CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE PRICE OF WAR - IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2 ON THE SOVIET UNION. The presentation contains: Operation Barbarossa, Soviet evacuation and economic decline, Soviet national income, WW2 impact on Soviet Union, the impact of ww2 on the location of industry, long term nature of locational shift, etc. A comprehensive presentation with 62 slides.
The document provides background information on the peace treaties that resulted from World War 1, known as the Versailles Settlement. It focuses on introducing the key figures and motivations of the "Big Three" nations - France, the United States, and Britain - that dominated the peace negotiations. France sought a harsh peace for security reasons due to Germany invading twice. The US advocated for Woodrow Wilson's idealistic 14 Points. Britain under Lloyd George initially wanted punishment but realized complete destruction of Germany was not in its interests long term.
A comprehensive explanation of the Tehran Conference 1943, suitable for A2 students in History, containing: leaders, peace conferences Second World War, other conferences, the outcome, conference decisions, Operation Overlord, concessions for the Soviet Union, plans for the formation of the United Nations, the assassination plot.
The Korean War began in 1950 when North Korean troops invaded South Korea, crossing the 38th parallel border between the two countries. In response, United Nations forces led by the United States launched a counterattack and pushed the North Korean army back above the 38th parallel. However, Chinese troops then entered the war on the side of North Korea and drove UN forces back south. Fighting continued back and forth across the parallel until an armistice was signed in 1953, leaving Korea still divided along the 38th parallel between the communist North and non-communist South. Over 10 million people died during the three-year Korean War.
Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936 to limit communist influence and target the Soviet Union. Italy joined in 1937, forming the Axis Alliance between the three countries. The treaties were sought by Hitler who was publicly against Bolshevism and interested in Japan's successes against China. They allowed Hitler and Mussolini to portray themselves as defending Western values against the Soviet Union. However, Japan renounced the pact in 1939 after the German-Soviet nonaggression pact, though later rejoined in 1940 through the Tripartite Pact.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE HISTORY: GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATYGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE HISTORY: GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATY. It contains: some people said the treaty was fair, some people said the treaty was too harsh, negative reactions, Germany hated the treaty, problems were building for the future, German outrage, German reaction, Germans hated the treaty, reparations and army, loss of territory.
Germany annexed Austria in 1938 in a political union known as the "Anschluss". Austria was experiencing economic crisis after World War 1 and many Austrians supported union with Germany. In March 1938, Germany invaded Austria and controlled a plebiscite that showed 99.7% approval of the Anschluss. Britain and France did not oppose the invasion due to their own domestic political issues. The Catholic Church denounced the Nazis but Austria was now under German control.
02. SOVIET CONTROL OF EASTERN EUROPE: Soviet takeover of the regionGeorge Dumitrache
In the aftermath of the Second World War, Eastern Europe, along with Western Europe, with the United States, sees in the USSR, which liberated it from Nazism, its savior. For this reason, the USSR, which enjoys immense prestige with the countries of Eastern Europe, as the United States with the countries of Western Europe, is a model and guide to follow and imitate. But while in the United States the model is capitalism, in the USSR the model is communism. That is why, between 1945 and 1949, the Eastern countries converted to communism: some quickly, others less spontaneously. Yugoslavia and Albania in 1945 are the first two Eastern European countries led by communist governments: the first in the hands of Josip Broz, called Tito, the second between those of Enver Hoxha, two heroic resistants having liberated their country from Nazism without the support of the Soviet Red Army. Bulgaria in 1946, Poland and Romania in 1947, after having been led for several months by provisional governments called National Front governments, bringing together anti-Nazi resistance on all sides, constitute the second wave of nations to pass under the influence Communist governments. Czechoslovakia in 1948 surrendered itself to communism after a show of force known as the “coup de Prague”. On February 25, 1948, in fact, after the resignation of the National Front government of liberal ministers who judge excessive Communist influence, the President of the Republic, Benes, soon resigning, for lack of being communist, is imposed by the Party. Communist Czechoslovak, author of a show of force through the parade of armed labor militias to spread fear, the formation of a communist government under the orders of Prime Minister Klement Gottwald. Hungary in 1949, also insensitive to the sirens of communism the first years, finally be convinced by the tactics of salami. According to Matyas Rakosi, leader of the Hungarian Communist Party, and the inventor of the term, the salami’s tactic is to divide the political opponents “slice by slice” and then cut them out of politics “one by one” until that there is not one left. As a result, the Hungarian Communist Party, after having used threats against its most distant political opponents (liberals), offers its closest political allies (socialists) no choice but to dissolve their political party in order to to join the Communist Party, which became the only legal party at the same time as the only ruler of the country. Germany, finally, in 1949, is the last country of Eastern Europe passed to communism. As a result of the blockade of West Berlin and the division of Germany into two countries, the birth of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) allows the German Communist Party to seize power and entrust its direction to its most High Representative, Wilhelm Pieck. The USSR, on the other hand, is considered by all these popular democracies as the “big brother” to whom we obey and from whom we receive our orders.
Following World War II, tensions rose between the Western allies and the Soviet Union. The Soviets set up communist governments in Eastern Europe and cut off access to West Berlin. In response, the Western allies launched the Berlin Airlift to supply West Berlin by air. Over two years, the airlift delivered over 2 million tons of supplies until the Soviets lifted the blockade. The blockade increased tensions and led to the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, cementing Europe's division between the communist East and capitalist West during the Cold War.
The document provides background information on the peace treaties that resulted from World War 1, known as the Versailles Settlement. It focuses on introducing the key figures and motivations of the "Big Three" nations - France, the United States, and Britain - that dominated the peace negotiations. France sought a harsh peace for security reasons due to Germany invading twice. The US advocated for Woodrow Wilson's idealistic 14 Points. Britain under Lloyd George initially wanted punishment but realized complete destruction of Germany was not in its interests long term.
A comprehensive explanation of the Tehran Conference 1943, suitable for A2 students in History, containing: leaders, peace conferences Second World War, other conferences, the outcome, conference decisions, Operation Overlord, concessions for the Soviet Union, plans for the formation of the United Nations, the assassination plot.
The Korean War began in 1950 when North Korean troops invaded South Korea, crossing the 38th parallel border between the two countries. In response, United Nations forces led by the United States launched a counterattack and pushed the North Korean army back above the 38th parallel. However, Chinese troops then entered the war on the side of North Korea and drove UN forces back south. Fighting continued back and forth across the parallel until an armistice was signed in 1953, leaving Korea still divided along the 38th parallel between the communist North and non-communist South. Over 10 million people died during the three-year Korean War.
Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936 to limit communist influence and target the Soviet Union. Italy joined in 1937, forming the Axis Alliance between the three countries. The treaties were sought by Hitler who was publicly against Bolshevism and interested in Japan's successes against China. They allowed Hitler and Mussolini to portray themselves as defending Western values against the Soviet Union. However, Japan renounced the pact in 1939 after the German-Soviet nonaggression pact, though later rejoined in 1940 through the Tripartite Pact.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE HISTORY: GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATYGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE HISTORY: GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATY. It contains: some people said the treaty was fair, some people said the treaty was too harsh, negative reactions, Germany hated the treaty, problems were building for the future, German outrage, German reaction, Germans hated the treaty, reparations and army, loss of territory.
Germany annexed Austria in 1938 in a political union known as the "Anschluss". Austria was experiencing economic crisis after World War 1 and many Austrians supported union with Germany. In March 1938, Germany invaded Austria and controlled a plebiscite that showed 99.7% approval of the Anschluss. Britain and France did not oppose the invasion due to their own domestic political issues. The Catholic Church denounced the Nazis but Austria was now under German control.
