology.
Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay
Social ecology—describes the interrelations of human
beings and the communities in which they live.
Early social ecologists viewed the city as a super organism
with “natural areas” differentially adaptive for different
ethnic groups.
14. Social Disorganization
Social disorganization: The breakdown, or serious dilution, of the
power of informal community rules to regulate conduct.
The mix of peoples with limited resources, bringing with them a wide
variety of cultural traditions sometimes at odds with traditional
American middle-class norms of behavior, is not conducive to
developing and/or maintaining a sense of community.
15. Figure 4.2
Diagrammatic Presentation of Ecological Theory
Influx of native and
foreign immigrants
into cities looking for
work and
congregating
in poorest areas
Value conflict and
decrease in formal
and informal social
controls lead to
SOCIAL
DISORGANIZA
-TION
Deterioration of
neighborhood and
development of
delinquent
values
Delinquency
and crime
16. Social Disorganization
A neighborhood in the process of losing its sense of
community = a transition zone.
Social disorganization = the loss of neighborhood
collective efficacy.
Collective efficacy: The shared power of a group of
connected and engaged individuals to influence an
outcome that the collective deems desirable.
The same things that predict the loss of collective
efficacy are the same things that predict social
disorganization.
17. Social
Disorganization
Ecological fallacy:
We cannot make inferences about
individuals & groups on the basis of
information derived from a larger
population of which they are a part.
How do we know that differences in
delinquency rates result from the
aggregated characteristics of
communities rather than the
characteristics of individuals
selectively aggregated into
communities?
18. Strain Theory:
Robert Merton’s Extension of Anomie
Theory
Robert Merton: Strain theory views crime as a normal
response to the conditions that limit the opportunities for
some individuals to obtain the economic success for which we
are all supposed to strive.
Anomie = structural-cultural disjunction and strain, the way
people adapt to life in the context of anomie.
19. Figure 4.3
Diagrammatic Presentation of Anomie/Strain Theory
Cultural and Structural Context
Middle-class
success goals
shared by all
members of
society
Limited access to
legitimate means
(education, jobs)
for some
Disjunction between
goals and means
(the ideal and
the reality)
ANOMIE
20. Social-psychological response
Individuals adapt to anomie by accepting or rejecting goals & means
GOALS
MEANS
Accepts
Rejects
Rejects
Accepts -------> CONFORMITY (nondeviant)
Accepts -------> RITUALISM
(deviant, noncriminal)
Rejects --------> RETREATISM (deviant, social dropout,
could be criminal)
Rejects ------ > INNOVATION (deviant, criminal)
Rejects --------> REBELLION
(deviant, wants to
substitute new goals
and means)
Accepts
Rejects
MODE OF ADAPTATION TO ANOMIE
21. Modes of Adaptation
Five modes of adaptation that various people adopt in response
to social pressure
Conformity: Accept the success goals of
American society, and the prescribed means of
attaining them
Ritualism: Rejects the cultural goals, but does
not adapt in a criminal manner.
Innovation: Accepts the validity of cultural
goals, but rejects the legitimate means of
attaining them.
22. Modes of Adaptation
Retreatism rejects both the cultural goals, and the
institutionalized means of attaining them; they are in society
but not of it.
Rebellion reject both the goals and the means of capitalist
American society, but unlike retreatists, rebels wish to
substitute alternative legitimate goals and alternative
legitimate means.
23. Institutional Anomie Theory
Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld: Institutional
Anomie Theory (IAT) places the blame for the high crime
rate in the United States unequivocally on the doorstep of
the much-vaunted American Dream and its capitalist
underpinnings.
High crime rates are intrinsic to the basic cultural
commitments and institutional arrangements of American
society.
Institutional Balance of Power: Subjugation of other
institutions.
24. Institutional Anomie Theory
American culture tends to devalue the non-economic
function and roles of other social institutions.
The answer to the high crime rate in the United States is
decommodification, which refers to social policies intended
to free social relationships from economic considerations
by freeing the operation of the other social institutions
from the domination of the economy, or to at least gain a
certain degree of balance.
25. Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Robert Agnew laid the foundation for a general strain
theory.
Strain results from the removal of a positively valued
stimuli or the presentation of negative stimuli.
We all experience multiple strain throughout our
lives, but the impact of strain differs according to its
magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering.
The most important fact is not strain per se, but how one
copes with it.
