This document is a seminar report on bubble power submitted by Hitesh Khatri in partial fulfillment of a Bachelor's degree in electronics and communication engineering. The report discusses sonoluminescence, which is the emission of light from bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound. It describes how a single bubble can be trapped and made to repeatedly expand and collapse, emitting a burst of light each time. The report then discusses how this phenomenon of sonoluminescence could potentially be used to achieve nuclear fusion through a process called sonofusion, in which the extreme temperatures and pressures inside an imploding bubble could cause hydrogen nuclei to fuse. It outlines the various components and processes involved in attempting to generate nuclear fusion
This document describes bubble power or sonofusion as a potential clean energy source. Sonofusion uses ultrasonic sound waves to compress and heat deuterium bubbles in a liquid, potentially causing nuclear fusion. The document outlines the process, including using a piezoelectric crystal to generate oscillations in a flask of deuterated acetone, and firing neutrons to further compress bubbles. If successful, bubble power could provide unlimited clean energy similar to thermonuclear fusion but on a smaller scale. However, the technology remains unproven and would require significant development to implement on a useful scale.
The document describes a proposed automatic energy meter reading and billing system using GSM technology. The system would replace manual meter reading by having energy meters transmit readings to a central system via GSM modules. This would allow remote access and monitoring of usage without site visits. The system architecture includes microcontrollers, LCD displays, relays, GSM modules, and other hardware. It would provide benefits like reduced costs, time savings from manual reading, and more accurate billing.
The document summarizes a seminar on wireless electricity transmission using microwaves. It discusses how Nikola Tesla experimented with wireless power in the late 19th/early 20th century. More recently, researchers have demonstrated converting microwaves to electricity using rectennas with over 95% efficiency. For wireless power transmission, microwaves would be beamed to rectennas on Earth from satellites in low or geostationary orbit. While promising, challenges include the large size needed for rectennas and high costs of over $70 billion to implement.
In an age where every teeny tiny bit of electricity is valued, conservation is much talked about, can piezoelectricity be the messiah to ease the burden off the conventional energy sources?
Who says it cannot?
--
Presentation as a part of seminar coursework.
This seminar discusses micro fuel cells, which are a type of fuel cell that can power portable electronic devices. Micro fuel cells work by converting chemical energy directly from fuels like methanol into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. They have several advantages over conventional batteries as they are reusable by refilling the fuel cartridge and do not need lengthy recharging times. The seminar covers the history, components, mechanisms, applications and future prospects of micro fuel cells.
This document describes the design of a digital energy meter with a cost indicator. It has three main parts: a power sensing unit, a power and cost calculation unit, and a display unit using LCD. It measures power consumption and calculates the energy used in kW/h and the corresponding cost based on the tariff rates stored in the microcontroller. The values are displayed on the LCD. It is designed using components like a PIC microcontroller, current and potential transformers, and an LCD for display. The circuit uses a power supply unit consisting of a step-down transformer, rectifier, filters and regulators to provide the necessary power.
Wireless power transmission wpt Saminor report finalRameez Raja
This document discusses the history and technology of wireless power transmission (WPT). It begins by explaining the need and advantages of WPT over wired power transmission, such as eliminating wires that are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. It then provides a brief history of WPT, covering Nikola Tesla's early experiments in the late 19th century through modern developments. The document goes on to explain the basic principles and components of how WPT works, transferring energy through magnetic fields from a transmitter coil to a receiver coil. Researchers believe WPT will make a significant contribution to energy supplies by the end of the decade.
This document describes bubble power or sonofusion as a potential clean energy source. Sonofusion uses ultrasonic sound waves to compress and heat deuterium bubbles in a liquid, potentially causing nuclear fusion. The document outlines the process, including using a piezoelectric crystal to generate oscillations in a flask of deuterated acetone, and firing neutrons to further compress bubbles. If successful, bubble power could provide unlimited clean energy similar to thermonuclear fusion but on a smaller scale. However, the technology remains unproven and would require significant development to implement on a useful scale.
The document describes a proposed automatic energy meter reading and billing system using GSM technology. The system would replace manual meter reading by having energy meters transmit readings to a central system via GSM modules. This would allow remote access and monitoring of usage without site visits. The system architecture includes microcontrollers, LCD displays, relays, GSM modules, and other hardware. It would provide benefits like reduced costs, time savings from manual reading, and more accurate billing.
The document summarizes a seminar on wireless electricity transmission using microwaves. It discusses how Nikola Tesla experimented with wireless power in the late 19th/early 20th century. More recently, researchers have demonstrated converting microwaves to electricity using rectennas with over 95% efficiency. For wireless power transmission, microwaves would be beamed to rectennas on Earth from satellites in low or geostationary orbit. While promising, challenges include the large size needed for rectennas and high costs of over $70 billion to implement.
In an age where every teeny tiny bit of electricity is valued, conservation is much talked about, can piezoelectricity be the messiah to ease the burden off the conventional energy sources?
Who says it cannot?
--
Presentation as a part of seminar coursework.
This seminar discusses micro fuel cells, which are a type of fuel cell that can power portable electronic devices. Micro fuel cells work by converting chemical energy directly from fuels like methanol into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. They have several advantages over conventional batteries as they are reusable by refilling the fuel cartridge and do not need lengthy recharging times. The seminar covers the history, components, mechanisms, applications and future prospects of micro fuel cells.
This document describes the design of a digital energy meter with a cost indicator. It has three main parts: a power sensing unit, a power and cost calculation unit, and a display unit using LCD. It measures power consumption and calculates the energy used in kW/h and the corresponding cost based on the tariff rates stored in the microcontroller. The values are displayed on the LCD. It is designed using components like a PIC microcontroller, current and potential transformers, and an LCD for display. The circuit uses a power supply unit consisting of a step-down transformer, rectifier, filters and regulators to provide the necessary power.
Wireless power transmission wpt Saminor report finalRameez Raja
This document discusses the history and technology of wireless power transmission (WPT). It begins by explaining the need and advantages of WPT over wired power transmission, such as eliminating wires that are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. It then provides a brief history of WPT, covering Nikola Tesla's early experiments in the late 19th century through modern developments. The document goes on to explain the basic principles and components of how WPT works, transferring energy through magnetic fields from a transmitter coil to a receiver coil. Researchers believe WPT will make a significant contribution to energy supplies by the end of the decade.
Wireless power transmission and reception using solar power satellites and ...PRADEEP Cheekatla
1. The document describes a proposed system for wireless power transmission from solar power satellites (SPS) to rectifying antennas (rectennas) on Earth using microwaves.
2. The SPS would have large photovoltaic panels to generate solar power, which would be converted to microwaves and transmitted via a large transmitting antenna to rectennas on Earth.
3. The rectennas would receive the microwaves and convert them back to electric power, providing a renewable energy source unaffected by weather or nighttime.
The document provides an overview of smart grids and their development. It discusses:
1) How today's power grids originated in the late 19th/early 20th century as local grids that grew over time and interconnected for reliability. By the 1960s, grids in developed nations were large, mature networks delivering power from thousands of central power plants.
2) The definition of a smart grid as a digitally enabled electrical grid that gathers, distributes, and acts on information from all participants to improve efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of electricity services.
3) Some key components of smart grids including intelligent appliances, smart meters, smart substations, super conducting cables, integrated communications networks, and phasor measurement units
Frequency control in a microgrid including controllable loadIAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a method for frequency control in microgrids that includes renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and controllable loads. The microgrid model analyzed includes solar power, wind power, batteries, supercapacitors, and electric water heaters. The document describes the components of the microgrid, simulation parameters and assumptions. Frequency control is achieved by coordinating the energy storage devices and generators using optimized proportional-integral controllers. Electric water heaters can also help control frequency by adjusting their operating temperature setpoints in response to frequency deviations.
The document proposes using semi-definite programming (SDP) to solve the security constrained unit commitment (SCUC) problem in power systems operations. SDP formulates the SCUC problem as an SDP problem that can minimize an objective function while handling constraints to provide a physically feasible and secure solution. The document describes the SCUC problem, limitations of conventional approaches, how SDP can solve SCUC while meeting operational constraints and security, and provides a case study example.
1. Power theft is a major problem in India, costing billions of rupees annually. Common methods of theft include tampering with meters, bypassing meters, and illegal taps of distribution lines.
2. Technical solutions proposed to detect power theft include electronic tamper detection meters, pre-payment meters, plastic meter enclosures, and using programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and GSM networks to automatically read meters and detect anomalies.
3. A PLC-based system would install meters with PLC modules high on power poles to transmit usage data through power lines to displays in homes, while a second meter verifies usage to detect theft. GSM networks could also enable automatic remote meter reading to
Piezoelectric energy harvesting based on vibration Ravi Kannappan
This document reviews piezoelectric energy harvesting from mechanical vibration. It discusses various piezoelectric energy harvesting device designs including cantilever, cymbal, stack, shell, and new material designs. Common piezoelectric materials like PZT are reviewed as well as new materials like aluminum nitride. Circuit designs for harvesting energy from the alternating current output of piezoelectric materials are also summarized, including full wave rectification and synchronized switching rectification. The document concludes that while vibration-based piezoelectric energy harvesting has potential, challenges remain in low power circuit activation and energy storage from the small amounts of harvested energy.
This document is a seminar report on nuclear micro-batteries submitted by Vishnu M T. It discusses the historical developments of nuclear batteries dating back to the 1950s. It describes how nuclear batteries harvest energy from radioactive isotopes through alpha and beta particle emissions without nuclear fission or fusion. The report examines various isotopes considered for batteries and mechanisms to incorporate radioactive sources. It outlines advantages like high energy density and lifetime measured in decades, as well as challenges. Applications discussed include powering pacemakers, sensors, and future mobile devices.
This document provides an overview of superconductivity and superconductors. It discusses the history of superconductors beginning in 1911 with liquid helium experiments. Key developments include the BCS theory from 1957 explaining electron pairing in superconductors. The document outlines the properties of superconductors including zero resistance and the Meissner effect. It describes the two main types of superconductors - low-temperature and high-temperature - and gives examples of superconducting elements and compounds. The applications of superconductors are highlighted in several fields like electricity, transportation, and medicine. The future potential of superconductors is noted but not detailed.