02. SOVIET CONTROL OF EASTERN EUROPE: Soviet takeover of the regionGeorge Dumitrache
In the aftermath of the Second World War, Eastern Europe, along with Western Europe, with the United States, sees in the USSR, which liberated it from Nazism, its savior. For this reason, the USSR, which enjoys immense prestige with the countries of Eastern Europe, as the United States with the countries of Western Europe, is a model and guide to follow and imitate. But while in the United States the model is capitalism, in the USSR the model is communism. That is why, between 1945 and 1949, the Eastern countries converted to communism: some quickly, others less spontaneously. Yugoslavia and Albania in 1945 are the first two Eastern European countries led by communist governments: the first in the hands of Josip Broz, called Tito, the second between those of Enver Hoxha, two heroic resistants having liberated their country from Nazism without the support of the Soviet Red Army. Bulgaria in 1946, Poland and Romania in 1947, after having been led for several months by provisional governments called National Front governments, bringing together anti-Nazi resistance on all sides, constitute the second wave of nations to pass under the influence Communist governments. Czechoslovakia in 1948 surrendered itself to communism after a show of force known as the “coup de Prague”. On February 25, 1948, in fact, after the resignation of the National Front government of liberal ministers who judge excessive Communist influence, the President of the Republic, Benes, soon resigning, for lack of being communist, is imposed by the Party. Communist Czechoslovak, author of a show of force through the parade of armed labor militias to spread fear, the formation of a communist government under the orders of Prime Minister Klement Gottwald. Hungary in 1949, also insensitive to the sirens of communism the first years, finally be convinced by the tactics of salami. According to Matyas Rakosi, leader of the Hungarian Communist Party, and the inventor of the term, the salami’s tactic is to divide the political opponents “slice by slice” and then cut them out of politics “one by one” until that there is not one left. As a result, the Hungarian Communist Party, after having used threats against its most distant political opponents (liberals), offers its closest political allies (socialists) no choice but to dissolve their political party in order to to join the Communist Party, which became the only legal party at the same time as the only ruler of the country. Germany, finally, in 1949, is the last country of Eastern Europe passed to communism. As a result of the blockade of West Berlin and the division of Germany into two countries, the birth of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) allows the German Communist Party to seize power and entrust its direction to its most High Representative, Wilhelm Pieck. The USSR, on the other hand, is considered by all these popular democracies as the “big brother” to whom we obey and from whom we receive our orders.
Following World War II, tensions rose between the Western allies and the Soviet Union. The Soviets set up communist governments in Eastern Europe and cut off access to West Berlin. In response, the Western allies launched the Berlin Airlift to supply West Berlin by air. Over two years, the airlift delivered over 2 million tons of supplies until the Soviets lifted the blockade. The blockade increased tensions and led to the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, cementing Europe's division between the communist East and capitalist West during the Cold War.
The goals of Nazi foreign policy were to rebuild Germany's military, extend German territory, and form alliances with other countries. Hitler took steps to rearm Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, including establishing the Luftwaffe air force and conscripting soldiers. He also sought to expand Germany's borders by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936, annexing Austria in 1938, and taking the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in 1938. Hitler built connections with other fascist leaders like Mussolini of Italy and signed non-aggression pacts, though he surprisingly agreed to a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939 as well.
The document summarizes the key causes and events leading up to World War 1. Militarism and nationalism in European powers increased tensions, as did imperial and ethnic disputes in the Balkans. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand set off a chain reaction of diplomatic failures and military mobilizations that escalated into a continental war by August 1914. Major powers formed the Allied and Central Power alliances and fought brutal trench warfare for four years until Germany's defeat in November 1918. Over 10 million soldiers and civilians lost their lives making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: POTSDAM CONFERENCE. THE ISSUES AND HOW THEY WERE RESOLV...George Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: POTSDAM CONFERENCE. THE ISSUES AND HOW THEY WERE RESOLVED. THE PERSONALITIES OF THE PEACEMAKERS. Content: Potsdam location, participants: leaders and countries, post Yalta discussions, how to handle Germany, American position, agreements, changes in German society, Potsdam declaration, the atomic bomb, challenging negotiation, Churchill, Atlee, Truman and Stalin.
The document discusses key events and developments that characterized the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union, including the Truman Doctrine that aimed to limit the spread of communism through economic aid, the Marshall Plan that rebuilt Western Europe, the formation of opposing military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact, tensions over the occupations of Eastern Europe and Berlin at the end of WWII, the impact of communist takeovers in China and Korea, and how both superpowers sought to spread their political and economic influence globally during this era of hostility without direct military conflict.
The document lists and briefly describes the major causes of World War 2, including the Treaty of Versailles, rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, rise of Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany, the worldwide Great Depression, Japanese expansionism, anti-communism, appeasement of Hitler, militarism, nationalism, and American isolationism in the 1930s. It also provides maps showing the key theaters of war and lists Hitler's Axis partners versus the Allied powers in WWII.
The document outlines several key causes that led to the start of World War 2 in Europe, including the harsh Treaty of Versailles that left Germany humiliated after WWI. This led to the rise of fascism under Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany. Hitler aggressively expanded German territory by remilitarizing the Rhineland and annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia through appeasement by Britain and France. The Great Depression created economic hardship and unstable governments. Japan also increasingly expanded its empire into China. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the start of World War 2.
The document summarizes some of the major campaigns of World War 2 in Europe. It describes Germany's early success using blitzkrieg tactics to quickly conquer multiple countries. It then discusses the Allied evacuation of Dunkirk which allowed over 300,000 troops to escape capture. Next, it outlines the Battle of Britain where the RAF defended Britain from German air attacks. It also summarizes Operation Barbarossa where Germany broke its pact with the Soviet Union to launch a massive invasion, reaching as far as Stalingrad before being stopped by winter.
In June 1934, Hitler ordered the massacre known as the Night of the Long Knives in which hundreds of Nazis were killed to consolidate his power. Some members of the Nazi Party and the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (SA) led by Ernst Rohm opposed Hitler's consolidation of power and wanted a socialist revolution. Hitler had the SA leadership, including Rohm, arrested and killed to remove this threat. This allowed Hitler to eliminate internal opposition and solidify his control over the Nazi Party and Germany.
Ms Diyana guided us through the policy of appeasement, explaining why - and how - Britain and France gave in so easily to Hitler's demands. Instead of deterring him, this only made him bolder and resulted in the eventual outbreak of WWII.
World War 2 was the bloodiest conflict in history. It was caused by four main factors: 1) The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles signed after WWI upset Germany. 2) Hitler's secret rearmament of Germany in violation of the treaty. 3) The failure of the appeasement policy of Britain and France to curb German aggression. 4) The inability of the League of Nations to effectively address conflicts due to lacking enforcement powers and slow decision making.
Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 by pressuring the Austrian Chancellor to resign and holding a referendum that overwhelmingly supported unification. As the leader of Germany, where many Austrians considered themselves German, Hitler capitalized on this sentiment and Austria's forbidden union with Germany under the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France protested this expansion of German territory but did not act, continuing their appeasement policy as Hitler grew increasingly bold.
The document discusses the origins and escalation of tensions during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union. It provides background on the Yalta and Potsdam conferences where the Allied powers discussed post-war plans. At these meetings, disagreements started to emerge between the US and USSR over the occupation and control of Eastern Europe. The document also describes how Stalin solidified communist control over Eastern European countries and established what Winston Churchill called the "Iron Curtain." This increased tensions further and led to responses from the US like the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to contain the spread of communism. The Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union in 1948, and the Western Allied Berlin Airlift in response, marked a major escal
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE/AS HISTORY: THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS 1919-1939George Dumitrache
The document discusses the history of the League of Nations from 1919 to 1939. It was created after World War 1 to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. However, the League faced challenges like the US refusing to join and some nations prioritizing their own interests over the League. While the League had some successes in resolving border disputes in the 1920s, it ultimately failed to stop aggression in the 1930s as tensions rose in Europe.
The document provides an overview of World War II, including key players and major events. Some of the major players in the Axis powers were Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Hideki Tojo of Japan. Key Allied powers included Winston Churchill of Britain, Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman of the United States, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union. Major events of the war included Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, marking the official start of World War II, as well as Germany's defeat at Stalingrad in 1942 and the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944. The war ended in 1945 following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan's surrender.
The document describes key events of the Korean War and its role in escalating tensions of the Cold War. After World War 2, Korea was divided into North and South, each with separate governments backed by the USSR and USA respectively. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea in an attempt to reunify the country under Communist rule. The United Nations (led by the USA) sent troops to South Korea to stop the invasion and prevent further spread of Communism. Fighting continued for three years until an armistice in 1953 divided Korea along the original border at the 38th Parallel, though a peace treaty was never signed. The Korean War exacerbated tensions between the USA and USSR and demonstrated the US's willingness to intervene militarily
World War 1 was caused by long-term tensions between European nations such as nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and the alliance system. The immediate cause was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914. This triggered a series of declarations of war between European powers with secret alliances that led all major European powers to enter the war.
International peace collapsed by 1939 due to the failures of the treaties ending World War 1 and the League of Nations in the 1930s. The treaties imposed harsh terms on Germany, fueling resentment. Germany, Italy, and Japan increasingly remilitarized in violation of treaty terms while Britain and France failed to respond effectively through the League. Hitler pursued aggressive foreign policies including remilitarization of the Rhineland, annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia, and signing a pact with the Soviet Union. Britain and France pursued a failed policy of appeasement until invading German troops ignited World War 2 with the invasion of Poland in 1939.
The Second World War began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland. Germany's aims were to expand its territory and dominate Europe. Other Axis powers like Italy and Japan also invaded neighboring countries. By 1940, the Axis occupied much of Europe through blitzkrieg tactics. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union and the US entered the war after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. From 1942-1943, the Allies began winning battles in Africa and Russia. D-Day in 1944 opened a second front as the Allies advanced on Germany from both east and west. Berlin fell to the Soviets in 1945, and Germany surrendered. The war ended after the US dropped atomic bombs on Japan, prompting its surrender.
