The document summarizes the rise of authoritarian dictatorships in Europe following World War 1. It describes the Russian Civil War and the establishment of Lenin and Stalin's communist rule in the Soviet Union. It also discusses the rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini and the failure of democracy in Germany, which paved the way for Hitler and the Nazis to rise to power. Key events included the Russian Civil War, Stalin's collectivization policies, the Great Terror, Mussolini's march on Rome, and Hitler being appointed chancellor of Germany in 1933.
Chapter 2a: The Rise of Stalin (Lesson 1 of 2)
In this lesson, you will learn about the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and how they set the stage for Stalin's rise to power. We will get through a few key names and terms, such as the 'Bolsheviks', 'Communism' and 'Lenin'. You will also see a guest appearance by Les Miserables (which, I repeat, has absolutely no historical relevance to the rise of Stalin).
Chapter 2a: The Rise of Stalin (Lesson 1 of 2)
In this lesson, you will learn about the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and how they set the stage for Stalin's rise to power. We will get through a few key names and terms, such as the 'Bolsheviks', 'Communism' and 'Lenin'. You will also see a guest appearance by Les Miserables (which, I repeat, has absolutely no historical relevance to the rise of Stalin).
Bigarren Mundu Gerra sortzeko kausak (urrunak eta hurbilak), bilakaera militarra eta bake konferentziak, gerraren ondorioak eta Gerra Hotzaren oinarrizko ezaugarriak.
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: MUSSOLINI AND ABYSSINIA. Contains: increasing militarism in Italy, Mussolini's Italy, economic problems, invading Abyssinia, failure of the League of Nation, the invasion, the League condemnation, the Hoare-Laval plan and its impact, the end of the League of Nations, Rome-Berlin Axis and Homework.
The Powerpoint presentation on nazi extermination camps in Europe of WWII time, prepared especially for the international Holocaust meeting of teachers and students of the Comenius project 'Culture Beyond Borders' in Gimnazjum nr 17 in Wrocław
Bigarren Mundu Gerra sortzeko kausak (urrunak eta hurbilak), bilakaera militarra eta bake konferentziak, gerraren ondorioak eta Gerra Hotzaren oinarrizko ezaugarriak.
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: MUSSOLINI AND ABYSSINIA. Contains: increasing militarism in Italy, Mussolini's Italy, economic problems, invading Abyssinia, failure of the League of Nation, the invasion, the League condemnation, the Hoare-Laval plan and its impact, the end of the League of Nations, Rome-Berlin Axis and Homework.
The Powerpoint presentation on nazi extermination camps in Europe of WWII time, prepared especially for the international Holocaust meeting of teachers and students of the Comenius project 'Culture Beyond Borders' in Gimnazjum nr 17 in Wrocław
Surveys Major events from the Revolutionary War 1776-1783; Discusses relative strengths and weaknesses of the colonies and Great Britain; the strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation; Shays Rebellion
Discusses Hitler's rise to power in Germany's political system; Discusses American Neutrality and preparation for war; discusses contributions by women, African Americans, native Americans and Japanese Internment.