A power quality monitoring system gathers and analyzes electricity measurement data to provide useful information. It allows plants to perform energy management, preventive maintenance, quality control, and save money. Power quality monitoring equipment includes digital fault recorders, smart relays, voltage recorders, in-plant power monitors, and special-purpose power quality equipment. These devices monitor voltage, current, and other measurements to detect issues like harmonics, sags, disturbances and optimize power quality and performance.
Available transfer capability (atc) sbw pptRavi Sekpure
The document discusses available transfer capability (ATC) in power systems. ATC is a measure of unused transmission capacity and is calculated as total transfer capability (TTC) minus transmission reliability margin, existing transmission commitments, and capacity benefit margin. As electricity markets become more competitive, accurately calculating ATC is important to ensure efficient use of transmission networks over large distances. The document outlines various techniques for calculating ATC, including linear sensitivity analysis, power flow methods, and probabilistic approaches.
Transactive Energy (TE) can play a defining role in adapting and stabilizing today's grid for tomorrow. A follow-up to the Cross-DEWG Discussion on Transactive Energy session held in May at the SGIP Spring 2014 Members Meeting, this webinar continues the dialogue regarding this important game changer. SGIP is making this webinar event open and free to the public.
1) Traditional electromechanical meters have issues like drift over time and temperature that digital smart meters improve on. Smart meters allow for automated and remote reading to improve efficiency.
2) Advanced Metering Infrastructure involves integrating smart meters, communication networks, and data management systems to allow two-way communication between utilities and customers. This enables features like time-of-use pricing and remote service disconnects.
3) Key components of AMI include smart meters, wide area communication networks, home area networks connected to devices, and meter data management systems to aggregate and analyze usage data.
This document discusses using a D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator) to improve power quality and voltage regulation in a photovoltaic (PV) distribution system. The objectives are to analyze the effects of nonlinear loads, study existing harmonics mitigation methods, and propose a best method for compensating reactive power and mitigating current harmonics. It presents the contents, introduces issues like harmonics from power electronic devices and reactive power disturbances. It then describes the operation, topology and components of a D-STATCOM and PV system. MATLAB models of the grid-connected PV system with and without D-STATCOM are presented, showing the D-STATCOM improves power factor and regulates the voltage.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING THERMAL POWER PLANT Industrial ReportUtkarsh Chaubey
The document is an industrial training report submitted by Utkarsh Chaubey to Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya. It provides an overview of Utkarsh's training at the Shri Singaji Thermal Power Plant (SSTPP). The report includes sections on the power plant overview, the Rankine cycle used, classification of thermal power plants, typical components of a coal fired plant, site selection considerations, and descriptions of various systems within SSTPP such as the generator, switchyard, transformers, and safety measures.
Wide area measurements (synchrophasor measurements) in Power SystemsNaila Syed
The document discusses wide area measurement systems (WAMS) which are used to monitor India's electricity grid. WAMS take synchronized phasor measurements from across the grid using phasor measurement units (PMUs) and transmit the data to control centers. This provides operators wide area situational awareness to improve stability. Currently there are about 60 PMUs providing data but larger scale deployment is needed to maximize benefits. WAMS combines metering with communication to acquire synchronized phasor data, transmit it, and process it to monitor the grid at a high level of granularity.
Wind energy is a renewable resource that has the potential to meet a significant portion of global electricity demand. The document discusses the history and basics of wind energy, including how wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical and then electrical power. Globally, wind power capacity has grown substantially in recent decades and now meets around 4% of global electricity demand, with new installations in 2019 bringing total capacity to over 600 GW. The potential for wind power in Pakistan is also discussed, with one analysis finding an exploitable potential of 11,000 MW in the Sindh province alone.
This is the seminar report on the topic Nuclear fusion and its prospects as a future source of Energy. You can also look for the slides that I've published by the same title.
‘Bubble Power’-the revolutionary new energy source. It is working under the principle of Sonofusion.Sonofusion involves tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves that can make hydrogen nuclei fuse and may one day become a revolutionary new energy source.
The document discusses sonofusion, a proposed new energy source involving tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves that could cause hydrogen nuclei to fuse. It describes how sonofusion works by creating high temperatures and pressures inside bubbles in a liquid using ultrasonic waves, potentially allowing for nuclear fusion. The document outlines the experimental setup for sonofusion and the evidence that has been found, such as emissions of neutrons and tritium, to support that low-energy nuclear reactions may be occurring. Sonofusion could potentially become a revolutionary new energy source if fully developed.
Wireless power transmission and reception using solar power satellites and ...PRADEEP Cheekatla
1. The document describes a proposed system for wireless power transmission from solar power satellites (SPS) to rectifying antennas (rectennas) on Earth using microwaves.
2. The SPS would have large photovoltaic panels to generate solar power, which would be converted to microwaves and transmitted via a large transmitting antenna to rectennas on Earth.
3. The rectennas would receive the microwaves and convert them back to electric power, providing a renewable energy source unaffected by weather or nighttime.
The document provides an overview of smart grids and their development. It discusses:
1) How today's power grids originated in the late 19th/early 20th century as local grids that grew over time and interconnected for reliability. By the 1960s, grids in developed nations were large, mature networks delivering power from thousands of central power plants.
2) The definition of a smart grid as a digitally enabled electrical grid that gathers, distributes, and acts on information from all participants to improve efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of electricity services.
3) Some key components of smart grids including intelligent appliances, smart meters, smart substations, super conducting cables, integrated communications networks, and phasor measurement units
Frequency control in a microgrid including controllable loadIAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a method for frequency control in microgrids that includes renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and controllable loads. The microgrid model analyzed includes solar power, wind power, batteries, supercapacitors, and electric water heaters. The document describes the components of the microgrid, simulation parameters and assumptions. Frequency control is achieved by coordinating the energy storage devices and generators using optimized proportional-integral controllers. Electric water heaters can also help control frequency by adjusting their operating temperature setpoints in response to frequency deviations.
The document proposes using semi-definite programming (SDP) to solve the security constrained unit commitment (SCUC) problem in power systems operations. SDP formulates the SCUC problem as an SDP problem that can minimize an objective function while handling constraints to provide a physically feasible and secure solution. The document describes the SCUC problem, limitations of conventional approaches, how SDP can solve SCUC while meeting operational constraints and security, and provides a case study example.
1. Power theft is a major problem in India, costing billions of rupees annually. Common methods of theft include tampering with meters, bypassing meters, and illegal taps of distribution lines.
2. Technical solutions proposed to detect power theft include electronic tamper detection meters, pre-payment meters, plastic meter enclosures, and using programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and GSM networks to automatically read meters and detect anomalies.
3. A PLC-based system would install meters with PLC modules high on power poles to transmit usage data through power lines to displays in homes, while a second meter verifies usage to detect theft. GSM networks could also enable automatic remote meter reading to
Piezoelectric energy harvesting based on vibration Ravi Kannappan
This document reviews piezoelectric energy harvesting from mechanical vibration. It discusses various piezoelectric energy harvesting device designs including cantilever, cymbal, stack, shell, and new material designs. Common piezoelectric materials like PZT are reviewed as well as new materials like aluminum nitride. Circuit designs for harvesting energy from the alternating current output of piezoelectric materials are also summarized, including full wave rectification and synchronized switching rectification. The document concludes that while vibration-based piezoelectric energy harvesting has potential, challenges remain in low power circuit activation and energy storage from the small amounts of harvested energy.
This document is a seminar report on nuclear micro-batteries submitted by Vishnu M T. It discusses the historical developments of nuclear batteries dating back to the 1950s. It describes how nuclear batteries harvest energy from radioactive isotopes through alpha and beta particle emissions without nuclear fission or fusion. The report examines various isotopes considered for batteries and mechanisms to incorporate radioactive sources. It outlines advantages like high energy density and lifetime measured in decades, as well as challenges. Applications discussed include powering pacemakers, sensors, and future mobile devices.
This document provides an overview of superconductivity and superconductors. It discusses the history of superconductors beginning in 1911 with liquid helium experiments. Key developments include the BCS theory from 1957 explaining electron pairing in superconductors. The document outlines the properties of superconductors including zero resistance and the Meissner effect. It describes the two main types of superconductors - low-temperature and high-temperature - and gives examples of superconducting elements and compounds. The applications of superconductors are highlighted in several fields like electricity, transportation, and medicine. The future potential of superconductors is noted but not detailed.
A power quality monitoring system gathers and analyzes electricity measurement data to provide useful information. It allows plants to perform energy management, preventive maintenance, quality control, and save money. Power quality monitoring equipment includes digital fault recorders, smart relays, voltage recorders, in-plant power monitors, and special-purpose power quality equipment. These devices monitor voltage, current, and other measurements to detect issues like harmonics, sags, disturbances and optimize power quality and performance.
Available transfer capability (atc) sbw pptRavi Sekpure
The document discusses available transfer capability (ATC) in power systems. ATC is a measure of unused transmission capacity and is calculated as total transfer capability (TTC) minus transmission reliability margin, existing transmission commitments, and capacity benefit margin. As electricity markets become more competitive, accurately calculating ATC is important to ensure efficient use of transmission networks over large distances. The document outlines various techniques for calculating ATC, including linear sensitivity analysis, power flow methods, and probabilistic approaches.
Transactive Energy (TE) can play a defining role in adapting and stabilizing today's grid for tomorrow. A follow-up to the Cross-DEWG Discussion on Transactive Energy session held in May at the SGIP Spring 2014 Members Meeting, this webinar continues the dialogue regarding this important game changer. SGIP is making this webinar event open and free to the public.
1) Traditional electromechanical meters have issues like drift over time and temperature that digital smart meters improve on. Smart meters allow for automated and remote reading to improve efficiency.
2) Advanced Metering Infrastructure involves integrating smart meters, communication networks, and data management systems to allow two-way communication between utilities and customers. This enables features like time-of-use pricing and remote service disconnects.