While the USSR greatly outproduced Germany in many areas, their war industry was vulnerable and over half of major industries fell under German control by November 1941. The USSR began relocating industries eastward from June 1941 onward, but production remained low at only 68% of pre-war levels by 1942 due to shortages of skilled labor and poor working conditions. However, the relocation of Soviet industry was praised by some as one of the largest and most successful operations in history, helping to defeat Germany.
Stalin enforced collectivization in the 1930s to transform traditional agriculture and reduce the power of wealthy landowners known as kulaks. This involved forcing peasants to join large collective farms, causing widespread resistance as peasants destroyed their farms and killed livestock. Collectivization led to famine and millions of deaths, but did modernize and mechanize Soviet agriculture. The Five Year Plans rapidly industrialized Russia through focus on heavy industry and use of forced labor, but living standards declined and later plans faced challenges meeting production goals due to shortages and war. Overall, the Russian people suffered enormous hardships and loss of life from Stalin's policies of forced collectivization and rapid industrialization.
The goals of Nazi foreign policy were to rebuild Germany's military, extend German territory, and form alliances with other countries. Hitler took steps to rearm Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, including establishing the Luftwaffe air force and conscripting soldiers. He also sought to expand Germany's borders by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936, annexing Austria in 1938, and taking the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in 1938. Hitler built connections with other fascist leaders like Mussolini of Italy and signed non-aggression pacts, though he surprisingly agreed to a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939 as well.
The document summarizes the key causes and events leading up to World War 1. Militarism and nationalism in European powers increased tensions, as did imperial and ethnic disputes in the Balkans. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand set off a chain reaction of diplomatic failures and military mobilizations that escalated into a continental war by August 1914. Major powers formed the Allied and Central Power alliances and fought brutal trench warfare for four years until Germany's defeat in November 1918. Over 10 million soldiers and civilians lost their lives making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: POTSDAM CONFERENCE. THE ISSUES AND HOW THEY WERE RESOLV...George Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: POTSDAM CONFERENCE. THE ISSUES AND HOW THEY WERE RESOLVED. THE PERSONALITIES OF THE PEACEMAKERS. Content: Potsdam location, participants: leaders and countries, post Yalta discussions, how to handle Germany, American position, agreements, changes in German society, Potsdam declaration, the atomic bomb, challenging negotiation, Churchill, Atlee, Truman and Stalin.
The document discusses key events and developments that characterized the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union, including the Truman Doctrine that aimed to limit the spread of communism through economic aid, the Marshall Plan that rebuilt Western Europe, the formation of opposing military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact, tensions over the occupations of Eastern Europe and Berlin at the end of WWII, the impact of communist takeovers in China and Korea, and how both superpowers sought to spread their political and economic influence globally during this era of hostility without direct military conflict.
The document lists and briefly describes the major causes of World War 2, including the Treaty of Versailles, rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, rise of Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany, the worldwide Great Depression, Japanese expansionism, anti-communism, appeasement of Hitler, militarism, nationalism, and American isolationism in the 1930s. It also provides maps showing the key theaters of war and lists Hitler's Axis partners versus the Allied powers in WWII.
The document outlines several key causes that led to the start of World War 2 in Europe, including the harsh Treaty of Versailles that left Germany humiliated after WWI. This led to the rise of fascism under Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany. Hitler aggressively expanded German territory by remilitarizing the Rhineland and annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia through appeasement by Britain and France. The Great Depression created economic hardship and unstable governments. Japan also increasingly expanded its empire into China. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the start of World War 2.
The document summarizes some of the major campaigns of World War 2 in Europe. It describes Germany's early success using blitzkrieg tactics to quickly conquer multiple countries. It then discusses the Allied evacuation of Dunkirk which allowed over 300,000 troops to escape capture. Next, it outlines the Battle of Britain where the RAF defended Britain from German air attacks. It also summarizes Operation Barbarossa where Germany broke its pact with the Soviet Union to launch a massive invasion, reaching as far as Stalingrad before being stopped by winter.
In June 1934, Hitler ordered the massacre known as the Night of the Long Knives in which hundreds of Nazis were killed to consolidate his power. Some members of the Nazi Party and the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (SA) led by Ernst Rohm opposed Hitler's consolidation of power and wanted a socialist revolution. Hitler had the SA leadership, including Rohm, arrested and killed to remove this threat. This allowed Hitler to eliminate internal opposition and solidify his control over the Nazi Party and Germany.
Ms Diyana guided us through the policy of appeasement, explaining why - and how - Britain and France gave in so easily to Hitler's demands. Instead of deterring him, this only made him bolder and resulted in the eventual outbreak of WWII.
World War 2 was the bloodiest conflict in history. It was caused by four main factors: 1) The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles signed after WWI upset Germany. 2) Hitler's secret rearmament of Germany in violation of the treaty. 3) The failure of the appeasement policy of Britain and France to curb German aggression. 4) The inability of the League of Nations to effectively address conflicts due to lacking enforcement powers and slow decision making.
Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 by pressuring the Austrian Chancellor to resign and holding a referendum that overwhelmingly supported unification. As the leader of Germany, where many Austrians considered themselves German, Hitler capitalized on this sentiment and Austria's forbidden union with Germany under the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France protested this expansion of German territory but did not act, continuing their appeasement policy as Hitler grew increasingly bold.
The document discusses the origins and escalation of tensions during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union. It provides background on the Yalta and Potsdam conferences where the Allied powers discussed post-war plans. At these meetings, disagreements started to emerge between the US and USSR over the occupation and control of Eastern Europe. The document also describes how Stalin solidified communist control over Eastern European countries and established what Winston Churchill called the "Iron Curtain." This increased tensions further and led to responses from the US like the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to contain the spread of communism. The Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union in 1948, and the Western Allied Berlin Airlift in response, marked a major escal
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE/AS HISTORY: THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS 1919-1939George Dumitrache
The document discusses the history of the League of Nations from 1919 to 1939. It was created after World War 1 to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. However, the League faced challenges like the US refusing to join and some nations prioritizing their own interests over the League. While the League had some successes in resolving border disputes in the 1920s, it ultimately failed to stop aggression in the 1930s as tensions rose in Europe.
The document provides an overview of World War II, including key players and major events. Some of the major players in the Axis powers were Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Hideki Tojo of Japan. Key Allied powers included Winston Churchill of Britain, Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman of the United States, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union. Major events of the war included Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, marking the official start of World War II, as well as Germany's defeat at Stalingrad in 1942 and the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944. The war ended in 1945 following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan's surrender.
The document describes key events of the Korean War and its role in escalating tensions of the Cold War. After World War 2, Korea was divided into North and South, each with separate governments backed by the USSR and USA respectively. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea in an attempt to reunify the country under Communist rule. The United Nations (led by the USA) sent troops to South Korea to stop the invasion and prevent further spread of Communism. Fighting continued for three years until an armistice in 1953 divided Korea along the original border at the 38th Parallel, though a peace treaty was never signed. The Korean War exacerbated tensions between the USA and USSR and demonstrated the US's willingness to intervene militarily
World War 1 was caused by long-term tensions between European nations such as nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and the alliance system. The immediate cause was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914. This triggered a series of declarations of war between European powers with secret alliances that led all major European powers to enter the war.
International peace collapsed by 1939 due to the failures of the treaties ending World War 1 and the League of Nations in the 1930s. The treaties imposed harsh terms on Germany, fueling resentment. Germany, Italy, and Japan increasingly remilitarized in violation of treaty terms while Britain and France failed to respond effectively through the League. Hitler pursued aggressive foreign policies including remilitarization of the Rhineland, annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia, and signing a pact with the Soviet Union. Britain and France pursued a failed policy of appeasement until invading German troops ignited World War 2 with the invasion of Poland in 1939.
The Second World War began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland. Germany's aims were to expand its territory and dominate Europe. Other Axis powers like Italy and Japan also invaded neighboring countries. By 1940, the Axis occupied much of Europe through blitzkrieg tactics. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union and the US entered the war after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. From 1942-1943, the Allies began winning battles in Africa and Russia. D-Day in 1944 opened a second front as the Allies advanced on Germany from both east and west. Berlin fell to the Soviets in 1945, and Germany surrendered. The war ended after the US dropped atomic bombs on Japan, prompting its surrender.
While the USSR greatly outproduced Germany in many areas, their war industry was vulnerable and over half of major industries fell under German control by November 1941. The USSR began relocating industries eastward from June 1941 onward, but production remained low at only 68% of pre-war levels by 1942 due to shortages of skilled labor and poor working conditions. However, the relocation of Soviet industry was praised by some as one of the largest and most successful operations in history, helping to defeat Germany.