Chapter 16 big business, organized labor, financial panic, populist movementdcyw1112
discusses rise of big business following US Civil War; the rise pf the Knights of Labor, AFL, United Railway Workers, the Haymarket Riot, Homestead Iron Works, the Pullman strike, panic of 1893 and the rise of the populists in America
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. Introduction
The legacy of the Great War
Near-collapse of democracy
The rise of authoritarian dictatorships
3. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
The Russian Civil War
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk polarized Russian society
The Whites
Loose group united by the desire to remove the Reds
from power
Supporters of the old regime
Reds (Bolsheviks) faced strong nationalist
movements
4. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
The Russian Civil War
United States, Britain, and Japan intervene on the
periphery of the old empire
Solidified Bolshevik mistrust of capitalist world powers
Bolshevik victory
Gained greater support from the majority of the
population
Better organization
Leon Trotsky as new commissar of war
5. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
The Russian Civil War
Consequences
One million combat casualties
Several million dead from hunger and disease
Created permanent hatreds
9. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
War communism
Government control of industry
Outlawed private trade in consumer goods
Militarized production facilities and abolished
money
Consequences
Devastated Russian industry and emptied major cities
Large-scale famine (1921)
Large-scale strikes
10. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
Abandoning war communism
Reversion to state capitalism
State owned all major industry
Individuals could own private property
Trading freely within limits
Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on
the peasantry
Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)
11. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
Peasants should ―enrich‖ themselves
Taxes would support urban industrialization and
working classes
The ―golden age of the Russian peasantry‖
Divided up noble lands to level wealth disparities
Reintroduced traditional social structure (peasant
communes)
Produced enough grain to feed the country
12. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
Abandoning war communism
Reversion to state capitalism
State owned all major industry
Individuals could own private property
Trading freely within limits
Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on
the peasantry
Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)
13. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
Failure
Peasants refused to participate in markets to benefit
urban areas
Kept excess grain for themselves
Cities experienced grain shortages
14. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
Stalin and the ―Revolution from Above‖
Stalin the man
Born in Georgia as Iosip Jughashvili (1879–1953)
Exiled to Siberia for revolutionary activity
Stalin the strategist
Isolated all opposition
Used the left to isolate the right, used the right to
isolate the left
16. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
Stalin and the ―Revolution from Above‖
Stalin the strategist
By 1929, Trotsky and Bukharin were removed from
positions of power
Abandoned NEP
Increased tempo of industrialization
Forced industrialization and the total
collectivization of agriculture
17. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
Collectivization
Local party and police officials forced peasants to
join collective farms
Peasant resistance: sixteen hundred large-scale
rebellions between 1929 and 1933
19. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
Collectivization
The famine (1932–1933)
The human cost was 3–5 million lives
The Bolsheviks retained grain reserves in other parts
of the country
Grain reserves sold overseas for currency and
stockpiled in the event of war
20. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
The Five-Year Plans
Campaign of forced industrialization
First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932)
Most stunning period of economic growth
Built new industries in new cities
Urban population more than doubled (from 26 million
to 56 million) between 1924 and 1939
22. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
The Five-Year Plans
The human cost
Large-scale projects carried out with prison labor
The Gulag system
By 1940, 3.6 million people were incarcerated by the
regime
23. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
The Five-Year Plans
Structural problems
The command economy: production levels planned
from Moscow in advance
Heavy industry favored over light industry
Emphasis on quantity over quality
Cultural and economic changes
Soviet cities
Women entered the workforce
The conservative shift
24. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
The Great Terror (1937–1938)
One million dead—1.5 million to the Gulag
The elimination of Stalin’s enemies, real or
imagined
Purged the old Bolsheviks
Stalin wanted to eliminate any disagreement with his
personal views about Communism
Communist Party disagreements included whether Soviet
Communists should export Communism around the world
or focus on creating a Communist state in Russia first.
How democratic should the party be?
Is it possible to have socialist and liberal reforms on the
way to Communism?
25. Plaque containing arrest photos of victims of the Great Purge.
These victims were shot at the Butovo Firing Range near Moscow.
Between 1938 and 1953 an estimated 20,000 political prisoners were shot at
Butovo and buried in mass graves.
26. We are living, but can’t feel the land where we stay,
More than ten steps away you can’t hear what we say.
But if people would talk on occasion,
They should mention the Kremlin Caucasian.
His thick fingers are bulky and fat like live-baits,
And his accurate words are as heavy as weights.
Cucaracha’s moustaches are screaming,
And his boot-tops are shining and gleaming.
But around him a crowd of thin-necked henchmen,
And he plays with the services of these half-men.
Some are whistling, some meowing, some sniffing,
He’s alone booming, poking and whiffing.
He is forging his rules and decrees like horseshoes –
Into groins, into foreheads, in eyes, and eyebrows.
Every killing for him is delight,
And Ossetian torso is wide.
“The Stalin Epigram,”
by Osip Mendelstam.
The poem was
in effect, a suicide
note as Mendelstam
knew he would be
arrested and executed.
27. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
The Great Terror (1937–1938)
Targeted ethnic groups (Poles, Ukrainians,
Lithuanians, Latvians, and Koreans)
Targeted the Soviet military and resulted in the
arrest and detention of almost 10% of the top
leaders.