3) Key components of AMI include smart meters, wide area communication networks, home area networks connected to devices, and meter data management systems to aggregate and analyze usage data.
This document discusses using a D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator) to improve power quality and voltage regulation in a photovoltaic (PV) distribution system. The objectives are to analyze the effects of nonlinear loads, study existing harmonics mitigation methods, and propose a best method for compensating reactive power and mitigating current harmonics. It presents the contents, introduces issues like harmonics from power electronic devices and reactive power disturbances. It then describes the operation, topology and components of a D-STATCOM and PV system. MATLAB models of the grid-connected PV system with and without D-STATCOM are presented, showing the D-STATCOM improves power factor and regulates the voltage.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING THERMAL POWER PLANT Industrial ReportUtkarsh Chaubey
The document is an industrial training report submitted by Utkarsh Chaubey to Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya. It provides an overview of Utkarsh's training at the Shri Singaji Thermal Power Plant (SSTPP). The report includes sections on the power plant overview, the Rankine cycle used, classification of thermal power plants, typical components of a coal fired plant, site selection considerations, and descriptions of various systems within SSTPP such as the generator, switchyard, transformers, and safety measures.
Wide area measurements (synchrophasor measurements) in Power SystemsNaila Syed
The document discusses wide area measurement systems (WAMS) which are used to monitor India's electricity grid. WAMS take synchronized phasor measurements from across the grid using phasor measurement units (PMUs) and transmit the data to control centers. This provides operators wide area situational awareness to improve stability. Currently there are about 60 PMUs providing data but larger scale deployment is needed to maximize benefits. WAMS combines metering with communication to acquire synchronized phasor data, transmit it, and process it to monitor the grid at a high level of granularity.
Wind energy is a renewable resource that has the potential to meet a significant portion of global electricity demand. The document discusses the history and basics of wind energy, including how wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical and then electrical power. Globally, wind power capacity has grown substantially in recent decades and now meets around 4% of global electricity demand, with new installations in 2019 bringing total capacity to over 600 GW. The potential for wind power in Pakistan is also discussed, with one analysis finding an exploitable potential of 11,000 MW in the Sindh province alone.
This is the seminar report on the topic Nuclear fusion and its prospects as a future source of Energy. You can also look for the slides that I've published by the same title.
‘Bubble Power’-the revolutionary new energy source. It is working under the principle of Sonofusion.Sonofusion involves tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves that can make hydrogen nuclei fuse and may one day become a revolutionary new energy source.
The document discusses sonofusion, a proposed new energy source involving tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves that could cause hydrogen nuclei to fuse. It describes how sonofusion works by creating high temperatures and pressures inside bubbles in a liquid using ultrasonic waves, potentially allowing for nuclear fusion. The document outlines the experimental setup for sonofusion and the evidence that has been found, such as emissions of neutrons and tritium, to support that low-energy nuclear reactions may be occurring. Sonofusion could potentially become a revolutionary new energy source if fully developed.
This document presents information on bubble power, a proposed method of nuclear fusion. Bubble power aims to use sound waves to implode bubbles of deuterium gas and cause fusion. If successful, it could provide cheap, clean, and limitless energy. However, developing the technology into a viable power plant faces challenges of scale and the need for more advanced apparatus. Evidence of fusion is assessed through measuring tritium production and detecting neutron emissions. The presentation of bubble power concludes that if these challenges can be overcome, it may revolutionize energy production.
This document describes bubble power, also known as acoustic inertial confinement fusion. It involves using ultrasonic sound waves to implode tiny bubbles inside a flask of deuterated acetone, fusing hydrogen nuclei and releasing energy. The document outlines the process, including using a piezoelectric crystal to generate pressure waves in the flask that create and collapse bubbles, potentially reaching temperatures hot enough to produce fusion. It discusses applications for energy production and as a low-cost neutron generator. The technology offers a potentially sustainable and environmentally-friendly energy source.
This document provides information on sonofusion as a potential new energy source. It discusses how sonofusion works by using ultrasonic waves to create bubbles in a liquid that collapse violently, generating extreme heat and pressure that can fuse hydrogen isotopes. The document outlines the experimental setup for sonofusion, including the use of deuterated acetone, a piezoelectric crystal to generate pressure waves, and a neutron generator. It also summarizes the multi-stage process within the bubbles and evidence that fusion is occurring through neutron detection.
This document provides a list of over 200 seminar topics related to computer science, electronics, IT, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, applied electronics, chemical engineering, biomedical engineering, and MBA projects. The topics are divided into categories such as computer science projects, electronics projects, IT projects, and so on. Each topic includes a brief 1-2 sentence description. Contact information is provided at the bottom for requesting full reports on any of the topics.
The document discusses paper batteries, which are flexible, ultra-thin energy storage devices made by combining carbon nanotubes with paper. A paper battery acts as both a battery and supercapacitor. It has advantages over traditional lithium-ion batteries such as being thinner, more flexible, and operating over a wider temperature range. Paper batteries are constructed by coating carbon nanotube films onto substrates and sandwiching them between electrolyte layers and paper. They work by producing electrons through the interaction of electrolytes during charging and discharging. Potential applications include powering small electronics and medical devices.
The document discusses RAIN (Reliable Array of Independent Nodes) technology. RAIN creates a redundant network between processors and automatically recovers applications if a processor fails. It stores data across distributed processors so it can be retrieved even if some fail. RAIN's goals are efficient, reliable distributed computing and storage. It offers high availability, scalability, and performance. RAIN uses various topologies and features like communication, group membership, and fault-tolerant data storage. Its advantages include unlimited cluster size, no single point of failure, and easy addition of new nodes.
I. RAIN Technology was developed at Caltech and NASA to provide a reliable array of independent nodes for distributed computing.
II. It includes features like fault-tolerant data storage that can retrieve data even if some processors fail, and a redundant communication network between processors.
III. The technology aims to offer solutions like minimizing the number of nodes between clients and servers, making individual nodes more robust and independent, and replacing faulty nodes transparently.
The document discusses light trees, which are used in wavelength routed optical networks employing wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). A light tree enables single-hop communication from a source to multiple destinations using a minimum number of opto-electronic devices. It supports unicast, broadcast, and multicast traffic. Light trees can increase network throughput and provide high bandwidth communication over long distances for applications such as videoconferencing and internet television.
This document discusses bubble power, which is a proposed method of nuclear fusion using sound waves. It describes how bubble clusters are formed in a liquid using ultrasonic waves. When neutrons are introduced, they can cause fusion reactions in the extreme heat and pressure created when the bubbles implode. Key aspects include using deuterated acetone to form the bubbles and detecting neutrons as evidence of fusion. The document outlines the experimental setup and process, including separating deuterium from ordinary hydrogen for use in the fusion reactions.
This document proposes research into using focused shockwaves to achieve high temperatures, with potential applications in plasma physics, nanomaterials, and sonochemistry. It discusses using sonoluminescence from an imploding bubble to launch a spherical shockwave, which could theoretically become infinitely strong if focused to a point. However, achieving a perfectly spherical shockwave is challenging. Various concepts are described for how shockwave focusing could be used to generate ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, including for initiating nuclear fusion reactions. Overall, the document explores how intensified shockwaves may enable new areas of scientific inquiry.
8K IS THE LATEST UPCOMING VIDEO TECHNOLOGY WIDELY USED IN DIGITAL CAMERA,DIGITAL CINEMA,SPORTS BROAD CASTING ETC.
In order to achieve high image quality,more detailed pictures,large projection surface visibility this method is used.
The RAIN project is research collaboration between Caltech and NASA-JPL on distributed computing and data storage systems for future space-borne missions. The goal of the project is to identify and develop key building blocks for reliable distributed systems built with inexpensive off- the-shelf components. The RAIN platform consists of a heterogeneous cluster of computing and/or storage nodes connected via multiple interfaces to networks configured in fault-tolerant topologies. The RAIN software components run in conjunction with operating system services and standard network protocols. Through software-implemented fault tolerance, the system tolerates multiple node, link, and switch failures, with no single point of failure. The RAIN technology has been transferred to RAIN finity, a start-up company focusing on creating clustered solutions for improving the performance and availability of Internet data centers.
This document is a project report for an embedded systems and advanced robotics project completed to earn a B.Tech degree in Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering. It includes an acknowledgments section thanking project mentors. The contents section lists chapters on interfacing Arduino with components like LEDs, sensors, motors and using Arduino to build an autonomous line follower robot. It provides introductions to embedded systems, Arduino, the Arduino UNO microcontroller and IDE. Circuit diagrams and code are given for sensor interfacing examples.
Screenless display technology allows information to be displayed without a physical screen using virtual reality, augmented reality, or projection. Examples of screenless displays discussed in the document include Microsoft HoloLens, which uses augmented reality to superimpose holograms on the user's view of the real world, and Oculus Rift virtual reality goggles, which create immersive 3D environments. The Cicret bracelet is also summarized as a screenless display that projects a phone interface onto the user's forearm and is controlled using finger gestures over the projected screen.
This document discusses wireless charging of mobile phones using microwaves. It begins with an introduction to electromagnetic spectrum and the microwave region. It then discusses how wireless power transmission works using magnetic induction. The key components of a wireless power transmission system are a microwave generator, transmitting antenna, and receiving antenna called a rectenna. The system design section explains the transmitter and receiver design, including the use of a magnetron as the microwave generator. It also discusses the rectification process and inclusion of a sensor circuitry to allow charging when the phone is in use.
LATEST IEEE BASED EMBEDDED SYSTEMS PROJECTS TITLES 2012-MAASTECHASHOKKUMAR RAMAR
MAAS TECH is an embedded solutions provider that was started in August 2002. It provides training and acts as a service provider in the embedded industry. MAAS TECH conducts instructor-led training programs on topics like electronics and computer languages. It develops embedded system projects using PIC microcontrollers. MAAS TECH also conducts in-plant training and certification courses. It is looking to hire qualified professionals.