Stalin enforced collectivization in the 1930s to transform traditional agriculture and reduce the power of wealthy landowners known as kulaks. This involved forcing peasants to join large collective farms, causing widespread resistance as peasants destroyed their farms and killed livestock. Collectivization led to famine and millions of deaths, but did modernize and mechanize Soviet agriculture. The Five Year Plans rapidly industrialized Russia through focus on heavy industry and use of forced labor, but living standards declined and later plans faced challenges meeting production goals due to shortages and war. Overall, the Russian people suffered enormous hardships and loss of life from Stalin's policies of forced collectivization and rapid industrialization.
The document summarizes an empirical study on the economic consequences of the 1933 Soviet famine. It finds that while the rural population recovered, the famine had a persistent negative impact on urbanization that was not fully explained by differential population growth. Specifically:
1) The study uses province-level panel data from 1897-2010 and urban settlement data to analyze the effects of famine severity on long-term population and economic outcomes.
2) It finds that more severe famine provinces had lower total and urban population growth post-famine, even controlling for other factors, suggesting the famine disrupted long-term urban development.
3) The rural population and economy (grain production, land use, livestock) recovered but urbanization was
Here are some key points about Russification under the Tsars:
- Russification refers to policies aimed at assimilating non-Russian peoples of the Russian Empire into the Russian culture and identity.
- It involved imposing the Russian language and Orthodox Christianity on minority groups like Poles, Ukrainians, Finns and Baltic peoples.
- The Tsars pursued Russification to strengthen central control and unity in their vast, multi-ethnic empire. They wanted to prevent separatist nationalism on the empire's borders.
- Russification intensified under Alexander III in the 1880s after the assassination of Alexander II by revolutionaries. Alexander III was a staunch nationalist who distrusted non-Russian influences.
- Pol
The document provides a timeline of key events in USSR history from 1861 to 1991, including the end of serfdom, revolutions, civil war, formation of the Soviet Union, World Wars, Stalin's regime and industrialization policies, Khrushchev and Brezhnev's regimes, Gorbachev's perestroika reforms, and the collapse of the Soviet Union. It also discusses Stalin's first five-year plans and policies of rapid industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and repression through purges and the Gulag system.
War Communism was an economic policy implemented in Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1921 during the Russian Civil War. It involved the nationalization of industry, requisitioning of agricultural surplus, and a state monopoly on distribution. This aimed to supply the Red Army and bolster socialism. However, it severely damaged the economy through hyperinflation, widespread famine, and unrest. Peasants withheld food and workers fled cities. The Kronstadt rebellion prompted the New Economic Policy, signaling War Communism's failure to bring stability and feed the population.
A Revisionist History Of Stalinist Russia.PdfSabrina Green
This document presents a revisionist perspective on Stalin's leadership of the Soviet Union that aims to counter the "capitalist narrative" that portrays him as a tyrannical dictator. It argues that Stalin's industrialization policies led to significant economic growth and improved living standards, the secret police mainly targeted actual counterrevolutionaries, and the Gulag system was more progressive than Western prisons. It acknowledges mistakes were made but claims the costs of progress have been exaggerated by capitalists seeking to undermine communism. Overall, it aims to portray Stalin in a more positive light as a leader who industrialized Russia and improved conditions for workers and peasants despite facing immense challenges.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: STALIN ECONOMIC AIMS - COLLECTIVISATION AND INDUSTRIALI...George Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: STALIN ECONOMIC AIMS - COLLECTIVISATION AND INDUSTRIALISATION. Contains: collectivisation, industrialisation, against the kulaks, the kolkhoz, impact and results of collectivisation, targets for workers, Stakhanovism, the second plan, the third plan.
The Russian Revolution was caused by widespread discontent with the autocratic rule of Czar Nicholas II and the impact of World War I. Years of war led to food shortages, high inflation, and heavy Russian losses which weakened the monarchy. In March 1917, mass strikes and protests in Petrograd sparked the overthrow of the Czar and establishment of a provisional government. However, the new government struggled to address people's demands for peace, land, and bread. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power in the October Revolution and established the Soviet Union.
His 102 chapter 25 turmoil between the warsdcyw1112
The document summarizes the rise of authoritarian dictatorships in Europe following World War 1. It describes the Russian Civil War and the establishment of Lenin and Stalin's communist rule in the Soviet Union. It also discusses the rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini and the failure of democracy in Germany, which paved the way for Hitler and the Nazis to rise to power. Key events included the Russian Civil War, Stalin's collectivization policies, the Great Terror, Mussolini's march on Rome, and Hitler being appointed chancellor of Germany in 1933.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 involved two revolutions that dismantled Imperial Russia and led to the rise of the Soviet Union. The February Revolution replaced Tsar Nicholas II with a provisional government, while the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power led by Vladimir Lenin. This sparked years of civil war as the Bolsheviks consolidated control and faced opposition from anti-communist White forces. Ultimately the Bolsheviks were victorious, executing the former Tsar and his family, establishing the world's first communist state. However their goal of sparking global socialist revolution through communism was only partially realized.
in this PPT you can see history/civil war etc.. you can do your project by watching this ppt. All information about Russian Revolution you can get in this ppt. so guys watch/Like/Comment & Share!
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The document summarizes the economic and political factors that led to the decline and collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It discusses how the Soviet economy stagnated in the 1970s due to overuse of resources and inefficiencies. It also examines the heavy financial toll of the Soviet war in Afghanistan throughout the 1980s. Mikhail Gorbachev attempted reforms like perestroika and glasnost to restructure the economy and political system, but this led to further economic decline and political polarization. Nationalist movements also emerged in Eastern Europe which contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
1HIST The Economic Impact of Civil WarRichmond.docxaulasnilda
1
HIST
The Economic Impact of Civil War
Richmond, VA, 1865.
I The Effects of the War
· Civil War’s economic impact has been a point of much debate. Historians have traditionally seen the war as a major economic “watershed,” which served as a “take-off point” for America’s final transformation from an agricultural to an industrial nation. Later, a new group of historians argued that Civil War actually slowed down the economic growth and America’s transformation.
· So, again: one group says Civil War created a surge in economic growth and industrialization, while the other group says the opposite, arguing that Civil War interrupted long term economic trends and actually impeded industrialization.
· So, who is right? Let’s study both schools of thought, starting with the people who argued for Civil War’s economic boost-effect:
1. Beard-Hacker thesis
· Historians Charles and Mary Beard, in their Rise of American Civilization (1927), called Civil War “the Second American Revolution,” a “social war” which rearranged “classes and...the accumulation and distribution of wealth.” It was “a social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.”
· According to the Beards, war marked the dividing line between agricultural and industrial eras in American history. In essence, Civil War was the struggle of classes and economic systems; it was a sectional dispute only by the “accidents of climate, soil, and geography.”
· The Beards were later supported and supplemented by Louis Hacker, who in his book Triumph of American Capitalism (1940), said that Civil War gave the industrial-capitalist class “the instrumentalities of political power,” which the capitalists used to pass legislation, which enabled “the triumph of American capitalism.”
· Proof for Beard-Hacker include largely the war’s short-term and direct effects, such as:
a) Demand for war materials, such as guns other weapons, uniforms, saddles, wagons, et cetera.
b) The need to mechanize grows, as factories have hard time finding man power (draft), while the demand for war materials simultaneously grows substantially.
c) The war triggers a need to use labor force more efficiently: women, free African Americans and immigrants move into the mines, fields, and factories.
d) Income gets redistributed into the hands of rising capitalist class. During the war, U.S. suffered from substantial inflation (70 percent between 1860-1864), as the government largely funded the war with deficit spending and printing more money. This transferred income from workers to those who could raise prices rapidly: entrepreneurs, capitalists, manufacturers, etc. This gives them a larger slice of the pie and helped to finance the postwar economic expansion. Many of the later industrial giants (Andrew Carnegie, Philip Armour, Clement Studebaker, John D. Rockefeller, etc.) partook in the industrial a ...
The February Revolution of 1917 in Russia was caused by widespread dissatisfaction with World War I and Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic rule. Major factors included heavy losses and poor conditions for Russian soldiers, food and fuel shortages exacerbated by harsh winter weather, and growing strikes and protests. On International Women's Day, demonstrations in Petrograd swelled to over 90,000 protesters demanding bread and an end to the war. The Tsar ordered military suppression but the soldiers mutinied, depriving the Tsar of power. Nicholas abdicated on March 2, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule and beginning Russia's transition to a provisional democratic government.
World War 1 had devastating impacts on Russia's social, political, and economic structure:
1) Russia's war effort was plagued by early military defeats, massive troop and resource losses, and poor leadership which undermined faith in the Tsar and the monarchy.
