The document provides information on the foundation design and construction for a building project. It discusses different types of foundations including strip footing, which is a continuous strip of concrete placed under load bearing walls to spread the building load. Details are given on the reference design and on-site construction of the foundation, including excavation, formwork, reinforcement, and concrete pouring. Quality control measures are emphasized to ensure the strength and stability of the foundation.

1. TOPIC PAGE
01 Introduction (BRIDGET TAN) 2
01.1 Introduction to Site 2
02 Site and Safety (AMOS TAN) 7
02.1 Site and Safety 7
02.2 Plants and Machinery 10
03 External Work (BENJAMIN CHENG) 16
03.1 Setting out and Earth Work 16
04 Foundation (NGE JIA CHEN) 21
04.1 Foundation - Reference 21
04.2 Foundation - On Site 23
05 Superstructure 26
05.1 Beam and Column (LEE CZEN SHING) 26
05.2 Slab (KHOR YEN MIN) 30
05.3 Wall (BRIDGET TAN) 34
05.4 Staircase (AIDA JUNITA) 43
06 Doors and Windows 47
06.1 Doors (AIDA JUNITA) 47
06.2 Windows (KHOR YEN MIN) 53
07 Roof (WONG ZHEN FAI) 57
07.1 Roof - Reference 57
07.2 Roof - On Site 59
08 Summary 64
08.1 References 64
1

2. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Ixora Residences is the fresh bloom of Bandar Seri Coalfields, the largest mixed development of self-sustaining
community living in Sungai Buloh.
The 1000-acre Bandar Sri Coalfields is home to a collection of freehold property developments, comprising of
exclusive residences brimming with bungalows, semi-detached homes, superlink homes and link homes, as well as
dedicated business hub with shop offices and commercial lots.
Features
• Built-up area from 212 squaremeter / 2281 square feet
• Low density, 11 units per acre
• Distinct architectural styling
• 4 bedrooms with attached bathrooms
• Approximately 12-feet high ceiling
SITE PLAN MASTER PLAN LAYOUT PLAN
2

3. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Project Team Information
Developer: KL-Kepong Country Homes Sdn Bhd
Architect: Architect N. Kang
Civil and Structural Engineer: KEMASEPAKAT Sdn Bhd
Mechanical and Electrical Engineer: Syterra Consult Sdn Bhd
Quantity Surveyor: Northcroft Lim Perunding Sdn Bhd
Contractor: CNH Construction (M) Sdn Bhd
3

4. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Architectural Drawings
TYPE 1
TYPE 2 4

5. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Kepayang Heights 2, Seremban, (under the developer GUH Properties) is a prestigious township with uniquely
designed residential units for modern day living. The 24-acre Kepayang Heights 2 is a home to a collection of
freehold property developments, comprising of exclusive residences brimming with bungalows, semi-detached and
terrace homes,
Features
• Built-up area from 228 square meters / 2458 square feet
• 4 bedrooms with attached bathrooms
• 12-feet height high ceiling (approximately)
SITE PLAN LAYOUT PLAN
5

6. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Architectural Plans (Terrace Units)
6

7. The construction industry is among the most dangerous work sectors in the world. Construction sites create a risk
not only for the construction worker, but also for the surrounding public.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
The Department of Occupational
Safety and Health (DOSH) is a
government body that lays down
the regulations to ensure the
safety and health of not just
workers but also the public.
The regulations are covered by
the Occupational Safety and
Health Act 1994 (Act 514), the
Factories and Machineries Act
1967 (Act 139) and all the
regulations made under.
The main contractor of a
worksite that employs 40 or
more persons has to establish
a Safety and Health Committee,
which reviews the conditions of
the site and keeps it under
regulation. Two important
persons in the committee are:
Safety and Health Officer
Any works of construction that
has a total contract price of
RM20,000,000 and over has to
employ a safety and health
officer to oversee the site.
Site Safety Supervisor
A part time position hired for
projects under RM20,000,000,
the supervisor must spend at
least 15 hours a week on site
supervision and promoting safe
conduct of work.
Every developer and contractor
has to ensure that all workers
are properly informed of the
hazards, and also to develop a
safety and health manual, and
that adequate steps be taken to
develop and promote safety
and health programmes.
Architects, engineers and other
professionals also have a duty
not to include anything in a
design that would necessitate
the use of dangerous structural
procedures. Engineers should
take into account the safety
problems associated with the
subsequent maintenance of
plant where this would involve
hazards.
7

8. AMOS TAN CHI YI
Every employer has the duty to ensure that each worker is wearing
their own personal protective equipment, which consists of:
HELMET
EAR
PROTECTION
SAFETY
GLASSES
RESPIRATORY
EQUIPMENT
REFLECTIVE
CLOTHING
SAFETY SHOES
GLOVES
LONG
TROUSERS
1. Helmet
2. Gloves
3. Ear protection
4. Safety shoes
5. Safety glasses
6. Reflective clothing
7. Respiratory equipment
Safety Helmet
Safety helmets come in different colours, each denoting the
wearer’s occupation.
White Supervisor (engineer, architect, contractor, etc)
Yellow General worker
Red Specialist worker (electrician, plumber, etc)
Green Safety officers
8
FIGURE 2.1.1: PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT

9. AMOS TAN CHI YI
Hoardings are a metal barricade
that protects the general public
from the works in progress.
The hoarding should not be less
than 1.8 metres in height and
continuous to the ground, and a
safety distance between the
hoarding and the worksite be
observed.
The entrances should be
discreet, and security to
maintained to prevent
unauthorized persons.
All construction sites must have
adequate signage.
The signage above must be
present, which lists the
municipal authority, name of the
project, the developer, architect,
civil & structural engineer,
mechanical & electrical engineer,
the supplier, contractor and the
referral number.
An emergency response plan is
a set plan that identifies and
potential for accidents and
emergency situations, and
addresses them. It should:
1. Ensure necessary information,
internal communication and
coordination are provided to
protect people in the event of
an emergency
2. Provide information and
communication with relevant
authorities
3. Provide first aid, fire fighting
and evacuation
4. Provide relevant information
and training to all workers.
9