A regenerative shock absorber has been designed by researchers at SUNY Stony Brook that is able to recover a vehicle's vibrational energy from bumps in the road. In tests, their 1:2 scale prototype was able to harvest 2-8 watts of power at 45 mph, and they predict a full-scale system could recover up to 256 watts. The shock absorber consists of a magnetic tube inside a copper coil tube, and vibrations cause the tubes to move relative to each other generating electricity that can recharge the vehicle's battery. The researchers estimate this technology could improve fuel efficiency by 2% on highways and up to 10% on bumpy roads.
This document provides an overview of advanced flight controls. It begins by outlining four learning objectives related to describing aerodynamic forces, standard flight controls, secondary effects of controls, and alternative control types. It then defines the four basic aerodynamic forces and three axes of aircraft movement. Standard flight controls like ailerons, elevators, and rudders are illustrated. Secondary effects like adverse yaw are described. Finally, alternative control types such as stabilators, tailerons, spoilerons, and ruddervators are defined and their advantages and disadvantages discussed.
Presentation Bubble Power Technology with sonofusionabhikalmegh
Bubble Power is the non-technical name for a nuclear fusion reaction to occur inside extraordinarily large collapsing gas bubbles created in a liquid during acoustic cavitation. The more technical name is sonofusion.
The document summarizes a technical seminar presentation on bubble power as a source of nuclear energy. Bubble power works on the principle of sonofusion, where sound waves are used to compress hydrogen bubbles and induce nuclear fusion. The experimental setup involves a flask filled with deuterated acetone and a piezoelectric crystal that sends pressure waves through the liquid. When neutrons are fired into a bubble cluster created by the pressure waves, the extreme heat and pressure of bubble implosion can cause fusion reactions to occur. Potential advantages of bubble power include low cost and environmental friendliness, but challenges remain in achieving a self-sustaining fusion reaction.
Sonofusion Research team from various organizations have joined forces to create acoustic fusion technology energy consortium (AFTEC) to promote the development of sonofusion.
It was derived from a related phenomenon, sonoluminescence.
■ Sonofusion involves tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves can make hydrogen nuclei fuse-and may one day become a revolutionary new energy source.
SONOLUMINESCENCE
☐ When a gas bubble in liquid is excited by ultrasonic acoustic waves, it can emit short flashes of light suggestive of extreme temperatures inside the bubble.
■These flashes of light, known as
sonoluminescence, occur as the bubble
implodes, or cavitates.
■Chemical reactions occurs.
THE IDEA OF SONOFUSION
Technically known as acoustic inertial confinement fusion.
■ In this piezoelectric crystal attached to a liquid- filled flask send pressure waves through the fluid, exciting the motion of tiny gas bubbles.
High temperatures and pressure speculated t bble bure.fit is a health and fitness po...
eading to conditions Suitable for thermonuclear fusion.
Bubble power . good for the environment safetyThyaguThyag
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on bubble power and sonofusion as a potential new energy source. It describes how sonofusion works by using a piezoelectric crystal to generate intense sound waves in a flask of deuterated acetone, removing naturally occurring gas bubbles via vacuum pump, and firing a pulsed neutron generator precisely when pressure is lowest to initiate fusion reactions within acoustic bubbles. The document outlines basic requirements, applications, challenges, and concludes that sonofusion is a potentially self-sustaining and environmentally friendly energy source, though independent replication of initial results is still needed.
This document summarizes an ultrasound assisted reaction presentation. It discusses how ultrasound differs from conventional energy sources and how it can be used in organic synthesis and green and pharmaceutical chemistry. It describes how sonochemistry works through cavitation, where bubbles form and violently collapse, generating high pressures and temperatures. This can enhance chemical reactivity in homogeneous liquid, heterogeneous solid/liquid, and heterogeneous liquid/liquid phase reactions. Examples of synthetic applications where ultrasound switching altered reaction pathways are provided. The conclusion discusses how bubble collapse concentrates energy that can be used to heat bubble contents and enhance reactivity.
Edited_Ultrasound as a catalyst in aqueous phase reactionsDeepshikha Shukla
Ultrasound can be used to enhance liquid/liquid reactions by increasing mass transfer through acoustic cavitation. The document describes how cavitation bubbles form near the interface of two liquids and collapse asymmetrically, creating liquid jets that increase mixing and disrupt boundary layers. Experimental results showed ultrasound increased reaction rates for a test reaction up to an optimum power of 20W, above which further cavitation did not increase mass transfer. Ultrasound was found to be an effective way to improve reaction rates for interfaces limited by mass transfer.
Ultrasound assisted reactions can enhance chemical synthesis through cavitation effects. Piezoelectric transducers are commonly used to generate ultrasound from 20 kHz to 2 MHz. Cavitation produces localized hot spots exceeding 4000K that can drive homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions. Homogeneous reactions involve single-phase systems and produce radicals from water sonolysis. Heterogeneous reactions involve multi-phase systems and benefit from improved mixing and mass transfer. Many reactions like esterification, hydrolysis, substitution, and addition have been achieved with higher yields and faster reaction times using ultrasound.
The document is a literature review of organocatalytic domino reactions from 2011-2014. It discusses the three main fields of organocatalysis: formation of covalent bonds through enamine and iminium catalysts, formation of hydrogen bonds using Brønsted acids or phosphoryl triflylamides, and electrostatic/ion pair catalysis. The review focuses on hydrogen bonding and enamine catalysis. Several examples of multicomponent domino reactions utilizing these methods are described, including borane-isocyanide and tandem Ugi/Mitsunobu reactions. The optimization of reaction conditions and expansion of substrate scopes for various domino reactions are also discussed.
This document discusses sonochemistry, which is the application of ultrasound to chemical reactions and processes. It can be divided into three frequency regions: low frequency high power, high frequency medium power, and high frequency low power. The effects of sonic waves on chemical systems were first reported in 1927. Sonochemistry experienced growth in the 1980s with inexpensive generators. The origin of sonochemical effects is acoustic cavitation, where ultrasound induces vibrational motion in molecules that alternately compresses and stretches them, forming cavitation bubbles that collapse with extreme conditions like 2000-5000K temperature and 1800 atm pressure. Cavitational collapse can cause physical, chemical and biological effects through shear forces, jets and shock waves. Benefits of sonochemistry include decreased
short note on global warming
very helpful to get knowledge about climate change and global warming by surfing a bit of time. so lets read.
Thank you all friends..... if there is any suggestion m happy to get it
This chapter discusses fluorometry, which uses fluorescence to perform sensitive analyses. Fluorescence occurs when molecules absorb ultraviolet or visible light and emit light of a lower energy as they return to the ground state. Factors that influence fluorescence intensity include concentration, presence of other solutes, pH, temperature, and chemical structure. Fluorometry is compared to spectrophotometry, with fluorometry typically being more sensitive but less specific. Applications of fluorometry to pharmaceutical analysis are discussed, particularly for analyzing drugs and metabolites in biological samples.
This document discusses the cost-efficiency dilemma in the solar industry. It examines how solar technologies work and the tradeoff companies face between cost and efficiency. The two most common solar technologies are solar thermal power and photovoltaics. While companies aim to lower costs and improve efficiency, doing one typically comes at the expense of the other. The document explores new developments that aim to overcome this tradeoff dilemma.
This document is a thesis submitted by Erik Kirkland Gonzales to Oklahoma State University for the degree of Master of Science. The thesis investigates the phenomenon of cross polarization coupling (CPC) in optical microresonators. Through experiments on microspheres, the thesis demonstrates that CPC requires co-resonance between the transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) mode families. It is shown that applying strain to differentially tune the TE and TM modes allows controlling when CPC occurs. The thesis also explores scattering and Berry phase as potential mechanisms to explain the polarization coupling observed in microresonators.
Electroporation and sonication are techniques used to introduce chemicals, drugs, or DNA into cells. Electroporation involves applying an electrical field to increase cell membrane permeability, allowing external materials to enter. It is based on applying an optimized electrical pulse that transiently destabilizes membranes. Sonication uses ultrasonic sound waves to agitate particles in a sample. A sonicator device generates vibrations through a transducer and probe to create cavitation bubbles whose collapsing releases energy that disrupts and mixes particles. Both techniques can introduce external materials into cells but electroporation risks substantial cell death from high voltages while sonication avoids direct contact risks.
"Mechanical Waves" word is assigned with waves those require material to propagate from one point to other. For example, sound wave, water wave, sonar, waves in rope or string are examples of mechanical waves. Though mechanical waves need medium to propagate yet they do not carry medium themselves. Energy of mechanical waves propagate from one place to other place by transferring of energy by using principle of particle oscillation and energy transfer by particle collisions.
One of the most common example of mechanical waves is observed in water bodies. For example, in ponds or in lakes, when a stone is dropped, mechanical waves start moving away from the point of disturbance concentrically.
When a medium is disturbed by applying an external energy source then disturbing energy moves in all directions in the medium. This disturbing energy caused ``disturbance" in medium particle. This disturbance is known as mechanical wave. Though energy propagated through medium yet medium particles remains stationary about their equilibrium position.
The document summarizes an experiment investigating how the length of PVC pipes affects the sound heard when sound is passed through them. It discusses how sound produces wavelengths and how frequency and wavelength are related. The experiment will test 5 PVC pipes of increasing length from 10 cm to 50 cm, using a 1000 Hz sound generated on a computer. The sound will be placed on one end and a frequency app will record the frequency heard on the other end, conducting 5 trials for each pipe length. Potential risks involve ensuring the pipes are stable and the sound is at a safe volume.
This document discusses light scattering in different media. It begins by introducing the basic concepts of scattering and absorption of light by matter. It then discusses three types of light scattering:
1) Scattering in disordered media, where light undergoes single or multiple scattering depending on the density and size of scatterers.
2) Scattering in periodic media, where ordered arrays of scatterers can exhibit effects like photonic bandgaps.
3) Scattering by plasmonic nanostructures, where localized surface plasmons can strongly enhance light-matter interaction.
The document explores how understanding light scattering can provide insights into various optical phenomena in nature and applications in different fields.