2) The war effort severely damaged Russia's economy through massive spending, inflation, transportation breakdowns, and food shortages in cities which increased unrest.
3) By 1917, over 1.7 million Russian soldiers had been killed and millions more wounded or captured, while at home living standards declined sharply due to inflation, shortages, and the strain of supporting the war, further fueling revolutionary sentiment.
An overview, usuing mainly images, of who the alliance systems developed and changed over ww2. It also outlines some key issues that contributed to the start of the Cold War.
World War 1 had devastating impacts on Russia's social, political, and economic structure:
1) Military defeats weakened the Tsar's authority and led to massive casualties totaling over 1.7 million troops killed and 2.5 million captured by 1917.
2) The war effort strained Russia's economy through high spending, inflation, and transportation issues that caused food shortages in cities.
3) Social unrest grew as workers faced declining living standards from inflation, shortages, and loss of life. Over 25% of soldiers went to the front unarmed by 1915.
The document is a slideshow presentation on the Great Depression and Russian Revolutions given by Professor Chee. It covers several key topics:
- The economic factors that led to the stock market crash and worldwide Great Depression in the late 1920s and 1930s. This impacted regimes in the US, Germany and Soviet Union.
- The rise of fascism in Italy and Germany in the 1920s-1930s under Mussolini and Hitler, as well as their racist nationalist policies and consolidation of power.
- The devastating impact of World War 1 and the Crimean War on Russia, which led to the revolutions of 1905, February 1917, and October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution led by Lenin.
- The
This document provides an overview of World Wars 1 and 2 in Europe, covering several key points:
1. It describes the military preparedness and conscription systems that Germany had in place by 1914 for World War 1.
2. It summarizes some of the major battles and toll of World War 1 in Europe, including over 1 million casualties in the Battle of the Somme with no territorial gains.
3. It analyzes the role of economic strengths in determining the outcome of World War 1, highlighting differences between Germany, the U.S., Russia, Britain and its allies.
4. It discusses the aftermath of World War 1, including the Treaty of Versailles, German anger over reparations,
Similar to CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE PRICE OF WAR - IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2 ON THE SOVIET UNION (20)
07. DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - REICHSTAG FIRE SOURCESGeorge Dumitrache
07. DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - REICHSTAG FIRE
On February 27, 1933, the German parliament (Reichstag) building burned down. The Nazi leadership and its coalition partners used the fire to claim that Communists were planning a violent uprising. They claimed that emergency legislation was needed to prevent this. The resulting act, commonly known as the Reichstag Fire Decree, abolished a number of constitutional protections and paved the way for Nazi dictatorship.
05. DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - HITLER CONSOLIDATING POWER 1933-34.PPTXGeorge Dumitrache
05. DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - HITLER CONSOLIDATING POWER 1933-34.PPTX
Following Hitler’s appointment as chancellor the Nazis were finally in a position of power.
However, this power was limited, as the Nazis were just one party in a three party coalition government, under President Hindenburg.
This topic will explore how the Nazis managed to eliminate their opposition and consolidate ultimate power over Germany, whilst maintaining an illusion of democracy.
It will first explore this topic in chronological order, from the Reichstag Fire through to the death of President Hindenburg, and then explore it thematically in the last section. On the 31 January 1933, Hitler, conscious of his lack of a majority in the Reichstag, immediately called for new elections to try and strengthen his position. The Nazis aimed to increase their share of the vote so that they would have a majority in the Reichstag. This would allow them to rule unopposed and unhindered by coalition governments.
Over the next two months, they launched themselves into an intense election campaign.
On 27 February 1933, as the campaign moved into its final, frantic days, the Reichstag, the German Parliament building, was set on fire and burnt down. An atmosphere of panic and terror followed the event.
This continued when a young Dutch communist, Van der Lubbe was arrested for the crime.
The Nazi Party used the atmosphere of panic to their advantage, encouraging anti-communism. Göring declared that the communists had planned a national uprising to overthrow the Weimar Republic. This hysteria helped to turn the public against the communists, one of the Nazis main opponents, and 4000 people were imprisoned.
The day after the fire, Hindenburg signed the Emergency Decree for the Protection of the German People. On the 28 February 1933, President Hindenburg signed the Emergency Decree for the Protection of the German People. This decree suspended the democratic aspects of the Weimar Republic and declared a state of emergency.
This decree gave the Nazis a legal basis for the persecution and oppression of any opponents, who were be framed as traitors to the republic. People could be imprisoned for any or no reason.
The decree also removed basic personal freedoms, such as the freedom of speech, the right to own property, and the right to trial before imprisonment.
Through these aspects the Nazis suppressed any opposition to their power, and were able to start the road from democracy to a dictatorship. The atmosphere of uncertainty following the Reichstag Fire secured many voters for the Nazi party.
The SA also ran a violent campaign of terror against any and all opponents of the Nazi regime. Many were terrified of voting of at all, and many turned to voting for the Nazi Party out of fear for their own safety. The elections were neither free or fair.
On the 5 March 1933, the elections took place, with an extremely high turnout of 89%.
The Nazis secured 43.9% of the vote.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - 04. HITLER BECOMING CHANCELLOR 1933George Dumitrache
Hitler was not immediately appointed chancellor after the success of the July 1932 elections, despite being leader of the largest party in the Reichstag. It took the economic and political instability (with two more chancellors failing to stabilise the situation) to worsen, and the support of the conservative elite, to convince Hindenburg to appoint Hitler.
Hitler was sworn in as the chancellor of Germany on the 30 January 1933. The Nazis were now in power.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - 03. NAZI'S LITTLE SUCCESSGeorge Dumitrache
The document discusses the early success of the Nazi party in Germany. It notes that while the party made progress in organization and membership in its early years after 1919, it had little impact in elections initially. The Nazis received only 6.5% of the vote in their first national election in 1924. Later elections in 1928 saw their support decline further to just 2.6% as the German economy and political situation stabilized under Stresemann. While the Nazis appealed to specific groups frustrated with the Weimar Republic, they remained a small party with less than 30,000 members by 1925.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: NAZI REGIME - 02. NAZI PARTY IDEOLOGY IN 1920George Dumitrache
The document provides background information on the origins and early development of the Nazi party in Germany during the 1920s. It describes how the party began as the German Workers' Party led by Anton Drexler before Hitler joined in 1919 and became the leader in 1921. It also outlines some of the key aspects of the Nazi party platform outlined in the 25-point program, including nationalism, anti-Semitism, and a desire for more territory. Finally, it discusses Hitler's failed Munich Putsch coup attempt in 1923 and how he wrote Mein Kampf while in prison.
1) Post-war instability and economic crisis weakened established political systems in countries like Germany and Italy. 2) A sense of nationalism was used by fascist leaders to promote unity and scapegoat others for the nation's problems. 3) Charismatic leaders like Hitler and Mussolini were able to gain followers by promoting fascism as an alternative to communism and liberal democracy.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 10. THE FALL OF WEIMAR 1930-1933George Dumitrache
The document provides background information on the rise of the Nazi party in Germany between 1930-1933. It discusses how Germany's economic dependence on American loans led to the collapse of German industry following the 1929 Wall Street crash. This caused widespread unemployment, with over 6 million people jobless by 1932. As economic conditions deteriorated, support grew for the Nazis as they promised strong leadership and blamed Jews and communists for Germany's problems. The Nazis increased their Reichstag seats in elections in 1933 after Hitler became Chancellor, and he then used emergency powers to crush opposition and establish a one-party Nazi state in Germany.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 09. TABLES AND CARTOONSGeorge Dumitrache
The document discusses the Weimar Republic in Germany through tables and cartoons as part of a Cambridge IGCSE depth study on Germany. It provides information on the political and economic challenges faced by the Weimar Republic between 1919-1933 through statistical tables and illustrations. The depth study uses multiple visual elements to summarize key events and issues like inflation, unemployment, and the rise of extremism during this period of German history.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 08. NAZIS IN THE WILDERNESSGeorge Dumitrache
The “Lean Years” (also called the "wilderness" years) of Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany refer to the period between 1924 and 1928 when the Nazi party did not have high levels of support and still suffered from humiliation over the Munich Putsch. Why where these years “lean”?