26. Subcultural Theories:
Albert Cohen & Status Frustration
Distinct criminal subcultures might develop, particularly
among lower-class individuals because these are the people
expected to feel the bite of blocked opportunity more
sharply.
Albert Cohen’s book Delinquent Boys proposed a mechanism
by which lower-class youths adapt to the limited avenues of
success open to them
Short-run hedonism: The actor is seeking immediate
gratification of his or her desires without regard for any
long term consequences.
27. Subcultural Theories:
Albert Cohen & Status Frustration
Much lower-class crime and delinquency is expressive
rather than instrumental.
Though no fault of their own, young people lack
access to middle-class avenues of approval and
self-worth. Because they cannot adjust to what
Cohen calls middle-class measuring rods, they
experience status frustration.
The real problem for Cohen is status
frustration, not blocked opportunity. Lowerclass youth desire approval and status, but
because they cannot meet middle-class
criteria, they become frustrated.
28. Cloward & Ohlin’s
Opportunity Structure Theory
One of the most influential extensions of strain theory
has been Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin’s opportunity
structure theory, outlined in their book, Delinquency and
Opportunity.
To obtain and take advantage of the most rewarding
illegitimate opportunities, aspiring delinquents often need
an “in.”
Gang types that develop from the frustration generated
by blocked opportunities: Criminal gangs, Conflict
gangs, Retreatist gangs.
29. Walter Miller’s Theory of Focal Concerns
Gangs are not a reaction to status deprivation
Miller asserted that lower-class behavior and values must
be viewed on their own terms.
Six focal concerns that are part of a value system and a
lifestyle that has emerged from the realities of life on the
bottom rung of society
Trouble confers status if it is the right type
of trouble.
Toughness is very important to the status of
lower-class males.
30. Walter Miller’s Theory of Focal Concerns
Smartness refers to street smarts and is the ability
to survive on the streets using one’s wits.
Excitement is the search for fun.
Fate is a belief that the locus of control is external
to oneself and a belief in “lady luck.”
Autonomy means personal freedom.
The hard-core lower class lifestyle typified by these
focal concerns catch those engaged in it in a web of
situations that virtually guarantee delinquent and
criminal activities.
31. Youth Gangs
(a)
(b)
(c)
Malcolm Klein defines a youth gang as:
“any denotable adolescent group who
are generally perceived as a distinct aggregation by
others in the neighborhood,
recognize themselves as a denotable group, and
have been involved in a sufficient number of
delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent
negative response from neighborhood residents
and/or law enforcement agencies.”
32. The Increasing Prevalence of Gangs
Gangs are more prevalent in the
United States today than ever
before.
It is the neighborhood of the
marginalized and underclass
that the most fertile soil for
the growth of gangs exist.
33. Why do Young People Join Gangs?
Joining a gang has almost become a survival imperative
in some areas where unaffiliated youths are likely to be
victimized.
Gang membership provides means of satisfying
belongingness needs.
Gangs functions for many of its members as (1)
family, (2) friendship group, (3) play group, (4)
protective agency, (5) educational institution, & (6)
employer.
34. Girls in Gangs
Females are a minor part of the modern gang scene.
Girls join gangs for many of the same reasons that boys
do.
Three basic types of female gang involvement
All-female gangs
Mixed gender gangs
Female auxiliaries of male gangs
The vast majority of females gang delinquency consists of
non-violent property and status offenses.
35. Evaluation of Social Structural Theories
Ecological theory brought home one of the most universal
demographic characteristics of crime, namely, its
concentration in socially disorganized areas inhabited by
economically deprived people.
Strain theories claim to explain particular types of crimes
in terms of their prevalence in society, and not why one
individual becomes criminal and another does not.
General strain theory has been criticized as reductionist
because of its emphasis of attempting to explain how people
subjectively perceive and react to strain.
36. Evaluation of Social Structural Theories
General strain theory has been criticized as
reductionist because of its emphasis of attempting
to explain how people subjectively perceive & react
to strain.
Subculture theories augment both ecological and
anomie/strain theories by introducing the idea of
subculture.
37. Evaluation of Social Structural Theories
Focal concerns has attracted charges of racial
insensitivity.
Social disorganization Chicago Area Project:
Treating communities from which offenders came.
Shaw & McKay organized a number of programs
aimed at generating or strengthening a sense of
community within neighborhoods.
38. Table 4.1
Summarizing Social Structural Theorie
Theory
Key Concepts
Strengths
Weaknesses
Poverty concentrates people of
different cultural backgrounds
and generates cultural conflict.