10. Plants and machinery are vital to the construction industry as they accelerate the construction process. Without
them, some works such as excavations and earthworks would take an exorbitantly long time and others like high-
rise construction would be downright impossible.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
Most heavy duty plants employ
tracks instead of wheels for
mobility. Tracks give less ground
pressure, and thus stops the
plants from sinking into the soil
under its weight.
Wheels allow faster movement,
and can be used (with government
approval) on roads, but are not
suited for soft soil environments.
Generally heavy machines (over
10 tonnes) would employ tracks,
while lighter machines would
employ wheels.
Hydraulics take advantage of the
fact that some liquids are
incompressible, and they act as a
force multiplier, allowing it to move
heavy loads.
Hydraulics plants such as pile
drivers and excavators are more
complex, but due to liquid’s non-
absorbance of energy, it is capable
of moving higher loads and
providing higher forces to drive the
pistons of heavy duty plants.
Thus, they are commonly found in
heavy duty plants and machinery.
Pneumatics use highly
compressed air to drive pistons.
Pneumatic plants such as
jackhammers and nail guns are
typically hand-held, and are often
not featured in heavier machinery.
This is due to the fact that gas is
compressible, and thus load
bearing capabilities are
compromised.
10

11. Excavators are used primarily in earthworks; they remove massive amounts of soil in a short period of time and are
used from digging trenches, holes, foundations to even driving piles and demolition work with appropriate
attachments to the boom.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
CABIN
ENGINE/COUNTERWEIGHT
TRACKS
BUCKETDIPPER
BOOM
Roller compactor plants are used to flatten and compress the earth using their weight as well as mechanical
vibrations to exert a large amount of force.
ROLLER
DRUM
ENGINE CONTROL
PANEL
11

12. Backhoes are excavating plants that combine a dozer blade at the front and a small excavating arm at the back.
Backhoe-loaders are general purpose machines, and can be outfitted with a variety of attachments to both ends of
the machine to suit the needs of the situation.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
EXCAVATING
BUCKET
STABILIZER
LEGS
DIESEL
ENGINE
LOADER
BOOM
DOZER
BLADE
CABIN
TEETHED
BUCKET
PALLETIZING
FORK
SWING
BLADE
DRILL &
PNEUMATIC
HAMMER
12

13. Pile drivers are machines that are used to drive piles into the earth during the construction of the foundation. There
are many types of pile drivers in use. The hydraulic hammer uses a hydraulic piston to hammer the pile repeatedly
until it reaches a suitable depth.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
TOP SHEAVE
PILE
BACK STAY
HYDRAULIC
PILE DRIVER
LEADER
CABIN
ENGINE/
COUNTERWEIGHT
13

14. Mobile cranes can be moved around the site, and are used to hoist and lift objects using a hydraulic-powered crane
with a telescoping boom. They are easily set up and mobile, and require to be stationary with its outriggers deployed
while working to stabilize the plant.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
FLY JIB
HOIST
COUNTERWEIGHT
CABIN
OUTRIGGER
JIB
HOOK BLOCK
ENGINE
3 TON
CONCRETE
BUCKET
2.5 TON
CONCRETE
BUCKET
14

15. Concrete mixer trucks are provided by the concrete supplier to ensure the concrete does not set prematurely while it
is being transported to the site. The rotating mixing drum (depending on the model) could hold 34 tonnes, or 10
cubic metres of concrete, and is kept spinning to ensure the concrete does not set.
AMOS TAN CHI YI
Skid loaders are small plants with lift arms and, depending on the attachment, used from excavating small amounts
of soil, to transporting heavy materials like bricks on pallets, to drilling holes and even creating trenches.
CABIN
SIDEGUARD
MIXING
DRUM
BRACKET
ROLLER
INLET/OUTLET
CONTROL
SYSTEM
LOADER
BOOM
BUCKET
CABIN
DIESEL
ENGINE
15

16. BENJAMIN CHENG JIA YEOW
Boundaries are set to
differentiate land between
different occupiers. Hoarding
and the Signage are one of
the preliminary infrastructures
of the site. Based on this
figure, the site boundary can
be seen in red.
16

17. BENJAMIN CHENG JIA YEOW
Site clearance and earthworks are done to
ensure that all construction works be carried
out smoothly in a conducive environment. This
includes the clearance of trees, shrubs, rubbish
and other rubbles from the site. Approximately
300mm of topsoil is removed to ensure that the
earth is suitable for foundation works, otherwise
known as topsoil excavation.
There were other types of excavation done to
clear the land before the setting out can begin.
Some examples of excavation carried out are
earth excavation and rock excavation. This is
carried out to reconfigure the topography of the
site, also stabilizing slopes in certain areas.
Slopes that are subject to
erosion from the runoff of
surface water require some
means of stabilization. The
principle mechanical means of
protecting an embankment
against erosion is the building of
a retaining wall.
Crib walls were used in the site
to hold back steep
embankments.
FIGURE 3.1.5: AFTER SITE CLEARANCE
FIGURE 3.1.6: CRIB WALL
Topsoil
Excavated
face
Granular fill
Precast
concrete
Concrete foundation
Drainage
Height in accordance
with manufacturer’s
requirements.
FIGURE 3.1.7: EXCAVATIONS
FIGURE 3.1.8: SKETCH OF CRIB WALL 17