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 07. STRESEMMAN ERA 1924-1929George Dumitrache
Gustav Stresemann was appointed Chancellor of Germany in 1923 during the Weimar Republic period. As Chancellor and later as Foreign Minister, he implemented policies that helped stabilize Germany's economy and improve its international standing. This included establishing a new currency to end hyperinflation, crushing communist uprisings, and pursuing diplomatic agreements like the Locarno Pact to normalize Germany's relations with other European powers. However, the economic and political stability of the Weimar Republic remained fragile.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 06. THE BEER HALL PUTSCH 1923George Dumitrache
The Beer Hall Putsch, also known as the Munich Putsch, was a failed coup d'état by Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders in Munich, Bavaria, on 8–9 November 1923, during the Weimar Republic. Approximately two thousand Nazis marched on the Feldherrnhalle, in the city centre, but were confronted by a police cordon, which resulted in the deaths of 16 Nazi Party members and four police officers. Hitler escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, he was arrested and charged with treason. The putsch brought Hitler to the attention of the German nation for the first time and generated front-page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicised and gave him a platform to express his nationalist sentiments to the nation. Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison, where he dictated Mein Kampf to fellow prisoners Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess. On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released. Once released, Hitler redirected his focus towards obtaining power through legal means rather than by revolution or force, and accordingly changed his tactics, further developing Nazi propaganda.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 05. HYPERINFLATIONGeorge Dumitrache
Hyperinflation affected the German Papiermark, the currency of the Weimar Republic, between 1921 and 1923, primarily in 1923. It caused considerable internal political instability in the country, the occupation of the Ruhr by France and Belgium, and misery for the general populace.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 03. THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES IMPACT ON...George Dumitrache
Thanks to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany's ability to produce revenue-generating coal and iron ore decreased. As war debts and reparations drained its coffers, the German government was unable to pay its debts. Some of the former World War I Allies didn't buy Germany's claim that it couldn't afford to pay.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 02. THE NOVEMBER REVOLUTION 1918George Dumitrache
The German Revolution or November Revolution was a civil conflict in the German Empire at the end of the First World War that resulted in the replacement of the German federal constitutional monarchy with a democratic parliamentary republic that later became known as the Weimar Republic. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the adoption of the Weimar Constitution in August 1919. Among the factors leading to the revolution were the extreme burdens suffered by the German population during the four years of war, the economic and psychological impacts of the German Empire's defeat by the Allies, and growing social tensions between the general population and the aristocratic and bourgeois elite.
DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: WEIMAR REPUBLIC - 01. THE EFFECT OF WW1 ON GERMANYGeorge Dumitrache
The document summarizes the impact of World War 1 on Germany. It discusses how Germany initially found success on the Eastern Front and made advances on the Western Front in 1918 but was eventually overwhelmed as the US joined the war effort. Germany experienced political instability, economic devastation from blockades, widespread hunger and disease, and psychological trauma from defeat. The German people bitterly blamed leaders for the defeat, sowing seeds for the rise of the Nazis in the unstable Weimar Republic that followed the war.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes.
This cartoon was likely published after the Stresa Pact was signed in early 1935, when Britain and France failed to raise the issue of Abyssinia with Mussolini and were perceived as turning a blind eye to his plans in hopes of keeping Italy as an ally against Germany. The cartoon directly criticizes the British and French policy of appeasing Mussolini, so the purpose was to criticize, not just inform. By criticizing the policy, the hope would be to influence and change the policy by swaying public opinion.
Manchurian Crisis. On September 18, 1931, an explosion destroyed a section of railway track near the city of Mukden. The Japanese, who owned the railway, blamed Chinese nationalists for the incident and used the opportunity to retaliate and invade Manchuria.
05. LEAGUE OF NATIONS - Great Depression and LON.pptxGeorge Dumitrache
GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The Great Depression of 1930-33 meant people turned to extremist dictators such as Hitler and Mussolini, who were keen to invade other countries. This made it hard for the League to maintain peace. The League had some very ambitious plans and ideals – to stop war and make the world a better place.
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CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE PRICE OF WAR - IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2 ON THE SOVIET UNION
1. HISTORY CAMBRIDGE A2
PAPER 3
PRESENTATION 5
COLD WAR
THE PRICE OF WAR
IMPACT OF WORLD WAR TWO
ON THE SOVIET UNION
2. LITTLE SCHOLAR ATTENTION
• The impact of World War II on the Soviet economy has received little
scholarly attention in the West, not because the economic impact was
considered unimportant, but because the period from 1940 to 1953
more than any other in Soviet history is characterized by a lack of
economic data (paucity).
• For over a decade, Nove's Economic History of the USSR (1969) remained
the primary Western source regarding the costs of the Soviet war effort.
3. OPERATION BARBAROSSA
• The Soviet effort in WWII began in June 1941 with the German invasion,
"Operation Barbarossa," and found itself at a disadvantage early on, both
militarily and economically. In spite of vast natural resource reserves, high
quotas of the initial Five-Year Plans required extensive exploitation of
European Russia.
• Within 6 months of the invasion, German forces occupied or isolated
territory which prior to WWII accounted for over 60% of total coal, pig iron,
and aluminum production; nearly 40% of total grain production; and 60% of
total livestock. This area contained 40% of prewar Soviet population, 32%
of the state enterprise labor force, and one-third of the fixed capital assets
of the state enterprise sector (Nove, 1982, p. 271).
4.
5. SOVIET EVACUATION AND ECONOMIC DECLINE
• The speed of the German advance impinged upon Soviet evacuation
efforts, but from July to November 1941, over 6 million people and 1,523
industrial enterprises were removed to eastern regions (Urals, Siberia,
Central Asia), of which 1,360 were large scale enterprises (employing
more than 100-500 people). An additional 150 enterprises were
evacuated from behind the Leningrad and Stalingrad fronts in 1942-43.
• Evacuation, occupation, and conversion to military production caused a
severe decline in economic terms. 1942 marks the turning point of the
Soviet war effort. By the end of that year, the Soviets had regained
occupied areas, and industrial output in eastern regions had increased
over twofold its 1940 level.
6. A German soldiers is giving evacuation instructions to Russian people.
7. SOVIET NATIONAL INCOME
• National income at the end of the war was still some 20% below its prewar
level. Agricultural production did not regain its prewar level until after WWII
ended as Nove (chapter 4) and Fitzpatrick (chapter 7) indicate in their
detailed analyses of WWII's impact on the agricultural sector.
8. 1. WW2 IMPACT ON SOVIET INDUSTRY
• WWII caused both short and long-term changes in the Soviet industrial
sectors in terms of the level of production, composition of output, and
regional emphasis. In total, some 31,850 large industrial enterprises were
"put out of production" (although not all were completely destroyed) during
WWII (Voznesensky, 1948, p. 95). This is more than 80% of the prewar
number of industrial enterprises located in the Ukraine and Belorussia.
• From 1941-1945, the composition of industrial output adjusted to meet the
needs of the war effort. Reconstruction priorities dictated the emphasis on
heavy industry but, in spite of this, light industry experienced more rapid
gains in the immediate postwar period.
9. THE IMPACT OF WW2 ON THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRY
• More long-term in nature was the impact of WWII on the location of
industry. New construction in eastern regions was exceedingly rapid in the
first two years of WWII. Capital investment in heavy industry directed to the
Urals and Western Siberia rose from 13% in 1940, to nearly 40% in 1942
(Sokolov, 1946, p. 20).
• Evacuation and recruitment policies generated a 65% increase in the
industrial workforce in the Urals and Volga regions between 1940 and 1943
(Voznesensky , p. 65). The combined result of these policies was an
expansion of industrial output in the eastern regions from 3.94 billion (new)
rubles in 1940, to 9.12 billion in 1944 (Voznesensky, p. 46).
11. LONG TERM NATURE OF LOCATIONAL SHIFT
• Dunmore (pp. 35-7) suggests, however, that the long-term nature of the
locational shift should not be overestimated.
• First, the growth of industrial production in eastern regions was
concentrated in the defense sector, possibly exaggerating the extent of
wartime industrial growth.
• Second, although defense production expanded in the East, output of
foodstuffs, timber, and construction materials in this region fell
substantially during WWII. "To claim that the war gave the eastern areas a
greatly expanded base for postwar industrial growth is to ignore the
disproportionalities between sectors within that base" (Dunmore, p. 36).
12. QUALITY, PRIORITIES AND RECONSTRUCTION EFFORTS
• Third, the quality of wartime construction in the East was significantly lower
than peacetime norms because of the urgency with which these industrial
enterprises were built, hence shortening the life of buildings and equipment.
• Fourth, reconstruction in western regions took priority over industry
expansion in the East. In part this was because reconstruction efforts focused
on civilian (heavy) industry as opposed to armaments production which
predominated in the East. In 1944, "liberated areas" received a greater share
of capital investment in 1944 than in 1940 (Kravchenko, p. 221).
• Lastly, reconstruction efforts in western regions employed the latest
technology, while "new" plants in the East utilized old technology.