Ultrasonic technology uses high frequency sound waves to treat water and wastewater through a process called cavitation. Cavitation occurs when sound waves cause bubbles to form, grow, and violently collapse in the liquid, generating high temperatures and pressure that can break down organic compounds. This document reviews the science behind cavitation, including how piezoelectric transducers generate ultrasound, the formation of hydroxyl radicals, and the differences between transient and stable cavitation. Applications include suppression of algae growth and biofilm formation without using chemicals.
1. 1
A
Seminar Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment for award of Bachelor’s degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
“BUBBLE POWER”
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
2013-14
2. 2
A
Seminar Report
ON
(BUBBLE POWER)
Submitted in partial fulfillment for award of Bachelor’s degree in
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Guided by: Submitted by:
Ms. Ankita Sharma Hitesh Khatri
Dept. of ECE. Roll No-
10EMEEC044
MarudharEngg. College VIII Sem ECE
Submitted to:
Mr. Mayank Joshi
Seminar Incharge
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
2013-14
Appendix
I
3. 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………..…………………10
2. SONOLUMINESCENCE…………………………………..…………11
2.1RAYLEIGH- PLESSET EQUATION ………………………...……12
2.2MECHANISMS OF THE PHENOMENON.……………………….13
2.3QUANTUM EXPLANATIONS ……………………………...….…14
2.4NUCLEAR REACTION …………………….……………………...15
2.5NUCLEAR REACTION …………………….……………………...15
3. THE IDEA OF SONOFUSION.………………..…...………………...17
3.1. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP …………………………………….…...17
4. SONOFUSION ………………………………………………………..20
4.1. ACTION OF VACUUM PUMP …………………....………..………20
4.2. ACTION OF THE WAVE GENERATOR ………..………………....20
4.3. ACTION OF THE NEUTRON GENERATOR …….………...21
4.4. ACTION IN THE FLASK …………………….…………..………....21
4.5. FUSION REACTIONS …………………………………..…………..24
4.6. IF TRITIUM IS PRODUCED ………………………...……………...25
4.7. SCHEMATIC OF SONOLUMINESCENE & SONOFUSION
PHENOMENON ………………………………………..………........26
4.8. SEQUENCE OF EVENTS DURING SONOFUSION………….........27
4.9. THE EVOLUTION OF LIQUID PRESSURE WITH IN BUBBLE
CLUSTER………..……………………………………..…………….28
5. SEPARATION OF DEUTERIUM FROM ORDINARY
HYDROGEN (PROTIUM) ………………………………………..….29
Appendix IV
4. 4
5.1. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY DIFFUSION
PROCESS………………………………………………..……………29
5.2. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION………..………………...…………30
5.3. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
ADSORPTION ON CHARCOAL…………………………………....30
5.4. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY CHEMICAL
METHODS……………………………………………...………….....30
6. OTHER APPROACHES OF FUSION REACTION………………..31
6.1. LASER BEAM TECHNIQUE…………………………………......…31
6.2. MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT FUSION………………………….....31
7. EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT TABLE TOP NUCLEAR FUSION
DEVICE………………………………………………………………...32
8. ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF BUBBLE POWER
OVER OTHER APPROACHES……………………………………..37
8.1. ADVANTAGES……………………………………………...……….37
8.2. APPLICATIONS……………………………………………...……....37
9. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS………………………………………...38
9.1. FULLY SELF SUSTAINED……………….……………..………38
9.2. TO CREATE A FULL-SIZE ELECTRICITY PRODUCING
NUCLEAR GENERATOR……………………...………………...38
10.CONCLUSION………………………………………………………...39
6. 6
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 2.1 From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick
and sudden contraction, emission of light ……………….…………….…13
2. Figure 3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP …………………………………….18
3. Figure 4.1 Action in the flask stage 1…………………….…....………….21
4. Figure 4.2 Action in the flask stage 2 ……………………………………..22
5. Figure 4.3 Action in the flask stage 3 ……………………………………..23
6. Figure 4.4 Fusion Reactions ………………………………………………24
7. Figure 4.5 Reaction with tritium …………………………………………..25
8. Figure 4.6 Schematic of Sonofusion&Sonoluminescene phenomenon .….26
9. Figure 4.7 Sequence of Events during Sonofusion ………………………..27
10.Figure 4.8 Evolution of liquid pressure with in Bubble cluster……………28
11.Figure 5.1 Process of Diffusion……………………………………………29
7. 7
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Hitesh Khatri, a student of B.Tech. (Electronics
& Communication Engineering) VIII semester has submitted His/her
Seminar report entitled “ Bubble Power ” under my/our guidance.
Ankita Sharma
Designation of Seminar Guide
Appendix II
8. 8
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Seminar Guide Ms.Ankita Sharmafor giving guidelines
to make the seminar successful.
I want to give sincere thanks to the Principal, Dr. R.P.S. Jakhar for his
valuable support.
I extend my thanks to Mr. AbhishekTiwari Head of the Department for
his cooperation and guidance.
Yours Sincerely,
Hitesh Khatri
Appendix III
9. 9
Marudhar Engineering College, Bikaner
Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering
Bubble Power
Abstract
In sonofusion a piezoelectric crystal attached to liquid filled Pyrex flask send pressure
waves through the fluid, exciting the motion of tiny gas bubbles. The bubbles
periodically grow and collapse, producing visible flashes of light. When a gas bubble
in a liquid is excited by ultrasonic acoustic waves it can emit short flashes of light
suggestive of extreme temperatures inside the bubble. These flashes of light known as
sonoluminescence, occur as the bubble implode or cavitates. It is show that chemical
reactions occur during cavitations of a single, isolated bubble and yield of photons,
radicalsand ions formed. That is gas bubbles in a liquid can convert sound energy in
to light. Sonoluminescence also called single-bubble sonoluminescence involves a
single gas bubble that is trapped inside the flask by a pressure field. For this loud
speakers are used to create pressure waves and for bubbles naturally occurring gas
bubbles are used. These bubbles can not withstand the excitation pressures higher
than about 170 kilopascals. Pressures higher than about 170 kilopascals would always
dislodge the bubble from its stable position and disperse it in the liquid. A pressure at
least ten times that pressure level to implode the bubbles is necessary to trigger
thermonuclear fusion. The idea of sonofusion overcomes these limitations.
Submitted by:
Name: Hitesh Khatri
Year/Sem: 4th
/ 8th
Guided by: Ankita Sharma Submitted to:
Name with Signature: Mr. Mayank Joshi
Designation: Assistant Professor Seminar Incharge
10. 10
1. INTRODUCTION
The standard of living in a society is measured by the amount of energy consumed. In the
present scenario where the conventional fuels are getting depleted at a very fast rate the
current energy reserves are not expected to last for more than 100 years.Improving the
harnessing efficiency of non-conventional energy sources like solar, wind etc. as a
substitute for the conventional sources is under research.
One of the conventional methods of producing bulk energy is nuclear power. There are
two types of nuclear reactions, namely fission & fusion. They are accompanied by the
generation of enormous quantity of energy.The energy comes from a minute fraction of
the original mass converting according to Einstein’s famous law: E=mc2
, where E
represents energy, m is the mass and c is the speed of light. In fission reaction, certain
heavy atoms, such as uranium is split by neutrons releasing huge amount of energy. It
also results in waste products of radioactive elements that take thousands of years to
decay. The fusion reactions, in which simple atomic nuclei are fused together to form
complex nuclei, are also referred to as thermonuclear reactions. The more important of
these fusion reactions are those in which hydrogen isotopes fuse to form helium. The
Sun’s energy is ultimately due to gigantic thermonuclear reaction.The waste products
from the fusion plants would be short lived, decaying to non-dangerous levels in a decade
or two. It produces more energy than fission but the main problem of fusion reaction is to
create an atmosphere of very high temperature and pressure like that in the Sun.
A new step that has developed in this field is ‘Bubble Power’-the revolutionary new
energy source. It is working under the principle of Sonofusion. For several years
Sonofusion research team from various organizations have joined forces to create
Acoustic Fusion Technology Energy Consortium (AFTEC) to promote the development
of sonofusion. It was derived from a related phenomenonknown as sonoluminescence.
Sonofusion involves tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves that can make hydrogen
nuclei fuse and may one day become a revolutionary new energy source.
11. 11
2. SONOLUMINESCENCE
Sonoluminescence is the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a
liquid when excited by sound. Sonoluminescence is a phenomenon that occurs when a
small gas bubble is acoustically suspended and periodically driven in a liquid solution at
ultrasonic frequencies, resulting in bubble collapse,cavitation, and light emission.
Sonoluminescence can occur when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous
cavity within a liquid to collapse quickly. This cavity may take the form of a pre-existing
bubble, or may be generated through a process known as cavitation. Sonoluminescence in
the laboratory can be made to be stable, so that a single bubble will expand and collapse
over and over again in a periodic fashion, emitting a burst of light each time it collapses.
For this to occur, a standing acoustic wave is set up within a liquid, and the bubble will sit
at a pressure anti-node of the standing wave. The frequencies of resonance depend on the
shape and size of the container in which the bubble is contained.
Some facts about sonoluminescence:
The light flashes from the bubbles are extremely short—between 35 and a few
hundred picoseconds long—with peak intensities of the order of 1–10 mW.
The bubbles are very small when they emit the light—about 1 micro meter in
diameter—depending on the ambient fluid (e.g., water) and the gas content of the
bubble (e.g., atmospheric air).
Single-bubble sonoluminescence pulses can have very stable periods and positions. In
fact, the frequency of light flashes can be more stable than the rated frequency
stability of the oscillator making the sound waves driving them. However, the stability
analyses of the bubble show that the bubble itself undergoes significant geometric
instabilities, due to, for example, the Bjerknes forces and Rayleigh–Taylor
instabilities.
The addition of a small amount of noble gas (such as helium, argon, or xenon) to the
gas in the bubble increases the intensity of the emitted light.
Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range
from 2300 K to 5100 K, the exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions
including the composition of the liquid and gas. Detection of very high bubble
12. 12
temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the opacity of liquids to short
wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures.