Stalin and total control
Social advances
Illiteracy reduced
Higher education made available to more people
28. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
In the aftermath of war
A democracy in distress
Seven hundred thousand dead, $15 billion debt
Territorial disputes
29. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
In the aftermath of war
Problems
Split between the industrial north and agrarian south
Conflict over land, wages, and local power
Government corruption and indecision
Inflation, unemployment, and strikes
Demands for radical reform
30. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)
Editor of Avantia (leading socialist daily)
Lost editorship when he urged Italy to side with the
Allies during World War I
Founded Il Popolo d’Italia
The Fasci
Organized to drum up support for WWI
32. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)
The Fascist platform (1919): universal suffrage,
the eight-hour day, and tax on inheritance
Fascist support
Gained respect of middle classes and landowners
Repressed radical movements of workers and
peasants
Attacked socialists
Fifty thousand fascist militia marched on Rome on
October 28, 1922
34. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
Italy under Mussolini
One-party dictatorship
Changed the electoral laws
Abolished cabinet system
Mussolini assumed role of prime minister and
party leader (Il Duce)
35. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
Italy under Mussolini
Repression and censorship
Liberals and socialists considered enemies of the
state
Granted independence to papal residence in the
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism established as the state
religion
36. Weimar Germany
November 9, 1918: Revolution
Bloodless overthrow of the imperial government
Social Democratic Party (SPD) announced a new
German republic
The kaiser abdicated
38. Weimar Germany
Problems
Governed by unelected Council of People’s
Commissioners
Introduced 8 hour workday, legalized labor unions,
required re-hiring of WWI veterans; farm labor
reforms; social welfare; national health insurance.
Conservatives opposed these measures and
Communists thought they did not go far enough
Elections not held until January 1919
Communists and independent socialists staged
armed uprisings in Berlin
Social Democrats tried to crush the uprisings
39. Weimar Germany
The Weimar coalition
Socialists, Catholic centrists, and liberal
democrats
Parliamentary liberalism
Universal suffrage for men and women
Bill of rights
42. Weimar Germany
The failure of Weimar
Social, political, and economic crisis
The humiliation of World War I
Germany ―stabbed in the back‖ by socialists and Jews
Versailles and reparations
$33 billion debt
The Dawes Plan (1924), a new schedule of payments
44. Weimar Germany
The failure of Weimar
The government continued to print money
Middle-class employees, farmers, and workers hit
hardest by inflation
Economic recovery (1925)
Scaled-down reparation payments
Government-sponsored building projects
47. Weimar Germany
The failure of Weimar
Further problems
U.S. stock market crash
Unemployment
Peasants staged mass demonstrations
Government cut welfare benefits
Left the door open for the opponents of
Weimar
48. By 1930, the two best organized
opposition parties were the
Communist Party and the
National Socialist German
Worker’s (NAZI) Party
49. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945)
Born in Austria, aspired to be an artist but was
rejected by the Academy of Fine Arts in
Vienna in 1907 and 1908.
Lived in Vienna supported by orphan’s
benefits and support from his mother. After her
death, Hitler lived in a homeless shelter in
1909 and later in a hostel for poor laborers.
Hitler apparently adopted Anti-Semitism,
anti-Marxism, and pan-Slavism while in
Vienna.
After receiving a settlement of his father’s
estate, Hitler moved to Munich in 1913.
50. Hitler’s
Baby picture Hitler’s mother,
Klara
The Alter Hof in
Munich, watercolor,
1914, by Adolph
Hitler.
A soldier in WWI in a German
Bavarian Regiment
51. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945)
After the war, he joined the German
Workers’ Party
1920: became the National Socialist Workers’
Party (Nazi)
Refused to accept the November (1918)
Resolution
52. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Hitler and the Nazis
November 1923: Munich putsch
Hitler imprisoned
Dictated Mein Kampf
Portrayed himself as the savior of the German
people
Nazi elections
1924: Nazis polled 6.6 percent of the vote
1928: Politics polarized between left and right
The impossibility of a coalition
55. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Hitler and the Nazis
Nazi supporters
1930 election
Nazis won 107 of 577 seats in the Reichstag
No party gained a majority
Nazis supported no coalition government not headed
by Hitler which caused the failure of the conservative
coalition government
56. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Hitler as chancellor
January 1933: Hindenberg appointed Hitler
chancellor
February 27, 1933: Reichstag set on fire by Dutch
anarchist
Hitler suspended civil rights
March 5, 1933: New elections
Hitler granted unlimited power for four years
Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich
58. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi Germany
A one-party state
Hitler’s first acts were to sharply limit freedom of the
press and to enable the cabinet to issue decrees
without the consent or approval of the Reichstag
(parliament).