18. BENJAMIN CHENG JIA YEOW
Profile boards
Base line
Site
boundary
Diagonal
checks
Main setting out lines
Tripod
Corner post
Plumb rod
Telescopes at right angles
Setting out lines
Nails positioning
trench and walls
Pointed posts
driven into
ground
Position of trench plumbed down
FIGURE 3.1.1: SETTING OUT FIGURE 3.1.2: SETTING OUT
FIGURE3.1.3 – SITESQUARE. Figure 3.1.4: PROFILE BOARD
The first task is to establish a base line from which
the whole building can be set out. After the base line
has been set out, the main lines of the building are
set out and marked with a picket. The setting out
lines act as a boundary of which the building must
not exceed.
Then, a check using a sitesquare is carried out to
ensure that right-angles and correct lengths have
been established (Figure 3.1.3).
When completed, wooden profile boards are set up
to locate the foundation trenches, foundations and
walls (Figure 3.1.4). They are required at all
trenches and wall intersections. The procedure of
earthworks and setting out is important as the final
dimensions of the building and the sizes of various
rooms depend on this operation.
18

19. During excavations, signboards
and warning signs must be
placed at all existing entrances
to the work area.
In addition, proper illumination
must be provided during
darkness. The excavation site
also must be checked after
every rainstorm to ensure
landslides do not occur.
The developer has the duty to
ensure every scaffold to be of
good construction, of suitable
material and adequate strength.
The scaffolds cannot be erected
or modified without the
supervision of a designated
person, called a Scaffold Erector.
The Scaffold Erector has to be
registered with DOSH, must
always adopt a safe system of
work.
Scaffolds must be inspected
during these times:
1. Before first use
2. After substantial alteration
3. After heavy rain, heavy wind
4. Regular intervals not
exceeding 7 days.
Any machineries leaving the
construction site are required to
undergo washing at the wash
trough. The washing includes
thorough washing from mud or
soil. This is to keep the public
road clean from the dirt from the
construction site.
There are 2 different types of
wash trough used in both sites
(Figure 3.1.9). Once construction
completed, the wash troughs will
be covered entirely by soil.
FIGURE 3.1.9: WASH TROUGH
FIGURE 3.1.9: DRIVE THROUGH SYSTEM
19
BENJAMIN CHENG JIA YEOW

20. Rumah Kongsi are the temporary accommodation
built by and for the foreign workers (Figure 3.1.10).
Their temporary quarters are made of plywood and
corrugated zinc sheets. They are also slightly raised
from the ground to prevent flooding and water entry
whenever there is heavy rain.
A typical Rumah Kongsi or workers quarters has
about 10 units, where each unit houses up to 3
workers.
Site offices are used for meetings among consultants,
contractors, architects and engineers. It is a place that
keeps all data, documents and information about
every construction methods, work progresses and
material specifications.
The site office is also where visitors go to obtain
permission upon entering the site.
FIGURE 3.1.10: RUMAH KONGSI/WORKERS QUARTERS
20
BENJAMIN CHENG JIA YEOW

21. NGE JIA CHEN
Foundation is part of a structural system that supports and anchors the superstructure of a building and transmit its
load directly to the earth. It is constructed partly or wholly below the surface of the ground.
A type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or
a range of depths as does deep foundation.
Strip Footing
• A strip of concrete, continuous below load
bearing wall in building to spread load.
• Placed centrally under the walls and used in
majority of buildings up to 4 storeys in height.
Raft Footing
• A reinforced concrete slab that covers the
whole area of a building and usually extends
beyond it.
• Best suited for use on soft natural ground or fill
or on ground that is liable to subsidence to
eliminate differential settlement.
Spread/ Pad Footing
• Individual/ isolated foundations to support
column.
• A generally rectangular prism of concrete,
larger in lateral dimensions than
the column or wall it
supports; used to distribute the load of a
column or wall to the subgrade.
Uniformly
Distributed
Load (UDL)
Mass concrete
strip foundation
formed at base of
excavated trench
Wall constructed off
strip foundation
Point Loads
Light loads
Heavy loads & Heavy
isolated point loads
Light loads & Point
loads
Heavy uniform
loads
Raft foundation
supports walls and
acts as a floor slab
Concrete raft
foundation reinforced
with steel mesh
Hardstanding to
prevent erosion
of soil & edge of
raft foundation
SQUARE FOOTING RECTANGULAR FOOTING CIRCULAR FOOTING
21

22. NGE JIA CHEN
A type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow
foundation does, to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.
Piled Foundation
• ‘Columns’ extending into the ground.
• Used in incompetent soil to transfer load to
competent load bearing soil or rock deeper
within earth.
Pile Cap
• Piles are generally driven closely together in group or
clusters that contain from two to twenty-five piles
each.
• The load is distributed over the head of the piles in the
group by means of a reinforced cast in-situ concrete
pile cap.
PRECAST
R.C PILE
STEEL
H PILE
SHELL
PILE
R.C
PILE
BORED
PILE
CAST
IN-SITU
PILE
R.C. COLUMN
PILE CAP
FOUR PILES
FIVE
SETS
THREE
SETS
TWO
SETS
FOUR
SETS
22

23. NGE JIA CHEN
FIGURE 4.2.1 : FOUNDATION - SITE 1
FIGURE 4.2.2 : FOUNDATION - SITE 2
Column reinforcement starter bars
or holding down bolts
8” x 8” R.C. Column
APPROVED FOUNDING MATERIAL
Footing Reinforcement, ½” dia.
bars at 8” ctrs. each way use
BRC A252 mesh for lightly
loaded columns
PLAN
D= 12”
L= L
Finished Grade
4” to 6”
4” Slab
2’
6”
1’
8”
1’
8”
1’
Remove
landscape / top
soil prior to
excavation
COMPACTED FILL
• Columns of structural frame to a building
• Individual pad foundation to support each column
23