Writing in Nature, chemists David J. Flannigan and Kenneth S. Suslick describe a method
of determining temperatures based on the formation of plasmas. Using argon bubbles
in sulfuric acid, their data show the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O2
+
, sulfur
monoxide, and atomic argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a
hypothesis that the bubbles have a hot plasma core. The ionization and excitation energy
of dioxygenyl cations, which they observed, is 18electronvolts. From this they conclude
the core temperatures reach at least 20,000 Kelvin.
2.1. RAYLEIGH- PLESSET EQUATION
The dynamics of the motion of the bubble is characterized to a first approximation by the
Rayleigh-Plesset equation (named after Lord Rayleigh and Milton Plesset).
This is an approximate equation that is derived from the incompressible Navier-Stokes
equations and describes the motion of the radius of the bubble R as a function of time t.
Here, μ is the viscosity, pthe pressure, and γ the surface tension. The over-dots represent
time derivatives. This equation, though approximate, has been shown to give good
estimates on the motion of the bubble under the acoustically driven field except during
the final stages of collapse. Both simulation and experimental measurement show that
during the critical final stages of collapse, the bubble wall velocity exceeds the speed of
sound of the gas inside the bubble. Thus a more detailed analysis of the bubble's motion is
needed beyond Rayleigh-Plesset to explore the additional energy focusing that an
internally formed shock wave might produce.
13. 13
2.2. MECHANISMS OF THE PHENOMENON
The mechanism of the phenomenon of sonoluminescence remains
unsettled. Hypotheses include:hotspot, bremsstrahlungradiation,collision-induced raand
coronadischargesnonclassicallight, proton
tunneling,electrodynamic jets andfractoluminescent jets.
Fig. 2.1 From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick and
sudden contraction, emission of light
In 2002, M. Brenner, S. Hilgenfeldt, and D. Lohse published a 60-page review Single
bubble sonoluminescencethat contains a detailed explanation of the mechanism. An
important factor is that the bubble contains mainly inert noble gas such as argon or xenon
(air contains about 1% argon, and the amount dissolved in water is too great for
sonoluminescence to occur, the concentration must be reduced to 20–40% of its
equilibrium value) and varying amounts of water vapor. Chemical reactions
cause nitrogen and oxygen to be removed from the bubble after about one hundred
expansion-collapse cycles. The bubble will then begin to emit light "Evidence for Gas
Exchange in Single-Bubble Sonoluminescence". The light emission of highly compressed
noble gas is exploited technologically in the argon flash devices.
During bubble collapse, the inertia of the surrounding water causes high pressure and
high temperature, reaching around 10,000 kelvins in the interior of the bubble, causing
the ionization of a small fraction of the noble gas present. The amount ionized is small
enough for the bubble to remain transparent, allowing volume emission; surface emission
would produce more intense light of longer duration, dependent on wavelength,
14. 14
contradicting experimental results. Electrons from ionized atoms interact mainly with
neutral atoms, causing thermal bremsstrahlung radiation. As the wave hits a low energy
trough, the pressure drops, allowing electrons to recombine with atoms and light emission
to cease due to this lack of free electrons. This makes for a 160-picosecond light pulse for
argon (even a small drop in temperature causes a large drop in ionization, due to the
large ionization energy relative to photon energy). This description is simplified from the
literature above, which details various steps of differing duration from 15 microseconds
(expansion) to 100 picoseconds (emission).
Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters
(intensity and duration time versus wavelength) that match experimental results with
errors no larger than expected due to some simplifications (e.g., assuming a uniform
temperature in the entire bubble), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at
least roughly explained, although some details of the process remain obscure.
Any discussion of sonoluminescence must include a detailed analysis of metastability.
Sonoluminescence in this respect is what is physically termed a bounded phenomenon
meaning that the sonoluminescence exists in a bounded region of parameter space for the
bubble; a coupled magnetic field being one such parameter. The magnetic aspects of
sonoluminescence are very well documented.
2.3. QUANTUM EXPLANATIONS
An unusually exotic hypothesis of sonoluminescence, which has received much popular
attention, is the Casimir energy hypothesis suggested by noted physicist Julian
Schwinger and more thoroughly considered in a paper by Claudia Eberleinof
the University of Sussex. Eberlein's paper suggests that the light in sonoluminescence is
generated by the vacuum within the bubble in a process similar to Hawking radiation, the
radiation generated at the event horizon of black holes. According to this vacuum energy
explanation, since quantum theory holds that vacuum contains virtual particles, the
rapidly moving interface between water and gas converts virtual photons into real
photons. This is related to the Unruh effector the Casimir effect. If true,
sonoluminescence may be the first observable example of quantum vacuum radiation.
The argument has been made that sonoluminescence releases too large an amount of
energy and releases the energy on too short a time scale to be consistent with the vacuum
15. 15
energy explanation, although other credible sources argue the vacuum energy explanation
might yet prove to be correct.
2.4. NUCLEAR REACTION
Some have argued that the Rayleigh-Plesset equation described above is unreliable for
predicting bubble temperatures and that actual temperatures in sonoluminescing systems
can be far higher than 20,000 kelvins. Some research claims to have measured
temperatures as high as 100,000 kelvins, and speculates temperatures could reach into the
millions of kelvins.Temperatures this high could cause thermonuclear fusion. This
possibility is sometimes referred to as bubble fusion and is likened to the implosion
design used in the fusion component of thermonuclear weapons.
On January 27, 2006, researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claimed to have
produced fusion in sonoluminescence experiments.
Experiments in 2002 and 2005 by R. P. Taleyarkhan using deuterated acetone showed
measurements of tritium and neutron output consistent with fusion. However, the papers
were considered low quality and there were doubts cast by a report about the author's
scientific misconduct. This made the report lose credibility among the scientific
community.
2.5. BIOLOGICALSONOLUMINESCENCE
Pistol shrimpalso called snapping shrimp produce a type of sonoluminescence from a
collapsing bubble caused by quickly snapping a specialized claw. The light produced is of
lower intensity than the light produced by typical sonoluminescence and is not visible to
the naked eye. The light and heat produced may have no direct significance, as it is the
shockwave produced by the rapidly collapsing bubble which these shrimp use to stun or
kill prey. However, it is the first known instance of an animal producing light by this
effect and was whimsically dubbed "shrimpoluminescence" upon its discovery in 2001.It
has subsequently been discovered that another group of crustaceans, the mantis shrimp,
contains species whose club-like forelimbs can strike so quickly and with such force as to
induce sonoluminescent cavitation bubbles upon impact.
16. 16
When a gas bubble in a liquid is excited by ultrasonic acoustic waves it can emit short
flashes of light suggestive of extreme temperatures inside the bubble. These flashes of
light known as sonoluminescence, occur as the bubble implode or cavitates. It is show
that chemical reactions occur during cavitations of a single, isolated bubble and yield of
photons, radicals and ions formed. That is gas bubbles in a liquid can convert sound
energy in to light.
Sonoluminescence also called single-bubble sonoluminescence involves a single gas
bubble that is trapped inside the flask by a pressure field. For this loud speakers are used
to create pressure waves and for bubbles naturally occurring gas bubbles are used. These
bubbles can not withstand the excitation pressures higher than about 170 kilopascals.
Pressures higher than about 170 kilopascals would always dislodge the bubble from its
stable position and disperse it in the liquid. A pressure at least ten times that pressure
level to implode the bubbles is necessary to trigger thermonuclear fusion. The idea of
sonofusion overcomes these limitations.
17. 17
3. THE IDEA OF SONOFUSION
It is hard to imagine that mere sound waves can possibly produce in the bubbles, the
extreme temperatures and pressures created by the lasers or magnetic fields, which
themselves replicate the interior conditions of stars like our sun, where fusion occurs
steadily. Nevertheless, three years ago, researchers obtained strong evidence that such a
process now known as sonofusion is indeed possible.
Sonofusion is technically known as acoustic inertial confinement fusion. In this we have a
bubble cluster (rather than a single bubble) is significant since when the bubble cluster
implodes the pressure within the bubble cluster may be greatly intensified. The centre of
the gas bubble cluster shows a typical pressure distribution during the bubble cluster
implosion process. It can be seen that, due to converging shock waves within the bubble
cluster, there can be significant pressure intensification in the interior of the bubble
cluster. This large local liquid pressure (P>1000 bar) will strongly compress the interior
bubbles with in the cluster, leading to conditions suitable for thermonuclear fusion. More
over during the expansion phase of the bubble cluster dynamics, coalescence of some of
interior bubbles is expected, and this will lead to the implosion of fairly large interior
bubbles which produce more energetic implosions.
3.1. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A. BASIC REQUIREMENTS
a. Pyrex flask.
b. Deuterated acetone (C3D6O).
c. Vacuum pump.
d. Piezoelectric crystal.
19. 19
e. Wave generator.
f. Amplifier.
g. Neutron generator.
h. Neutron and gamma ray detector.
i. Photomultiplier.
j. Microphone and speaker.
20. 20
4. SONOFUSION
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical Pyrex glass flask 100 m.m. in high and 65m.m.in
diameter. A lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic piezoelectric crystal in the form of a ring is
attached to the flask’s outer surface. The piezoelectric ring works like the loud speakers
in a sonoluminescence experiment, although it creates much stronger pressure waves.
When a positive voltage is applied to the piezoelectric ring, it contracts; when the voltage
is removed, it expands to its original size.
The flask is then filled with commercially available deuterated acetone (C3D6O), in which
99.9 percent of the hydrogen atoms in the acetone molecules are deuterium (this isotope
of hydrogen has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus). The main reason to choose
deuterated acetone is that atoms of deuterium can undergo fusion much more easily than
ordinary hydrogen atoms. Also the deuterated fluid can withstand significant tension
(stretching) without forming unwanted bubbles. The substance is also relatively cheap,
easy to work with, and not particularly hazardous.
4.1. ACTION OF VACUUM PUMP
The naturally occurring gas bubbles cannot withstand high temperature and pressure. All
the naturally occurring gas bubbles dissolved in the liquid are removed virtually by
attaching a vacuum pump to the flask and acoustically agitating the liquid.