Reichstag Fire Decree suspended all civil liberties
guaranteed by the German constitution.
Widespread arrests of known or suspected opponents
of the Nazi party.
Opposition tactics
Storm troopers (SA)—used to maintain party discipline
June 30, 1934: Night of the Long Knives
59. On the basis of Article 48 paragraph 2 of the
Constitution of the German Reich, the
following is ordered in defense against
Communist state-endangering acts of
violence: Articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124
and 153 of the Constitution of the German
Reich are suspended until further notice. It is
therefore permissible to restrict the rights of
personal freedom [habeas corpus], freedom of
(opinion) expression, including the freedom of
the press, the freedom to organize and
assemble, the privacy of postal, telegraphic
and telephonic communications. Warrants for
House searches, orders for confiscations as
well as restrictions on property, are also
permissible beyond the legal limits otherwise
prescribed.
Reichstag Fire
Decree
61. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi Germany
Schutzstaffel (SS)
Most dreaded arm of Nazi terror
Organized by Heinrich Himmler
Fighting political and racial enemies
62. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi Germany
Support
Played off fears of communism
Spoke a language of national pride
Hitler as the symbol of a strong, revitalized Germany
(the Führer cult)
The recovery of German national glory
63. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi Germany
National recovery
Sealed Germany off from the rest of the world
Unemployment dropped from 6 million to two hundred
thousand
Outlawed trade unions and strikes, froze wages
Organized workers into the National Labor Front
Popular organizations cut across class lines
64. Still Image from Leni Riefenstahl, Triumph of the Will (1935),
a Film about a Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg, Germany, 1934
65. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi racism
Nazi racism inherited from nineteenth-century
opinions
Anti-Semitism
Joined by nationalist anti-Jewish theory
The Jew as outsider
An ―international Jewish conspiracy‖
66. Hitler and the
National Socialists
Nazi racism
April 1933: New racial laws excluded Jews from
public office
1935 Nuremberg Decrees
Deprived Jews of citizenship (determined by bloodline)
November 1938: Kristallnacht (Night of Broken
Glass)
68. Hitler and the
National Socialists
National socialism and fascism
Both arose in the interwar period as responses to
war and revolution
Intensely nationalistic
Opposed parliamentary government and
democracy
69. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
Western democracies
France
Continued to fear Germany
Policy of deflation
Britain
Policy of deflation
Reduction in wages and decline in the standard of
living
The Labour Party (1924 and 1929)
Increasing trade union militancy
70. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
Western democracies
United States
Bastion of conservatism
Presidents and the Supreme Court
71. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
The origins of the Great Depression
Causes
Instability of national currencies
Interdependence of national economies
Widespread drop in industrial productivity
Restrictions of free trade
72. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
The origins of the Great Depression
October 1929: collapse of the New York Stock
Exchange
United States as world’s creditor nation
Immediate and disastrous consequences for
European economy
Banking houses closed, manufacturers laid off entire
workforces
73. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
The origins of the Great Depression
Government response
Britain
Abandoned gold standard and free trade
France
The Popular Front under Léon Blum
Nationalized munitions industry
Forty-hour week
Fixed the price and regulated the distribution of grain
74. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
The origins of the Great Depression
Government response
United States
The New Deal and FDR
Recovery without destroying capitalism
Managing the economy and public-works projects
John Maynard Keynes
75. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
The rejection of tradition and the experiment
with new forms of expression
Interwar intellectuals
Disillusionment with war and the failure of victory
Frustration, cynicism, and disenchantment
Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961): The Sun Also
Rises (1926), the ―lost generation‖
76. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Interwar intellectuals
T. S. Eliot (1888–1965): The Waste Land (1922),
life is a living death
Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956): corruption of
Germany’s elites
The politicization of literature
77. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Interwar artists
Developments paralleled those in literature
The dominance of the avant-garde
Subjective experience
Multiplicity of meanings
Personal expression
The rejection of traditional forms and values