24. NGE JIA CHEN
Starts with pegging of the site with
correction position of foundation.
Excavation commences, down to
desired level. Softlift of footing with
allowance for thickness of lean
concrete.
Lay a layer of lean concrete to
prepare a clean and firm base for
footing.
Building the formwork.
Spacer blocks are placed before
reinforcements been laid. This is
meant to provide sufficient concrete
cover for the rebars.
Rebars were bent and tied to form a
‘basket’ in advanced before the
whole thing been lowered and
placed inside the formwork. Make
sure it sits properly on spacer
blocks to avoid touching the lean
concrete.
Stump reinforcements are erected.
Length of rebars should be
extended beyond stump level and
act as starter bars for column
above.
Provide addition ties to formwork, if
necessary.
Concreting commences. Don’t
forget to compact the concrete
during process.
Concrete will set and curing shall be
performed to avoid excessive lost of
water during hardening. When the
concrete has gained sufficient
strength (usually 14 days),
formwork can be dismantled.
24

25. NGE JIA CHEN
R.C. pile is
lifted and
straighten
to be
hammered
into the
ground.
The pile is
driven into the
ground using
drop hammer
and hammered
until it cannot
be driven into
the soil any
further / until a
certain depth.
The concrete
is then cut /
crushed by a
Pneumatic
hammer and
finished pile
with
excavation for
pile cap.Most commonly used
pile in low- rise housing
projects.
Standard length of 6m,
9m and 12m.
Four Piles
Foundation
WallR.C. column
FIGURE 4.2.3 : R.C. PILE FIGURE 4.2.4 : SETS OF PILE READY TO BE CUT. FIGURE 4.2.5: PILE CAPS FORMWORKS DONE
USING PLYWOOD.
25

26. LEE CZEN SHING
Beams are rigid structural members designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across space to supporting
elements. The non concurrent pattern of forces subjects a beam to bend and deflect. Thus, it has to be resisted by
the internal strength of the material
Timber Box Beam
Timber Joist
Universal Beam
Hollow Steel Tubing
Castellated Beam
Concrete is then poured into wooden formwork and It is then set to dry.
26

27. LEE CZEN SHING
• Rebar is incorporated into concrete
• It provides extra tensile strength which in return creates tension
• Comprises of either single rebar or double rebar
• Divided into precast concrete and cast in-situ concrete
STEP 1: Rebar beam is
assembled on site,
which is also known as
cast in-situ.
COLUMN
STARTER BAR
REBAR CAGE
FORM WORK
STEP 4: Finally, concrete is
then poured into form
work and left to dry
STEP 2: Rebar steel is
then added as it good at
reducing tension force
STEP 3: Form work is then
added around the rebars.
COLUMN REINFORCEMENT
BEAM REINFORCEMENT
CONCRETE BEAM
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN
COLUMN REINFORCEMENT
Beam to Column Connection
27

28. LEE CZEN SHING
KERN AREA BUCKLING
SHAFT
BASE
Form work (Wooden plank)
• It is a structure, usually temporary
• Contains poured concrete to mould it to the required dimensions
and support it until it is able to support itself
Columns is a supporting pillar and a structural element which transfers the load of the structure and its live load
through to the foundation and into the hard strata. Failure occurs when direct stress from axial load exceeds the
compressive strength of the material available in the cross section. On the other hand, an eccentric load can
produce bending and results in an uneven stress distribution in the section.
28

29. LEE CZEN SHING
STEP 4: Wooden planks
are then placed as the
form work
STEP 2: Layout work is
then carried out
STEP 3: Starter bar is
installed then followed by
rebar cage
STARTER BAR
STUMP
REINFORCED
BAR CAGE
FORMWORK
FORMWORK
STUMP
REBAR
STEP 1: Grid lines are
drawn to dimensions
(to determine where the
columns would be
placed).
PLACEMENT OF COLUMNS FIGURE 5.11: CONSTRUCTION PROCESS - SITE 1 FIGURE 5.1.2: CONSTRUCTION PROCESS - SITE 2
29

30. Slab is a horizontal plane in a building structure. It provides space as floor and cover as ceiling of a building. Slabs
are plate structures that are reinforced to span either one or both directions of a structural bay.
KHOR YEN MIN
One-Way Slab
• Has an even thickness
• Reinforced in one direction
• Cast integrally with parallel
supporting beams
One-Way Joist Slab
• Cast integrally with a series of
closely spaced joists
• Supported by parallel sets of beams
• More suitable for heavy loads and
longer spans compared to
One-Way Slab
Two-Way Slab and Beams
• Has an even thickness
• Reinforced in two directions
• Cast integrally with supporting
beams and columns on all four
sides of square bays
• Suitable for medium spans and
heavy loads
Two-Way Waffle Slab
• Reinforced by ribs in two
directions
• Able to carry heavier loads and
has longer span than flat slabs
Two-Way Flat Plate
• Has an even thickness
• Reinforced in two/more directions
• Supported by columns without
beams or girders
• Commonly used in apartment
and hotel construction
Two-Way Flat Slab
• A flat plate thickened at its
column support
• Increase shear strength and
moment-resisting capacity
30

31. KHOR YEN MIN
One-Way Slab (Site 1 and Site 2) Two-Way Slab and Beam (Site 2)
FIGURE 5.2.3: PORCH - SITE 2FIGURE 5.2.1: DINING AREA - SITE
1
FIGURE 5.2.2: LIVING AREA - SITE
2
• Ratio of longer side
to shorter side is
more than 2
• Main tension
reinforcement bars in
one single direction
• Load will be transferred
to only two opposing
beam or load bearing wall
in both site buildings
• It is suitable for
light and moderate
load
• Load will be
transferred to four
support beams at all
four sides of nearly
square bays.
• It is effective for
medium spans and
it will support the
load of master
bedroom above it.
• Main tension
reinforcement bars
span both
directions, parallel
to the length and
the width of the
panel
• Ratio of longer
side to shorter
side is less than 2
or close to 1
31