13. Only close unity of workers and peasants saves Russia from ruin and hungry.
14. 2. WW2 IMPACT ON POPULATION AND LABOUR FORCE
• The most pervasive impact of WWII in the USSR is found in the devastating
human loss incurred by the war. The 1939 census reports 170.6 million
people living in the 1939 territory, and approximately 20 million living in the
newly acquired territory. This puts the 1939 Soviet population in present
boundaries at 190.7 million.
• A rough estimate, based on a 2.5% annual increase in population, puts the
1959 population at 240 million, but the 1959 census shows only 208.8
million people.
15. EXCESS NUMBER OF WOMEN RELATIVE TO MEN
• A direct result of these war-related population losses is found in the excess
number of women relative to men. A detailed analysis of the composition
of wartime population loss is provided by Fitzpatrick (chapter 7).
• In 1939, the number of women in the USSR exceeded that of men by some
7 million. By 1959, there were 20 million more women than men, and
almost all of this surplus was concentrated among women 32 years old and
older.
• Anderson and Silver (chapter 10) examine the socio-demographic
consequences of these wartime population losses, with particular emphasis
on the impact on non-Russian nationalities.
16. Peasant woman, consolidate the
unity of workers and peasants.
Liberated woman,
build up socialism!
Tractors and day nurseries -
movers of the new country.
17. POST WAR RURAL-URBAN DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS
• An indirect consequence of WWII stems from the postwar industrialization
drive which was influenced not only by reconstruction efforts, but also by
the USSR's emergence from WWII as a major world power. The impact of
these conditions is evident on postwar rural-urban distribution patterns.
• Historically, the majority of Russians lived in rural areas: in 1913, only 18%
of the population lived in urban centers; in 1939, less than one-third. Yet by
1959, almost half (48%) lived in urban areas. Indeed, the urban population
rose from 60 to 100 million people from 1939 to 1959, while over this same
20 year span, the rural population fell from 130 to 109 million (Schwartz,
1961, p. 109). and leadership.
18. SHIFT IN POPULTATION TO THE EAST
• Another consequence of WWII is found in the shift in population to the
East. Some 47 million people were located in eastern regions in 1939. By
1959, this figure reached 63 million. During the same period, Kazakhstan
experienced a 50% increase in population (6.1 to 9.3 million), while the
population west of the Urals rose only from 144 to 146 million (Schwartz, p.
109). Nove (chapter 4) provides a vivid description of the movement east
by the peasantry.
20. STRENGHTENING LABOUR DISCIPLINE CODES
• Mobilizing sufficient labor resources for the war effort involved
strengthening labor discipline codes and imposing restrictions on labor
mobility and individual employment choice. An October 1940 decree
authorized compulsory transfer of engineers, technicians, and skilled
workers from one enterprise to another.
• In July 1941, this right was granted to a number of regional and provincial
committees, allowing for forced assignment of certain military personnel
and workers to jobs in agriculture, industry, and construction. A decree in
December 1941 forbade workers in war industries to leave jobs for the
duration of the war, and in September 1941, another decree extended this
to transport workers and workers in areas near the front.
21. Mastering the machinery,
be in the first ranks of the
builders of the communism.
Sleep at work helps the enemies
of the working class. 1931
Day labourers and Komsomol
members, on tractor! 1931
22. SOLUTIONS FOR MANPOWER SHORTAGES
• In addition to direct controls over labor to offset the manpower shortages
resulting from occupation losses and increased military service, other
policies were adopted during WWII to combat declines in industrial
production, including: lengthening the working day 1 to 3 hours,
suspending vacations, emphasizing the replacement of male with female
labor, and additional training.
• From June to December 1941, 1 million housewives and schoolgirls (grades
8-10) were brought into the production process. The proportion of women
in the total labor force rose from 38% in 1940, to 53% in 1942, reaching
55% by 1945. In industry, women represented 41% of the workforce in
1940, 52% in 1942 ( Zhenshchina , 1960, p. 35, Kravchenko, p. 99).
24. THE WAR’S IMPACT ON FORCED LABOUR
• A final consequence of WWII on the Soviet population and labor force
entails the war's impact on forced labor. One US estimate puts the number
of persons in concentration camps in 1948 at 13 million (Schwartz, 1949, p.
116). Other estimates range from 2-3 million to 20 million (Jasny, 1951, pp.
405- 07).
• Forced labor supplies included German prisoners, other enemy soldiers,
and "politically dangerous" Soviet citizens (returning military personnel,
former kulaks, religious officials, and political or minority group dissidents).
25. 3. WW2 IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION
• A comparison of money incomes and expenditures of Soviet households in
1940 and 1945 yields some insight into the impact of WWII on civilian
consumption patterns. Wages, salaries, and other payments (including
military pay) in 1945 exceeded the 1940 level by some 2.3 billion rubles, in
spite of restrictive wartime policies over wages.
• Income from the sale of products in collective farm markets rose fourfold
(by 9.4 billion rubles) from 1940 to 1945 as a result of wartime food
shortages.
• Similar wartime increases are found in the pensions and allowances
category of household income which rose from .73 billion rubles in 1940, to
2.37 billion in 1945.
26. WAR-RELATED RATIONING
• In spite of these increases, however, the share of total consumption in
national income was much lower in 1945 than in 1940, despite the fact that
the 1945 level of national income was lower than that of 1940.
• Additional insight regarding the impact of WWII on civilian household
consumption is found in war-related rationing practices adopted to
mobilize resources for the war effort. The first rationing decree (July 1941)
affected Moscow, Leningrad, and the provinces, and encompassed products
as bread, macaroni, sugar, butter, fat, groats, meat, and fish. In addition, a
number of manufactured products were rationed: cotton, linen, and rayon
fabrics, readymade clothes, leather and rubber shoes, and soap. Rationing
was extended to different products, and to different cities and provinces.
27. Fascism is hunger, fascism is
terror, fascism is war! 1937 Motherland calls! 1941 Let's secure a rich crop in 1944!
28. THE COMMISSARIAT OF TRADE
• The magnitude of war-related rationing is best illustrated by the number of
individuals actually involved in the rationing process. The Commissariat of
Trade (under which was officed the Administration for Rationed Supplies)
supervised the centralized allocation of consumer goods.
• As Zaleski (p. 351) reports, administratively, this occupied 14,000 persons in
3,100 offices at the end of the war, with some 13,000 persons working in
1,900 control offices to supervise the distribution of ration cards, which in
turn employed 400,000 individuals (although only 20% were full-time) to
actually distribute ration cards in industrial enterprises and apartment
organizations.
29. NUMBER OF PEOPLE AFFECTED BY RATIONING
• Nearly 61 million people in urban areas were affected by rationing in 1941.
By 1944, this figure had risen to 76.8 million.
• In December 1945, 80.6 million Soviet people were supplied with bread
under the rationing system (of which some 26.8 million lived in rural areas).
• Needless to say, the results of the vast apparatus of distribution and control
were not always satisfactory either to the state or the Soviet people.
30. 4. IMPACT ON ECONOMIC GROWTH
• World War II caused a severe setback in the growth of Soviet output. The
ground lost in terms of the growth rate was not recovered by 1953, nor
even by 1961. In large part this stems from the reduction in Soviet
population and labor force, not only of the losses immediately attributable
to WWII, but also from the reduction of the Soviet leadership's capacity to
expand the labor force.
• Also contributing to the detrimental impact of WWII on the aggregate
growth rate of the economy was the long-term character of the 30% loss of
capital stock. The nature of this loss includes direct destruction, curtailed
investment, and hence, a reduction in productive capacity not only during
WWII, but also for an indefinitely long period after the war.
31. Let's build up! 1944 Let`s rebuild in the best way!
Get down to work! The plan is clear,
to build for our Motherland. 1946
32. ACQUISITION OF NEW TERRITORY
• An important consequence of WWII on Soviet economic growth potential
involved the acquisition of new territory. New territory brought under
Soviet domain not only additional land and capital stock, but also additional
labor. The impact on employment of acquiring new territory was more
pronounced in the industrial sector than in agriculture, although both
sectors exhibited significant if only temporary labor force increases.
• A comparison of 1940 and 1945-46 employment figures (Moorsteen and
Powell, p. 365) shows a war-related reduction in agricultural employment,
caused not only by wartime losses from German occupation, but also from
substantial numbers of agricultural workers who joined the Red Army, and
when demobilized, found employment in urban industrial centers.
34. 5. WAR COST, POST WAR BURDEN AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
• Measuring the economic impact of war necessarily employs an opportunity
cost approach where the opportunity cost, by comparing potential and
actual output levels, captures foregone civilian production and capacity
expansion, or alternatively, reduced civilian consumption, or additional
work effort required by the war.
• Wartime costs include, for example, direct government expenditures on the
war effort, wartime loss of national income because of damaged or
destroyed factors of production, loss of personal consumption resulting
both from lower wartime national income and the increased share of
government expenditures in national income, reduced leisure time, and
extra effort and resources required to convert to wartime production.