4.2. ACTION OF THE WAVE GENERATOR
To initiate the sonofusion process, we apply an oscillating voltage with a frequency of
about 20,000 hertz to the piezoelectric ring. The alternating contractions and expansions
of the ring-and there by of the flask-send concentric pressure waves through the liquid.
The waves interact, and after a whiler they set up.
an acoustic standing wave that resonates and concentrates a huge amount of sound
21. 21
energy. This wave causes the region at the flask’s centre to oscillate between a maximum
(1500kpa) and a minimum pressure.(-1500kpa).
4.3. ACTION OF THE NEUTRON GENERATOR
Precisely when the pressure reaches its lowest point, a pulsed neutron generatoris fired.
This is a commercially available, baseball bat size device that sits next to the flask. The
generator emits high-energy neutrons at 14.1 mega electron volts in a burst that lasts
about six microseconds and that goes in all directions.
4.4. ACTION IN THE FLASK
Stage 1:
Fig.4.1. Stage1
Some neutrons go through the liquid, and some collide head on with the Carbon, oxygen
and deuterium atoms of the deuterated acetone molecules. The fast moving neutrons may
knock the atom’s nuclei out of their molecules as these nuclei recoil; they give up their
kinetic energy to the liquid molecules. This interaction between the nuclei and the
molecules create heat in regions a few nanometers in size that results in tiny bubbles of
deuterated acetone vapor. Computer simulations, suggest that this process generates
clusters of about 1000 bubbles, each with a radius of only tens of nanometers.
Stage 2:
22. 22
Fig.4.2. Stage 2
By firing the neutron generator during the liquid’s low pressure phase, the bubbles
instantly swell -a process known as cavitation. In these swelling phases, the bubbles
balloon out 100,000 times from their nanometer dimensions to about one millimeter in
size. To grasp the magnitude of this growth, imagine that the initial bubbles are the size of
peas after growing by a factor of 100,000, each bubble would be big enough to contain
the EmpireStateBuilding.
Stage 3:
Then the pressure rapidly reverses, the liquid pushes the bubbles’ walls inward with
tremendous force, and they implode with great violence. The implosion creates spherical
shock waves with in the bubbles that travel inward at high speed and significantly
strengthen as they converge to their centers.
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Fig.4.3. Stage 3
The result, in terms of energy, is extra ordinary. Hydrodynamic shock-waves create, in a
small region at the centre of the collapsing bubble, a peak pressure greater than 10 trillion
kPa. For comparison, atmospheric pressure at sea level is101.3 kPa. The peak temperature
in this tiny region soars above 100 million degree centigrade about 20.000 times that of
the sun’s surface.
These extreme conditions within the bubbles-especially in the bubbles at the centre of the
cluster, where the shock waves are more intense because of the surrounding implosions-
cause the deuterium nuclei to collide at high speed. These collisions are so violent that the
positively charged nuclei overcome their natural electrostatic repulsion and fuse.
The fusion process creates neutrons which we detect using a scintillator, a device in
which the radiation interacts with a liquid that gives off light pulses that can be measured.
This process is also accompanied by bursts of photons, which is detected with a
photomultiplier. And subsequently, after about 20 microseconds, a shock wave in the
liquid reaches the flask’s inner wall, resulting in an audible “pop”, which can be picked
up and amplified by a microphone and a speaker.
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4.5. FUSION REACTIONS
Fig. 4.4.Fusion Reactions
Deuterium-Deuterium fusion has two probable outputs, helium and a 2.45-MeV neutron
or tritium and a proton.
25. 25
4.6. IF TRITIUM IS PRODUCED
Fig.4.5.Reaction with tritium
The total neutron output would include not only the neutrons from deuterium-deuterium
fusion, but also neutrons from deuterium-tritium fusion, since the tritium produced in
sonofusion remains within the liquid and can fuse with deuterium atoms. Compared with
deuterium-deuterium fusion, deuterium-tritium fusion occurs 1000 times more easily and
produces more energetic neutrons increasing the neutron yield by about three orders of
magnitude.
26. 26
4.7. SCHEMATIC OF SONOLUMINESCENE &
SONOFUSION PHENOMENON
Fig.4.6. Schematic of Sonofusion&Sonoluminescene phenomenon
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4.8. SEQUENCE OF EVENTS DURING SONOFUSION
Fig.4.7. Sequence of Events during Sonofusion
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4.9. THE EVOLUTION OF LIQUID PRESSURE WITH IN BUBBLE
CLUSTER
Fig.4.8 Evolution of liquid pressure with in Bubble cluster.
29. 29
5. SEPARATION OF DEUTERIUM FROM ORDINARY
HYDROGEN (PROTIUM)
5.1. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
DIFFUSION PROCESS
Deuterium can be isolated from ordinary hydrogen by taking advantage of different rates
of diffusion of the two isotopes. Protium, which is lighter, diffuses more readily than
deuterium. The diffusion is carried out under reduced pressure. The lower the pressure,
the greater is the efficiency of the process.
The process of diffusion is carried out in series of porous diffusion units, known as Hertz
diffusion units. Each unit contains a porous membrane represented by dotted portion. As
mixture is led into the diffusion units under reduced pressure, say from left to right, with
the help of the mercury diffusion pumps P1, P2, P3. etc. The heavier component
(deuterium) diffuses less readily and keeps behind while the lighter component (protium)
diffusing at a faster move more and more to the right. The process is repeated several
times, till ultimately, deuterium collects in the reservoir L on the left. The efficiency of
the separation process can be increased by increasing the number of diffusing units.
Fig. 5.1. Process of Diffusion
30. 30
5.2. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Deuterium can be separated from ordinary hydrogen by careful fractional distillation of
liquid hydrogen. Heavy hydrogen boils at -249.5 degree C while protium boils at a lower
temperature of -282.5 degree C. Hence fraction distillation of liquid hydrogen can result
in enrichment of the last fraction in deuterium, can be used for recovery of deuterium by
the diffusion process described above.
5.3. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
ADSORPTION ON CHARCOAL
Protium is adsorbed more readily and more strongly on solid surfaces in general and on
charcoal surface in particular. Thus when a mixture of the two isotopes is led over
charcoal kept at liquid air temperature, most of the protium gets adsorbed while most of
the deuterium passes out unchanged.
5.4. SEPARATION FROM ORDINARY HYDROGEN BY
CHEMICAL METHODS
The lighter isotope (protium) is more reactive than the heavier isotope (deuterium). Thus
when ordinary hydrogen is passed over red hot copper oxide, the lighter component is
consumed more than the heavier one.
31. 31
6. OTHER APPROACHES OF FUSION REACTION
There are mainly two approaches on fusion reactions other than bubble power. They are
1. Laser Beam Technique.
2. Magnetic Confinement Fusion.
6.1. LASER BEAM TECHNIQUE
In this process extremely energetic laser beams converge on a tiny solid pellet of
deuterium-deuterium fuel. The result is a shock wave that propagates towards the centre
of the pellet and creates an enormous increase in temperature and density.
One of the drawbacks of this approach is the amount of power lasers required. This
technique’s main goal is not producing energy but rather producing thermonuclear
weapons.
6.2. MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT FUSION
It uses powerful magnetic fields to create immense heat and pressure in hydrogen plasma
contained in a large, toroidal device known as a tokamak. The fusion produces high
energy by neutrons that escape the plasma and hit a liquid filled blanket surrounding it.
The idea is to use the heat produced in the blanket to generate vapor to drive a turbine and
thus generate electricity.
It is very much difficult to hold the plasma in place while increasing temperature and
pressure. It is a very unstable process that has been proved difficult to control.
32. 32
7. EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT TABLE TOP NUCLEAR
FUSION DEVICE
There are two kinds of evidence that deuterium is fusing. The first neutron emission
detected by the neutron scintillator. The device registers two clearly distinct bursts of
neutron that are about 30 microseconds apart. The first is at 14.1 MeV, from the pulsed
neutron generator; the second, how ever, is at 2.45 MeV. This is the exact energy level a
neutron produced in a deuterium-deuterium fusion reaction is expected to have. These
2.45MeV neutrons are detected at about the same time that the photomultiplier detects a
burst of light, indicating that both events take place during the implosion of the bubbles.
The researchers believe the new evidence shows that "sonofusion" generates nuclear
reactions by creating tiny bubbles that implode with tremendous force. Nuclear fusion
reactors have historically required large, multibillion-dollar machines, but sonofusion
devices might be built for a fraction of that cost.
"What we are doing, in effect, is producing nuclear emissions in a simple desktop
apparatus," said RusiTaleyarkhan, the principal investigator and a professor of nuclear
engineer at Purdue University. "That really is the magnitude of the discovery - the ability
to use simple mechanical force for the first time in history to initiate conditions
comparable to the interior of stars."
The technology might one day result in a new class of low-cost, compact detectors for
security applications that use neutrons to probe the contents of suitcases; devices for
research that use neutrons to analyze the molecular structures of materials; machines that
cheaply manufacture new synthetic materials and efficiently produce tritium, which is
used for numerous applications ranging from medical imaging to watch dials; and a new
technique to study various phenomena in cosmology, including the workings of neutron
stars and black holes.
Taleyarkhan led the research team while he was a full-time scientist at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, and he is now the Arden L. Bement Jr. Professor of Nuclear
Engineering at Purdue.
The new findings are being reported in a paper that will appear this month in the journal
Physical Review E, published by the American Physical Society. The paper was written
by Taleyarkhan; postdoctoral fellow J.S Cho at Oak Ridge Associated Universities; Colin
West, a retired scientist from Oak Ridge; Richard T. Lahey Jr., the Edward E. Hood
33. 33
Professor of Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI); R.C. Nigmatulin, a
visiting scholar at RPI and president of the Russian Academy of Sciences' Bashkortonstan
branch; and Robert C. Block, active professor emeritus in the School of Engineering at
RPI and director of RPI's Gaerttner Linear Accelerator Laboratory.
The discovery was first reported in March 2002 in the journal Science.