32. KHOR YEN MIN
STEP 1: Props are erected to
support ledgers which will support
the formwork for beams.
STEP 2: Props are then erected to
support the ledgers for slab
formworks. Bearers are then
supported by the ledgers.
STEP 3: Pieces of plywood will be
decked on the bearers.
STEP 5: Cleaning process will be
done to remove small particles
(dust, stone, sand) in the
formwork. Then, concrete will be
poured.
STEP 6: After curing of 14 days,
the formwork will be removed.
LEDGER
BRC
MESH
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
SLAB
BEARER
PLYWOOD
STEP 4: Then, BRC mesh are
placed accordingly to its place in
the formwork.
32

33. KHOR YEN MIN
Material Specifications
Formwork : Plywood
Concrete Grade : 25 N/mm
Material Density : 24.0 kN/mm3
Reinforcement : BRC mesh (size : 2.2 x 2.4)
FIGURE 1: SITE 1 WOODEN FORMWORK FIGURE 2: SITE 2 WOODEN FORMWORK
33

34. A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security. Walls are the vertical
constructions of a building that enclose, separate, and protect its interior spaces. They may be load bearing
structures of homogeneous or composite construction designed to support imposed loads from floors and roofs, or
consist of a framework of columns and beams with non-structural panels attached to or filling in between them.
BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Some of the functions of wall include:
• To provide protection from weather;
• To separate interior spaces;
• To support upper floors and roofs together with their superimposed loads;
• To provide adequate thermal and sound insulation;
• For aesthetics and privacy
Wall Classification
In terms of their function, all walls are either load bearing or non-load bearing walls.
Common types of walls in construction are:-
1. Concrete Walls
2. Retaining Walls
3. Masonry Walls (Site 1 and Site 2)
4. Dry Walls
5. Glass Walls
6. Curtain Wall System
CONCRETE WALL
MASONRY
WALL
NON-LOAD
BEARING WALLS
UNREINFORCED REINFORCED
34

35. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
• Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry
can also refer to the units themselves.
Characteristics
• Load bearing or non- load bearing
• One of the most common materials for wall construction in Malaysia
• Durable
• Good sound insulation, fire insulation and thermal insulation
• Offers great flexibility in form and appearance
Common Types of Masonry
1. Bricks (heat-hardened clay units)
• Clay bricks (Site A)
• Cement bricks (Site A and Site B)
2. Concrete/cement blocks (chemically hardened units)
35

36. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
• Brick is one of the most popular exterior materials - it is beautiful and provides a solid,
well-made structure. A brick is a unit of material used in masonry construction by skilled
masons using mortar. Bricks come in many sizes, but usually in a width and weight
suitable to grasp in one hand while holding a trowel in the other.
Common Types of Bricks
1. Clay brick (Site A)
2. Smooth surface
3. Sand cement brick (Site A and Site B)
4. Autoclaved aerated concrete block
FIGURE 1: CLAY BRICK - SITE 1 FIGURE 2: SAND CEMENT BRICK
– SITE 1
FIGURE 3: SAND CEMENT BRICK
- SITE B
Brick Data
HEADER
FACE
FROG STRETCHER
FACE
• Usually reddish in colour
• Formed by pressing in moulds
• Dried and fried in high temperature
• Grey in colour
• Formed by machine, hand or pressing in moulds
• Require plastering and rendering after construction
• Cheaper than clay brick
36

37. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
FIGURE 1: RUNNING BOND – SITE 1
FIGURE 2: FLEMISH BOND – SITE 2
Running bond, commonly used for cavity and veneer walls, is composed of overlapping stretchers.
Flemish bond has alternating headers and stretchers in each course, each header being centred
above and below a stretcher. Flare headers with darker ends are often exposed in patterned
brickwork.
37

38. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
STEP 1: The outline of a
wall is drawn to scale,
normally starting at a
right-angled corner, on
alternate courses and
the quoin header is
drawn in opposite
directions on each
course.
STEP 2: Queen closers
are inserted next to the
quoin header and they
are continued until they
intersect the back line of
the wall produced.
STEP 3: Alternate
headers and stretchers
are drawn on the front
faces in the case of
Flemish bond, and
headers on one face
and stretchers on the
other with English bond.
The exposed header
and stretcher faces of
the quoin header
determine the nature of
the faces of the other
bricks.
STEP 4: The facework is
continued to the back
faces. If the wall is one-
and-a-half or two-and-
a-half-bricks thick and
stretchers appear on
one face, then headers
will occur on the other
side of the wall in the
same course.
38

39. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Flush
mortar joint
Concave
joint
Weathered
mortar joint
Struck
mortar joint
Raked
mortar joint
Weeping
mortar joint
Properly
prepared
joint
V-joint
Improperly
prepared
joint – too
shallow
Improperly
prepared
joint –
furrow
should be
eliminated
Beaded
mortar joint
FLUSH MORTAR JOINT (SITE 1 AND 2)
39

40. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
STEP 1: Reference
strings are placed to
indicate brick wall
construction.
STEP 2: Bricks are
positioned accordingly
following the reference
strings.
STEP 3: Cement mortar
are applied on the
header and stretcher.
STEP 4: Bricks are
placed firmly.
STEP 5: The bricks are
hit to improve bonding
between bricks.
STEP 6: Normal-sized
bricks are hammered
and cut into queen-
sized bricks (half of the
normal size) with a
chisel.
STEP 7: Queen-sized
bricks are cut
accordingly to the
structural arrangement
of the brick bonding.
STEP 8: Pegs are used
to ensure the right angle
and spirit level for
correct levelling.
40

41. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
Step 4 : Finishing -
desired colour paints
are applied for
aesthetic purposes.
Step 1 : Construction
bricks are applied
Step 2 : Plastering -
bricks are plastered
over.
Step 3 : Coating -
skim coat is applied
for a smoother
surface.
41