The breakdown of informal
social controls leads to social
disorganization, and peer group
gangs replace social institutions
as socializers.
Explains high crime
rates in certain areas.
Accounts for
intergenerational
transmission of deviant
values and predicts
crime rates from
neighborhood
characteristics.
Cannot account for
individuals and groups
in the same
neighborhood who are
crime free or why a
few individuals
commit a highly
disproportionate
share of crime.
Anomie
(Durkheim)
Rapid social change leads to
social deregulation and the
weakening of restraining social
norms. This unleashes
“insatiable appetites,” which
some seek to satisfy through
criminal activity.
Emphasizes the power
of norms and social
solidarity to restrain
crime and points to
situations that weaken
them.
Concentrates on whole
societies and ignores
differences in areas
that are differentially
affected by social
deregulation.
Anomie/Strain
(Merton)
All members of American
society are socialized to want
to attain monetary success, but
some are denied access to
legitimate means of attaining it.
These people may then resort
to crime to achieve what they
have been taught to want.
Explains high crime
rates among the
disadvantaged and how
cultural norms create
conflict and crime.
Explains various means
of adapting to strain.
Does not explain why
individuals similarly
affected by strain to
not react (adapt)
similarly.
Social
Disorganization
39. Table 4.1
Theory
Summarizing Social Structural Theories
Key Concepts
Strengths
Weaknesses
Institutional
Anomie
America is literally organized
for crime due to its
overweening emphasis on the
economy and material success.
All other institutions are
devalued and must
accommodate themselves to
the requirements of the
economy.
Explains why crime
rates are higher in
America than in
other capitalist
societies. Points to
decommodi fication
as crime reduction
strategy.
Concentrates on
single cause of
crime. Should
predict high rates
of property crime in
America rather
than violent crime,
but the opposite is
true.
General
Strain
There are multiple sources of
strain, and strain differs along
numerous dimensions. Strain is
the result of negative emotions
that arise from negative
relationships with other as well
as from sociocultural forces.
Individual characteristics help
us to cope poorly or well with
strain.
Reminds us that
strain is
multifaceted and
that how we cope
with it is more
important than its
existence. Adds
individual
characteristics to
theory.
Criticized by
structural theorists
as reductionist
because it fails to
explore structural
origins of strain.
40. Table 4.1
Theory
Summarizing Social Structural Theories
Key Concepts
Strengths
Weaknesses
Subcultural
Much delinquency is short-run
hedonism rather than utilitarian.
Lower-class youths cannot live up to
middle-class measuring rods and thus
develop status frustration. They seek
status in ways peculiar to the
subculture. Subcultural youths do not
have equal illegitimate opportunities
for attaining success. Those who do
join criminal gangs; those who don’t
join retreatist and conflict gangs and
engage in mindless violence and
vandalism.
Extends the scope of
anomie theory and
integrates social
disorganization theory.
Focuses on processes
by which lower-class
youths adapt to their
disadvantages and
shows that illegitimate
opportunities are also
denied to some.
Explains the patterned
way of life that
sustains delinquent
values and goals.
Explains subcultural
crime and delinquency
only. There is some
question as to whether
a distinct lower-class
culture exists in the
sense that it is
supported by
proscriptive values
that require antisocial
behavior.
Focal
Concerns
Lower-class youths live their lives
according to the focal concerns of the
neighborhoods they find themselves in.
These focal concerns lead to conflict
with the mainstream culture because
they generate antisocial behavior.
Identifies the core
values of lower-class
culture and how they
generate and
perpetuate antisocial
behavior.
Explains only lowerclass antisocial
behavior. Ignores the
structural origin of
the focal concerns.
41. Policy and Prevention:
Implications of Social Structural Theories
Strain theory
If the cause of crime is a disjunction between cultural values
emphasizing success for all and a social structure denying
access to legitimate means of achieving it to some, then the
cure for crime is to increase opportunities or to dampen
aspirations.
Cloward & Ohlin developed a delinquency-prevention
project, known as “Mobilization for Youth” which concentrated
on expanding legitimate opportunities for disadvantaged youths.
42. Policy and Prevention:
Implications of Social Structural Theories
The policy recommendation flowing from
institutional anomie theory would be those that
tame the power of the market via
decommodification.
Any policy recommendation derived from
subcultural theory would not differ in any
significant ways from those derived from
ecological or anomie/strain theories.