Since then the researchers have acquired additional funding from the U.S. Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency, purchased more precise instruments and equipment
to collect more accurate data, and successfully reproduced and improved upon the
original experiment, Taleyarkhan said.
"A fair amount of very substantial new work was conducted, "Taleyarkhan said. "And
also, this time around I made a conscious decision to involve as many individuals as
possible - top scientists and physicists from around the world and experts in neutron
science - to come to the lab and review our procedures and findings before we even
submitted the manuscript to a journal for its own independent peer review."
The device is a clear glass canister about the height of two coffee mugs stacked on top of
one another. Inside the canister is a liquid called deuterated acetone. The acetone contains
a form of hydrogen called deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, which contains one proton and
one neutron in its nucleus. Normal hydrogen contains only one proton in its nucleus.
The researchers expose the clear canister of liquid to pulses of neutrons every five
milliseconds, or thousandths of a second, causing tiny cavities to form. At the same time,
the liquid is bombarded with a specific frequency of ultrasound, which causes the cavities
to form into bubbles that are about 60 nanometers - or billionths of a meter - in diameter.
The bubbles then expand to a much larger size, about 6,000 microns, or millionths of a
meter - large enough to be seen with the unaided eye.
"The process is analogous to stretching a slingshot from Earth to the nearest star, our sun,
thereby building up a huge amount of energy when released," Taleyarkhan said.
Within nanoseconds these large bubbles contract with tremendous force, returning to
roughly their original size, and release flashes of light in a well-known phenomenon
known as sonoluminescence. Because the bubbles grow to such a relatively large size
before they implode, their contraction causes extreme temperatures and pressures
comparable to those found in the interiors of stars. Researches estimate that temperatures
inside the imploding bubbles reach 10 million degrees Celsius and pressures comparable
to 1,000 million earth atmospheres at sea level.
34. 34
At that point, deuterium atoms fuse together, the same way hydrogen atoms fuse in stars,
releasing neutrons and energy in the process. The process also releases a type of radiation
called gamma rays and a radioactive material called tritium, all of which have been
recorded and measured by the team. In future versions of the experiment, the tritium
produced might then be used as a fuel to drive energy-producing reactions in which it
fuses with deuterium.
Whereas conventional nuclear fission reactors produce waste products that take thousands
of years to decay, the waste products from fusion plants are short-lived, decaying to non-
dangerous levels in a decade or two. The desktop experiment is safe because, although the
reactions generate extremely high pressures and temperatures, those extreme conditions
exist only in small regions of the liquid in the container - within the collapsing bubbles.
One key to the process is the large difference between the original size of the bubbles and
their expanded size. Going from 60 nanometers to 6,000 microns is about 100,000 times
larger, compared to the bubbles usually formed in sonoluminescence, which grow only
about 10 times larger before they implode.
"This means you've got about a trillion times more energy potentially available for
compression of the bubbles than you do with conventional sonoluminescence,"
Taleyarkhan said. "When the light flashes are emitted, it's getting extremely hot, and if
your liquid has deuterium atoms compared to ordinary hydrogen atoms, the conditions are
hot enough to produce nuclear fusion."
The ultrasound switches on and off about 20,000 times a second as the liquid is being
bombarded by neutrons.
The researchers compared their results using normal acetone and deuterated acetone,
showing no evidence of fusion in the former.
Each five-millisecond pulse of neutrons is followed by a five-millisecond gap, during
which time the bubbles implode, release light and emit a surge of about 1 million
neutrons per second.
In the first experiments, with the less sophisticated equipment, the team was only able to
collect data during a small portion of the five-millisecond intervals between neutron
pulses. The new equipment enabled the researchers to see what was happening over the
entire course of the experiment.
The data clearly show surges in neutrons emitted in precise timing with the light flashes,
meaning the neutron emissions are produced by the collapsing bubbles responsible for the
flashes of light, Taleyarkhan said.
35. 35
"We see neutrons being emitted each time the bubble is imploding with sufficient
violence," Taleyarkhan said.
Fusion of deuterium atoms emits neutrons that fall within a specific energy range of 2.5
mega-electron volts or below, which was the level of energy seen in neutrons produced in
the experiment. The production of tritium also can only be attributed to fusion, and it was
never observed in any of the control experiments in which normal acetone was used, he
said.
Whereas data from the previous experiment had roughly a one in 100 chance of being
attributed to some phenomena other than nuclear fusion, the new, more precise results
represent more like a one in a trillion chance of being wrong, Taleyarkhan said.
"There is only one way to produce tritium - through nuclear processes," he said.
The results also agree with mathematical theory and modeling.
Future work will focus on studying ways to scale up the device, which is needed before it
could be used in practical applications, and creating portable devices that operate without
the need for the expensive equipment now used to bombard the canister with pulses of
neutrons.
"That takes it to the next level because then it's a standalone generator," Taleyarkhan said.
"These will be little nuclear reactors by themselves that are producing neutrons and
energy."
Such an advance could lead to the development of extremely accurate portable detectors
that use neutrons for a wide variety of applications.
"If you have a neutron source you can detect virtually anything because neutrons interact
with atomic nuclei in such a way that each material shows a clear-cut signature,"
Taleyarkhan said.
The technique also might be used to synthesize materials inexpensively.
"For example, carbon is turned into diamond using extreme heat and temperature over
many years," Taleyarkhan said. "You wouldn't have to wait years to convert carbon to
diamond. In chemistry, most reactions grow exponentially with temperature. Now we
might have a way to synthesize certain chemicals that were otherwise difficult to do
economically.
"Several applications in the field of medicine also appear feasible, such as tumor
treatment."
36. 36
Before such a system could be used as a new energy source, however, researchers must
reach beyond the "break-even" point, in which more energy is released from the reaction
than the amount of energy it takes to drive the reaction.
"We are not yet at break-even," Taleyarkhan said. "That would be the ultimate. I don't
know if it will ever happen, but we are hopeful that it will and don't see any clear reason
why not. In the future we will attempt to scale up this system and see how far we can go."
There is a second fusion “fingerprint” by measuring levels of another hydrogen isotope,
tritium, in the deuterated acetone. The reason is that deuterium-deuterium fusion is a
reaction with two possible outputs at almost equal probability. On possibility gives 2.45
MeV neutrone plus helium, and the other gives tritium plus a proton. Thus, the build-up
of tritium above the measured initial levels is an independent and strong, indication that
fusion has taken place, since tritium can not be produced with out a nuclear reaction.
The desktop experiment is safe because although the reactions generate extremely high
pressures and temperature those extreme conditions exist only in small regions of the
liquid in the container-within the collapsing bubbles.
37. 37
8. ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF BUBBLE
POWER OVER OTHER APPROACHES
8.1. ADVANTAGES
1. It is self sustainable.
2. Easily controllable.
3. It consistently produces more energy than it consumes.
4. Low cost.
5. Easily available raw materials.
6. Environmental friendly.
8.2. APPLICATIONS
1) Thermonuclear fusion gives a new, safe, environmental friendly way to produce
electrical energy.
2) This technology also could result in a new class of low cost, compact detectors for
security applications. That use neutrons to probe the contents of suitcases.
3) Devices for research that use neutrons to analyze the molecular structure of materials.
4) Machines that cheaply manufacture new synthetic materials and efficiently produce
tritium, which is used for numerous applications ranging from medical imaging to
watch dials.
5) A new technique to study various phenomenons in cosmology, including the working
of neutron star and black holes.
38. 38
9. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
9.1. FULLY SELF SUSTAINED
To make the fusion reaction fully self-sustainingarranging the setup so it produces a
continuous neutron outputwithout requiring the external neutron generator. One of the
possible ways isto put two complete apparatusesside by side so that they would
exchange neutrons and drive eachother’s fusion reactions. Imagine two adjacent
sonofusion setupswith just one difference: when the liquid pressure is low in one,it is
high in the other. That is, their pressure oscillations are180 degrees out of phase.
Suppose hit the first apparatus with neutrons from the external neutron generator,
causing the bubblecluster to form inside the first flask. Then turn off theneutron
generator permanently. As the bubble cluster grows andthen implodes, it will give off
neutrons, some of which will hitthe neighboring flask. If all is right, the neutrons will
hit the secondflask at the exact moment when it is at the lowest pressure,so that it
creates a bubble cluster there. If the process repeats,get a self-sustaining chain reaction.
9.2. TO CREATE A FULL-SIZE ELECTRICITY PRODUCING
NUCLEAR GENERATOR
A table top single apparatus yields about 400000 per second. The neutrons are an
important measure of the output of the process because they carry most of the energy
released in the fusion reaction. Yet that yield corresponds to a negligible fraction of a
watt of power.
For operating a few thousand mega watts of thermal power, in terms of neutron-per-
second, output of 10^22 neutrons per second needed. For this we will improve various
parameters of Sonofusion process, such as the size of the liquid flask, the size of the
bubbles before implosion and the pressure compressing the bubbles etc. then we
installed a liquid filled blanket system around the reactor. All those high-energy
neutrons would collide with it, raising its temperature. So that it heat could used to boil
a fluid to drive a turbine and thus generate electricity.
39. 39
10. CONCLUSION
With the steady growth of world population and with economic progress in developing
countries, average electricity consumption per person has increased significantly. There
fore seeking new sources of energy isn’t just important, it is necessary. So for more than
half a century, thermonuclear fusion has held out the promise of cheap clean and virtually
limitless energy. Unleashed through a fusion reactor of some sort, the energy from 1 gram
of deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, would be equivalent to that produced by burning
7000 liters of gasoline. Deuterium is abundant in ocean water, and one cubic kilometer of
seawater could, in principle, supply all the world’s energy needs for several hundred
years.
40. 40
11. REFERENCES
a. Richard T. Lahey Jr., Rusi P. Taleyarkhan& Robert I. Nigmatulin, bubble power,
IEEE spectrum, page no: 30-35,may 2005.
b. Fuels and combustion, author Samir Sarkar.
c. Principles of Inorganic chemistry, authors – Puri, Sharma, Kalia.
d. www.purdue.edu
e. www.iter.org
f. www.washington.edu
g. www.rpi.edu