42. BRIDGET TAN SU TING
ANGLE BEAD
Metal angle beads are
used for precise wall
angles.
REFERENCE STRING
Strings are nailed on
the brick walls for even
plastering work.
CEMENT
PIT Pits are used to mark
the thickness of
plastering for even
layering.
PLASTER
PLASTIC
MESH
Plaster plastic mesh
are used to avoid dry
cracks on the brick
surfaces.
EXPANDED STEEL
WIRE MESH
Expanded steel wire
mesh are placed in
between the bricks to
strengthen the hold of
the brick wall
construction.
Few final courses of
bricks are slanted to fill
in the gap between the
bricks and slab for a
better hold of the
ground beam that will
be placed.
42

43. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
Tread
The horizontal surface of a step
on which the foot is placed
Nosing
The exposed edge of a tread,
usually projecting with a square,
rounded or splayed edge
Riser
The vertical member
between two consecutive
treads
Step
Riser plus tread
Going
The horizontal distance between two
consecutive risers or, the horizontal
dimensions from front to back of a tread
less any overlap with the next tread above
Rise
The vertical height between two
consecutive treads
Newel
Post forming the junction of
flights of stairs with landings or
carrying the lower end of strings
Strings
The members receiving the ends of
steps, which are generally housed to the
string and secured by wedges, called
wall or outer strings according to their
position
Handrail
Protecting member usually parallel
to the string and spanning between
newels
Baluster
The vertical infill member
between a string and handrail
Pitch line
A line connecting the nosings of
all treads in any one flight
Stairs provide means for access and moving from one level to another, which makes it an important link in the overall
circulation scheme of a building. Staircase does not always affect the exterior form of a building, but they influence the
internal organization of spaces and the pattern of the structural system.
43

44. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
STRAIGHT-RUN STAIR QUARTER-TURN STAIR HALF LANDING STAIR
WINDING STAIR CIRCULAR STAIR SPIRAL STAIR
44

45. Both Site 1 and Site 2 used half-landing concrete staircase in their construction.
Concrete stairs are designed as inclined, one-way reinforced slab with steps formed on the upper surface.
They require careful analysis of load, span and support conditions.
AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
The following are the basic requirements for the construction of simple
reinforced concrete stairs:
• Concrete mix usually specified as 1:1.5:3/3-10 mm aggregate (25-30
N/mm2)
• Minimum cover of concrete over reinforcement 15mm or bar diameter,
to give a 1-hour fire resistance
• Waist thickness between 100-2500 mm (depending on stair type)
• Mild steel or high yield steel bars as reinforcement
FIGURE 5.4.1: SECTION OF CONCRETE STAIRCASE
FIGURE 5.4.2: LONGITUDINAL SECTION
OF CONCRETE STAIRCASE
SHEAR KEY
STEEL DOWELS
HORIZONTAL BARS EXTEND
INTO SIDE WALL
STEEL
REINFORCEMENT
BEAM FOR SUPPORT
NOSING BARS
45

46. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
FIGURE 5.4.2: THE FORMWORK OF CONCRETE
STAIRCASE
FIGURE 5.4.3: COMPLETED
CONCRETE STAIRCASE
STEP 1: Formwork of staircase is
set without riser board. Wooden
stakes are added as bracing,
every 300mm.
STEP 2: Steel reinforcement bars
are placed in the formwork.
STEP 4: The concrete is poured
from top and gradually flow to
spread evenly to the bottom, and
left to dry for 3 to 4 days. The
concrete is left to cure for 30 days
so the staining will occur properly.
STEP 3: After the steel
reinforcement is placed, stringer
and riser board is then nailed into
formwork so the riser and thread
can be formed after pouring the
concrete.
1
2
3
4
46

47. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
Rough opening
The wall opening into which a
doorframe is fitted
Head
The uppermost member of a doorframe
Jamb
Refers to either of the two side
members of a doorframe
Stop
The projecting part of a
doorframe against which a door
closes
Casing
The trim that finishes the joint
between a doorframe and its
rough opening
Threshold
The sill of a doorway, covering
the joint between two flooring
materials or providing weather
protection at an exterior door
Saddle
A raised piece of flooring between the jambs of
a doorway, to which a door fits closely so as to
prevent binding when opened.
Doors and doorways provide access from outside into the interior of a building as well as passage between interior
spaces. Doorways should be large enough for ease of movement and to accommodate moving of furnishings and
equipment. All doors should be evaluated for their ease of operation, durability under anticipated frequency of use,
security provisions as well as light, ventilation and view they may offer.
47

48. There are several types of doors available for use in construction in terms of operation and design, as listed below:
AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
Swinging
• Exterior and interior use
• Door turns on hinges about a side jamb
• Requires space around doorway for door swing
• Most convenient operation for entry and passage
• Most effective door type for thermal and acoustic
insulation and for weather resistance
Bypass Sliding
• Exterior and interior use
• Door slides on overhead track and along
guides/track
• Requires no operating space but difficult to seal
against weather and sound
• Offers access only through 50% of doorway width
• Used on exterior as sliding glass doors and in
interiors for visual screening
Surface Sliding
• Exterior and interior use
• Provides access through full width of doorway
• Door is surface-hung on exposed overhead track
• No operating space required but difficult to
weatherproof
Pocket Sliding
• Interior use
• Door slides on an overhead track into and out of a
recess within the width of the wall
Folding
• Interior use
• Hinged door panels fold flat against one another
when opened 48

49. There are several types of doors available for use in construction in terms of operation and design, as listed below:
AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
FLUSH GLASS VISION NARROW LIGHT FULL-LOUVERED VISION/LOUVERED
A door frame is attached to the opening in which a door is to be fitted. It provides a surround for the door and is the
member to which a door is fixed or hung. Frames should be securely fixed to the wall in which they sit, using frame
fixings for masonry and screws for timber.
MASONRY WALLS WOOD STUD WALLS STEEL STUD WALLS
49