35. LEFT: Kolkhozniks, vote for the further raising
of the collective farming! 1947
BELOW: Women in the collective farms, a great power! 1947
36. THE ECONOMIC BURDEN OF WW2
• The postwar impact of WWII imposed a tremendous burden on the
leadership's economic growth efforts, and upon the postwar population as
a whole. Indeed, the magnitude of these carryover war cost estimates put
into perspective Soviet reparation demands after WWII, and further insight
into the economic relationships established after the war between the
USSR and Eastern Europe.
• In the context of the debate regarding the origins of the Cold War,
understanding the postwar impact of WWII and the extent to which it was
reduced by actual foreign assistance programs (Lend Lease, UN Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration) propose an examination of the extent to
which additional foreign aid (proposed US loan, Marshall Plan) would have
reduced the postwar burden of WWII to the Soviet people.
37. Oil industry workers, more oil for Motherland! Let's carry out the five year plan in 4 years! 1948
38. THE IMPACT OF ACTUAL AID
• The impact of actual reparation payments and other forms of economic
assistance on the Soviet economy has not previously been calculated,
primarily because of measurement problems. Attempts have been made,
however, to estimate total economic aid and reparations to the USSR
between 1945 and 1953. The most comprehensive effort, found in Nutter
(1962, pp. 351-4), gives an estimate range of $9.1 to $21.2 billion.
• Had the Soviets not received any postwar assistance, the postwar burden,
or carryover cost of WWII to the Soviet people, would have been markedly
greater than current estimates indicate (Linz 1983).
40. THE IMPACT OF POTENTIAL AID
• Soviet reconstruction efforts were aided significantly by reparations,
pipeline Lend Lease, and UNRRA assistance. Each of these, however,
represented a source of conflict between the US, Great Britain, France, and
USSR. The earliest and most pervasive source of conflict arose over Soviet
reparations claims, especially with respect to Germany.
• Discord over Poland, Romania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia after the
Potsdam Agreement further inflamed the reparations issue, and the
tenuous relationship between the Allies began deteriorating rapidly.
42. THE LEND LEASE CONFRONTATIONAL DEBATE
• Lend Lease posed another source of postwar confrontation specifically
between the US and USSR. The US did not like the sporadic releases to the
Soviet press during the war press which never really informed the Soviet
people of the importance of Lend Lease to their war effort, nor did the
Soviets like Truman's abrupt termination of Lend Lease once Germany
surrendered. Soviet-American confrontation also arose over UNRRA aid.
44. CANCELLING UNRRA
• Although UNRRA had been organized and funded (primarily by the US) to
provide food, medical care and other assistance to war-devastated areas,
protests intensified in the immediate postwar period that UNRRA funds (US
dollars) were being used to fund Communist expansion.
• As a result, UNRRA assistance was cancelled in 1946, despite existing
economic conditions in the USSR and Eastern Europe.
46. THE PROPOSED US $1 BILLION LOAN
• In place of the increasingly unpopular Lend Lease and UNRRA aid, the US
proposed a loan of $1 billion in 1945 to aid Soviet reconstruction efforts.
• Discussions of a loan to the USSR had been initiated much earlier, however.
US Ambassador Harriman went to Moscow in October 1943 to meet with
A.I. Mikoyan (Soviet Commissar for Foreign Trade) to talk about US
assistance in their reconstruction efforts. Indeed, the loan was perceived by
business and government leaders alike as a way to help avoid the
anticipated postwar depression in the US.
47. Young builder of communism!
Ahead to new successes of labour and studying! 1950
48. NEGOCIATIONS OVER THE PROPOSED US $1 BILLION LOAN
• In January 1945, Molotov (Soviet Foreign Minister) met with Harriman with
the Soviet's first formal request for a postwar loan of $6 billion. By this
time, conflicting interests with respect to the Soviet Union's reconstruction
efforts were evident, and the loan had become more of a diplomatic tool
than an economic opportunity.
• In spite of cooling relations between the US and USSR, however, Harriman
informed the Soviets in August 1945 that the Export-Import Bank was
willing to consider Soviet proposals for postwar aid, and at Truman's
request, $1 billion was earmarked by the Bank for possible loan to the
USSR.
50. THE $1 BILLION LOAN IS LOST
• Negotiations were stalled and the loan "lost" for the first 6 months of 1946
while the US State Department waited, hoping Soviet reconstruction needs
would require them to come to the US to make concessions regarding
reparations and other issues, and the Moscow waited, believing the US
needed to finance exports to the USSR to head off a depression.
• By the end of 1946, the loan was no longer a current issue and the general
question of US assistance in Soviet reconstruction efforts was not
mentioned again until June 1947, when Secretary of State Marshall gave his
famous commencement speech at Harvard offering a general plan for
European recovery.
52. THE MARSHALL PLAN
• When the US offered the Soviet Union economic assistance under the
"Marshall Plan" in 1947, the Soviet leadership declined participation. A
number of Western scholars contend that the aid was offered in such a way
as to preclude any real participation by the USSR.
• Had they agreed to join in what became known as the European Recovery
Program, what amount of aid could the Soviets have expected? Between
April 1948 and June 1952, the European Recovery Program gave over $13
billion in aid (Ferrell, 1978, p. 86).
• Over half of this sum was distributed among Great Britain, France, and Italy.
Germany received approximately $1.4 billion.
54. SPECULATIONS ON THE COST OF WINNING WW2
• Although the total real cost of WWII to the Soviet Union has yet to be fully
measured, there is not doubt that the economic cost of the war imposed a
tremendous burden upon the Soviet people, both in absolute terms and
relative to other participants.
• A significant portion of total material war cost carried over into the postwar
period, adversely affecting economic growth efforts. In large part, certain
costs were made unavoidable for the USSR by the onset of the Cold War.
• There is, however, no a priori reason to believe that the net effect (cost) of
WWII was negative when taking into account political and social factors.
56. THE ROLE OF REPARATIONS PAYMENTS
• Acquisition of new territory and new technology, in addition to the political
and social cohesion resulting from sustaining a successful war effort, are
benefits which have been omitted from the economic analysis presented
here. Furthermore, little emphasis was placed on the role of actual
reparation payments in Soviet postwar recovery efforts.
• Considering the magnitude of reparation payments relative to potential
foreign assistance implies that Stalin was perfectly rational in refusing to
make political concessions in return for US economic assistance after WWII.
• Moreover, considering only the absolute amount of aid ignores the
significance of the marginal contribution, which might well have been vital.
57.
58. THE COSTS OF WINNING
• There are also other costs of "winning" which have not been explicitly
discussed which quite possibly imposed an additional burden upon the
Soviet population. Costs of occupation and costs of emerging from WWII as
a major military power, have necessitated disproportionately large annual
expenditures for defense.
• In contrast to the US economy where defense spending ordinarily creates
jobs, generating additional national income, the burden of a high level of
defense expenditures in the Soviet economy is real in the sense that the
size of the economy, or level of national income, is fixed and increasing the
share of output for defense purposes causes a "crowding out" of the
provision of consumer goods.
59.
60. POWERPOINT PRESENTATION BASED ON
• The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union, edited by Susan J. Linz
and reviewed by John C. Campbell.
• T. Dunmore, The Stalinist Command Economy (New York: St. Martin's,
1980).
• G. Kravchenko, Ekonomika SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny
Moscow, 1965).
• S.J. Linz, "Measuring the Carryover Cost of WWII to the Soviet People:
1945-1953," Explorations in Economic History vol 20 (1983).
• N. Jasny, "Labor and Output in Soviet Concentration Camps," Journal of
Political Economy (October 1951).
61. POWERPOINT PRESENTATION BASED ON
• E. Lokshin, Promylennost ' SSSR 1949-1963 (Moscow 1964).
• R. Moorsteen and R. Powell, The Soviet Capital Stock, 1928-1961
(Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1966).
• A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (Middlesex: Penguin, 1969,
revised in 1982).
• G. w. Nutter, The Growth of Industrial Production in the Soviet Union
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962).
• H. Schwartz, "Soviet Labor Policy 1940-1945" Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science (May 1949).
• H. Schwartz, Russia's Soviet Economy (New York: Prentice Hall 1958).
62. POWERPOINT PRESENTATION BASED ON
• B. Sokolov, Promyshelennoe stroitel ' stvo v gody otechestvennoi voiny
(Moscow 1946)
• N. Vosnesensky, The Economy of the USSR During World War II
(Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1948).
• E. Zaleski. Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth, 1933-1952 (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).
• Zhenshchina v SSSR (Moscow 1960).
• http://www.communisme-
bolchevisme.net/images_ussr_cccp_pictures.htm