Pushing the boundaries of aesthetics
78. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Interwar artists
Expressionism—paintings need not have subjects
at all
The Dadaists
Rejected all forms of artistic conventions
Haphazard ―fabrications‖
79. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Interwar artists
Architecture
Functionalism
―Form ever follows function‖ (Sullivan)
Ornamentation to reflect an age of science and machines
80. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Interwar scientific developments
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Revolutionized modern physics
Challenged our beliefs about the universe
New ways of thinking about space, matter, time, and
gravity
81. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Mass culture and its possibilities
Explosive rise of mass media—media for the
masses
Mass politics as a fact of life
Cut across class lines, ethnicity, and nationality
Democratic and authoritarian possibilities
82. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Mass culture and its possibilities
The radio
Europe: broadcasting rights owned by the government
United States: broadcasting managed by corporations
National soapbox for politicians
FDR’s fireside chats
Nazi propaganda
The new ritual of political life—communication and
persuasion
83. Voice of the People, Voice of God by George Grosz (1920)
84. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Mass culture and its possibilities
Advertising
Visual images replaced older ads
Efficient communication, streamlined and
standardized
Drew on modern psychology
Film
France and Italy had strong film industries
1927: Sound added to films
85. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Mass culture and its possibilities
Film
United States gained a competitive edge in Europe
Size of home market
Huge investments in equipment and distribution
The Hollywood ―star system‖
The ―Americanization‖ of culture
A threat to European culture?
Introduced Europe to new ways of life
86. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
Mass culture and its possibilities
The Nazis and propaganda
Used film as a means of indoctrination and control
―Spectacular politics‖
Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003): Triumph of the Will
(1934)
Tried to limit influence of American popular culture
Dance and jazz
The Soviet Union under Lenin and StalinIn the aftermath of the First World War, Europeans were confronted with innumerable problems that resulted in a wide range of responses. The interwar years witnessed some individuals arguing for something akin to a “return to normalcy,” while others believed there was now a need for a new type of authoritarian leadership. If democracy had somehow shown itself to be a spent force, perhaps some other form of government would become necessary. Russia embarked on its own path of socialist development in the wake of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. However, following Lenin’s death in 1924, and combined with Stalin’s “revolution from above” in 1928, the path taken by the Soviet Union would not likely be repeated anywhere else in Europe. Italy, although invited to the peace settlement following the Great War, was actually left in a far worse position. The sense of humiliation left the door open for a man like Benito Mussolini to proclaim the twentieth century as the century of fascism.
Weimar Germany Shackled with the infamous “war guilt” clause, Germany emerged from the Great War a beaten nation. A revolution swept the nation in November 1918 and a new government was established at Weimar. However, the Weimar Republic faced nearly insurmountable problems right from the start. Economic disorder and social unrest, as well as the feeling of humiliation and betrayal, produced an environment that made it possible for Adolf Hitler, the tramp from Vienna turned Führer (leader), to capture Germany with the hope of creating a thousand-year Third Reich.
The Great Depression in the Democracies Across the rest of Europe, authoritarian leaders emerged. It seemed that no nation was immune from the authoritarian impulse. Democracy seemed to be in retreat; and then followed the Great Depression, which affected the world economy in profound ways.
Interwar Culture During the interwar years, modernism seemed to come of age. In art, science, philosophy, and architecture, new modes of thinking were developed while at the same time traditional values and systems of belief were called into question. Uncertainty and the anxiety that uncertainty breeds seemed to infect the “European mind” as a whole. As Paul Valéry remarked in 1919: “An extraordinary shudder ran through the marrow of Europe. She felt in every nucleus of her mind that she was no longer the same, that she was no longer herself, that she was about to lose consciousness, a consciousness acquired through centuries of bearable calamities, by thousands of men of the first rank, from innumerable geographical, ethnic, and historical coincidences.”