50. Site 1 had a variety of doors used throughout its construction. The following are the types of doors used:
• Main Entrance – Painted solid timber door with architrave and timber frame
• Bedrooms, bathrooms and store room – Painted waterproofed timber flush door with metal frame
• Others – Clear glass sliding door with aluminium frame & aluminium louvred door with aluminium frame (shoerack)
Site 2 used timber flush door with zinculum frame.
AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
FIGURE 6.1.1: TIMBER DOOR WITH
TIMBER FRAME - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.1.2: GLASS SLIDING DOOR - SITE 1 FIGURE 6.1.3: ALUMINIUM LOUVRED
DOOR WITH ALUMINIUM FRAME
50

51. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
STANDARD DOUBLE-RABBET FRAME
Both Site 1 and Site 2 used metal door frame.
Site 1 used double repeated aluminium door frame where as Site 2 used single repeated zinculum frame.
SINGLE RABBET FRAME
FIGURE 6.1.4: ALUMINIUM DOOR FRAME - SITE 1 FIGURE 6.1.5: ZINCULUM DOOR FRAME - SITE 2
51

52. AIDA JUNITA BINTI ZULKIFLEE
STEP 1: Location of the doors is
measured and marked. A few
layers of bricks are then placed
beside the markings.
STEP 2: The door frame is slotted
into the marked position. The jamb
of the door is nailed into the
masonry wall for support. Bricks
are then continued to be laid.
STEP 3: Pre-cast concrete lintel is
bind with mortar and placed on
top of the door head. Lintel is
constructed so that no excessive
vertical force is exerted on the
door frame.
STEP 4: For timber door frame,
wall is plastered and main frame is
installed. For aluminium door
frame, mortar is filled in the space
between the gap and masonry wall
before the wall is plastered.
STEP 5: Shims are placed on the
hinges’ side to form a continuous
gap in between. The hinge is then
nailed into the side door jamb.
STEP 6: Casing (architrave) is
installed to ensure cracks and
flaws in the joining is hidden.
52

53. Windows are openings in the wall or roof of a building that is fitted with glass or other transparent material in a frame
to admit light or air and allow people to see out.
KHOR YEN MIN
JAMB
FRAME
HINGE
GLASS
UNIT
WINDOW
BAR
BOLT
RESPONSE
PLATE
HANDLE
Fixed
• Ventilation : 0%
• Consists of a frame and
stationary sash
Casement
• Ventilation : 100%
• Consists of operating
sashes that are side-hinged
and usually swing outwards.
Awning & Hopper
• Ventilation : 100%
• Consists of operating sashes that
swing outward on hinges attached to
the top of their frame.
Sliding
• Ventilation : 50%
• Consists two or more sashes which
at least one slides along horizontal
grooves or tracks
Double-Hung
• Ventilation : 50%
• Consists of two vertically sliding
sashes which each in separate
grooves or tracks.
Jolousie
• Ventilation : 100%
• Consists of horizontal glass or wood
louvers that is slanted in a fixed angle
in a common frame.
Pivoting
• Ventilation : 100%
• Consists of sashes that rotate 90° or
180° about a vertical or horizontal
axis at or near their centers.
Window Terminology
53

54. KHOR YEN MIN
Casement Window
Location : Kitchen
Type of frame: Natural Anodized Aluminium
Ventilation: 50%
• Consists four sashes which allows them to slide
along horizontal grooves.
• Clear glass is used to allow user to see outside and
to allow natural light in.
Location: Bedrooms
Type of frame: Natural Anodized Aluminium
Ventilation: 100%
• Consists of three operating sashes that are side
hinged which swing outwards.
• Clear glass is used to allow user to see outside and
to allow natural light in.
54
Sliding Window Awning & Hopper + Fixed
Location: Bathroom
Type of frame: Natural
Anodized Aluminium
Ventilation: 100%
• Consists of an operating
sash that swing outward
on hinges attached to
the top of their frame.
• Upper window
• Frosted glass is used as
privacy purposes but
allows natural light in.
Location: Bathroom
Type of frame: Natural
Anodized Aluminium.
Ventilation: 0%
• Consists of a frame
and stationary sash.
• Act as privacy.
• Lower window
• Frosted glass is used
as privacy purposes
but allows natural light in.

55. KHOR YEN MIN
Both site uses precast concrete lintel which are placed
above the window openings. Lintel is used as a
support beam and transfers the load to the wall either
side of the window. This can prevent the framework of
the window from bending due to the weight of the
wall, floor and roof produce above the window
opening.
FIGURE 6.2.3: WOODEN
FORMWORK - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.2.4: DEFORMED
REBARS FOR LINTEL - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.2.6: PRECAST
CONCRETE LINTEL - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.2.1: WINDOW
OPENINGS - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.2.2: WINDOW
OPENINGS - SITE 2 –
DEFORMED
REBAR
PRECAST
CONCRETE
LINTEL
BRICK WALL
Cross-Section of Precast Concrete Lintel
Precast Concrete Lintel on Site 1
FIGURE 6.2.5: MAKING OF LINTELS
BY A WORKER - SITE 1
LINTEL
55

56. KHOR YEN MIN
STEP 1 – Framework
is placed on the
window opening
STEP 2 – Check (✓)
framework and wall
STEP 3 – Drill a hole by
using the framework
hole as reference.
STEP 4 - Place a
window frame screw
into the hole.
STEP 5 – Place and
install the window
carefully.
STEP 6 – Finish the
wall with sealant
FIGURE 6.2.7: NATURAL
ANODIZED ALUMINIUM
FRAMEWORK - SITE 1
FIGURE 6.2.8: ZINCULUM
FRAMEWORK - SITE 2
Material Specifications
Formwork : Plywood
Framework :
Site 1 - Natural Anodized
Aluminium
Site 2 – Zinculum (Aluminium
coated with zinc)
✓
✓
56

57. WONG ZHEN FAI
There are several significant functions of a roof structure and it can be categorised into 4 main purposes:
2. Strength & Stability
Another purpose of a roof is to have load-bearing
abilities. The roof must be able to support weight of
roof covering and structure and still be able to resist
the wind forces and applied load of snow. The roof
structure should be built as light as possible without
sacrificing safety and efficiency to keep imposed loads
on the supporting walls to a minimum. This is to
minimise the economic means to construct the roof
structure.
3. Fire Protection
Another significant function of roof is to prevent fire
from spreading to and from adjacent or adjoined
structures. The roof would need to have fire resistant
properties to ensure user safety and to prevent the fire
from affecting the structure’s integrity.
4. Aesthetics
Different roof types and coverings can greatly affect
the appearance of the structure. There are various
colours and textures as elements for the design of roof
covering which would increase user appeal towards
the finished structure. The slope of the roof also
significantly affect the aesthetics.
1. Climate Barrier
The primary purpose of a roof is to prevent the weather
from entering interior spaces of a building/Structure. it
is also responsible for keeping the warm/cool air in
(depending on local climate). These 2 factors would
significantly improve user comfort and allow them to
carry out regular activities in a comfortable manner.
EXTERNAL CLIMATE
WIND FORCE + SNOW LOAD
WALLS IMPOSED LOAD
INTERNAL FIRE
EXTERNAL FIRE
DIFFERENT ROOF TYPE & COVERING
57

58. WONG ZHEN FAI
There are numerous roof types and coverings available. Shown and illustrated below are the roof types and
coverings that are popularly used:
HIP ROOF GABLE ROOF GULL WNG ROOF
GAMBREL ROOFFLAT ROOF MONO-PITCHED ROOF
• Poor ventilation
• Stable during extreme
winds
• Weak during extreme winds
• Allows placement of window
for natural light
• Requires careful construction
• Improper construction would
lead to leaks and expensive
repairs
• Shaped like a gull
• Cost-efficient
• Requires less materials
• Stronger than pitched roofs
• Roof space can be used
• Single-sloped roof • Allows maximum use of
the attic
• Also known as French roof
• Allows wider buildings
• Shorter rafters
DORMER ROOF
MANSARD ROOF
58

59. WONG ZHEN FAI
Our chosen site was Kepayang Heights 2 developed by GUH Properties located in Seremban. The roof type of the
houses are mono-pitched roofs and flat roofs.
What is a Mono-pitched roof?
Mono-pitched roofs are roofs with only one sloping surface. They
are usually not attached to any other parts of the roof.
It is also known as a pent roof, shed roof, lean-to roof or skillion
roof.
Advantages
This type of roof is gaining its popularity in homes nowadays
because of its modern aesthetics. Installation of the mono-
pitched roof is relatively simple compared to other types of roofs
because it only has one slope. Therefore, the construction cost is
usually lower.
RUN
RISE
PITCH
OVERHANG
59

60. WONG ZHEN FAI
ROOF SLOPE ON SITE: 2/12
12 INCHES
1 4.5 FLAT ROOF
2 9.5
4 18.5 LOW-PITCHED ROOF
3 14
5 22.5
6 26.5
PITCH DEGREE
Slope is used to prevent accumulation of water
which would increase load-bearing weight.
8 33.75
9 37
10 40
11 42.5
7 30.5 MEDIUM-PITCHED ROOF
12 45 HIGH-PITCHED ROOF
60

61. WONG ZHEN FAI
• A support brace is installed on the top plate of the wall bracing.
• A ridge beam is added to the support brace. Struts are then
added to the ridge beam to create a higher end for the slope.
• Rafters are added to the structure to allow roof covering to be
placed on later. After that, the outrigger and purlin will then be
attached to the structure.
• The trusses are then added to increase the strength of the mono
pitched roof.birds mouth
Material Used: Steel
61

62. WONG ZHEN FAI
STEEL
RAFTERS
ALUMINIUM FOIL
ROCKWOOL
METAL DECK
(ZINCULUM)
STEP 4: Steel trusses and rafters act
as the base for the roof covering.
STEP 3: Aluminium foil is then placed
because it reflects thermal radiation
very well and emits very little heat.
STEP 2: After that, RockWool is
layered because of its ability to
provide thermal and sound protection
for the roof. Since it is made from
stone, it also acts as a fire barrier.
STEP 1: No tiles are used for the roof
covering. Zinculum is used because
of its durability and strength. It is also
thermal efficient which is suitable for
the warm local climate.
62

63. WONG ZHEN FAI
FASCIA BOARD
WALL BRACING
RAFTER
TOP PLATE
PURLIN
OUTRIGGER
63

64. SITE AND SAFETY
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PLANTS AND MACHINERY
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EXTERNAL WORK & SETTING OUT AND EARTH WORK
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FOUNDATION
Barkauskas, F. (2002). Foundations. In Concrete construction manual (Detail ed., p. 168). Munich, Berlin: Birkhauser.
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SUPERSTRUCTURE
BEAM AND COLUMN
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Reinforcing.com.au,. 'Reinforcing - Bar'. N.p., 2015. Web. 20 Oct. 2015.
SLAB
Cheah, D. (2012, January 25). Don's Works. Retrieved October 15, 2015, from http://cgetechnology.blogspot.my/2012/01/method-statement-casting-of-first-floor.html
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Parker, H., & Ambrose, J. (1991). Simplified design of concrete structures (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
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64

65. WALL
Brick Construction. (2005) (1st ed., pp. 1-19). North Carolina. Retrieved from http://www.pinehallbrick.com/userfiles/constructionguide_000.pdf
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about-ceiling-and-wall-construction
Mishra, G. (2014). WALLS- TYPES, FEATURES AND DESIGN CONCEPT. The Constructor. Retrieved 18 September 2015, from
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STAIRCASE & DOORS
Ching, F., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.
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WINDOWS
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