Brain evolution
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The document discusses brain evolution in humans and other primates. It notes that the human neocortex is disproportionately large compared to other animals. While theories about brain evolution are speculative, the neocortex originated from structures in other species and early versions likely did not have differentiated layers and neuron types. Early primates had small brains shaped like lemurs, and most specializations evolved in early primates. Brain size increased over generations from Australopithecus to Homo sapiens. Larger brains require more connections and metabolic resources but allow for more complex behaviors.
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- Adaptations for tree-dwelling included grasping hands and feet, stereoscopic vision, and long limbs. Bipedalism evolved in early hominids like Australopithecus as an adaptation for life on the ground.
Synapse
A synapse is a junction between two neurons that allows nerve impulses to be transmitted chemically or electrically. In a chemical synapse, an action potential causes calcium ions to enter the presynaptic neuron, triggering vesicles filled with neurotransmitters like acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release their contents into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing ion channels to open and generating a postsynaptic potential that may be excitatory or inhibitory. Acetylcholine is removed from the synaptic cleft by diffusion and enzymatic breakdown to terminate its effect and allow subsequent impulses to be transmitted.
The synapse
This document provides an overview of synapses, including their definition, structure, function, types of transmission (electrical vs. chemical), neurotransmitters, and various properties like synaptic delay, fatigue, summation, and more. It discusses excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and how convergence and divergence allow signals to be dispersed or combined. Clinical implications are that problems with synaptic transmission can cause diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
THE STORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
The document provides an overview of human evolution from early hominids to modern humans. It discusses that hominids diverged from apes around 8 million years ago. Early hominids such as Australopithecines, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus developed increasingly advanced tools and technology. Homo sapiens emerged around 200,000 years ago, with Neanderthals present until around 30,000 years ago when they were replaced by Cro-Magnon humans. It also summarizes the transition to more settled agricultural lifestyles during the Neolithic period around 10,000 BCE. Key adaptations that differentiated humans from apes included bipedalism, increased brain size, changes in
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The document discusses the structure and function of the brain, including that it weighs 1,300-1,400 grams and is made up of around 100 billion neurons, and describes the major parts of the brain like the cerebrum, cerebellum, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. It also outlines the functions of these parts of the brain related to reasoning, movement, sensory processing, vision, hearing, speech, memory, and more.
The human brain presentation
The document summarizes the structure and function of the human brain. It discusses that the brain is divided into two hemispheres, with each hemisphere further divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is involved in functions like memory, emotions, reasoning and language. Broca's area in the left frontal lobe controls speech production while Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe is involved in language comprehension. The hemispheres have some functional differences, with the left typically dominating language and analytical functions and the right dominating more holistic processing.
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The document discusses the evolution of nervous systems across different animal species. It begins with the simplest nervous systems found in cnidarians like hydra, which have a nerve net without central control. It then covers increasing centralization in jellyfish and other species. Bilateral animals showed cephalization with sensory organs and feeding structures concentrated in the head. Invertebrates like worms, insects, and mollusks exhibited more complex centralized nervous systems. Research on invertebrate systems like squid giant axons provided insights. Vertebrate brains evolved from three bulges at the front of the spinal cord. Trends in vertebrate brains included increasing size, compartmentalization, and convolutions. Mammalian brains incorporated
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Sensory Organs comparative study in vertebrates.
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The human brain is the most complex organ and is greatly enlarged compared to other mammals. It contains billions of neurons connected by trillions of synapses. While protected by the skull, the brain is susceptible to damage from injuries, diseases, and toxins. The cerebral cortex is the largest part and is highly folded, with specialized regions involved in different functions like vision, motor control, and language. Communication between the left and right hemispheres occurs mainly through the corpus callosum.
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2) It notes that gastropods exhibit a 180 degree anatomical torsion of organs and nerves due to their shell formation, similar to the nerve crossing seen in humans.
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Brain size or encephalization
Does size matter?
-Einstein had an average sized brain and we can certainly say that made little difference.
-Mozart was a microcephalic. A genetic disorder that usually means mental deficiencies.
-Modern male humans have approximately 10% larger brains than do female humans…and we all know that means nothing.
Hominid Brain Evolution
-Encephalization or the measure of brain size relative to body size
-Notice the changes in the brain organization in the images from A. africanus where the brain is located behind the eyes and remains there until Homo sapiens, even in Neandertals, who happen to have a larger brain, the frontal lobe is relatively small compared to humans.
Why the Hominid Brain Enlarged
The Radiator Hypothesis:
-brain= 25 of body mass
-brain =uses 25% of O2
-brain uses 70% of glucose
Higher energy metabolism produces higher heat production. Therefore, brain size is limited by the Ability of the organism to cool the brain. Hominids have more diffuse blood flow through passages through the skull than do Australopithecines.
Brain/Body Mass Ratio
Largest brains found in the largest animals ) Elephant and Blue Whale
Overall, mammals have larger brains per body mass. Modern humans are at the apex of brain mass to body mass ration
Human brain = 2.3% of body weight
Elephant brain = 0.2% of body weight
Here you see the gradual increase in brain volume over time. Notice the incredible jump in the last million years.
With the increase in brain size, reorganization and particularly the development of the prefrontal region and neocortex also came culture.
Brain Reorganization
Olfactory bulbs
Prefrontal region
Primary Visual Regions
Neocortex
Reorganization and reduction in the olfactory bulbs resulted in the decrease in the sense of smell. This trend started in the early primate radiation with the reduction in the snout and wet nose.
Large prefrontal region
The prefrontal region is the area for forming goals and making plans…imagine going to 2 minutes without thinking of the future.
Why do humans have an expanded visual cortex?
The primary visual cortex is the area where sensory information from various sources is processed and synthesized.
The expanded visual cortex is an “ancestral” characteristic.
Why do primates have a neocortex?
…because all primates are mammals.
The neocortex occupies a larger proportion of the brain volume in humans than it does in any other species.
The neocortex is an “ancestral” characteristic. Meaning that it is a feature that has been around a long time.
The Neocortex
Neocortex is divided into four lobes that process different types of information:
Frontal lobe: assimilates information relayed from “lower” brain areas concerned with movement. Plans and executes complex movements. Also an integral part of personality.
Parietal lobe: higher processing of sensory information from other brain areas and the spinal cord. Orientation in 3-dimensional space. P.
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Brain evolution
- 2. There is something unusual about the human brain and its behavioral capacity The neocortex is disproportionately large in humans
- 3. Neuroscientists have paid rather little attention to the study of brain evolution Neuroscientists
- 4. Clade
- 5. Theories are highly speculative There is a single goal or direction to evolution Misconceptions about Brain Evolution Brain Evolution Neuroscience
- 7. Interestingly, domestic animals with our efforts to improve a wild stock, generally have reduced brain size.
- 8. Butthead
- 10. Tarsiers
- 11. Neocortex Origins Not that new at all. Similar to the Dorsal Cortex in birds and reptiles
- 12. V. Dorsal Cortex Neocortex
- 13. Ancient Neocortex were likely to not have the differentiated layers and neuron types
- 17. Evolution of Primates: The early years
- 18. Evolution of Primates: Improvements
- 19. Old and New world monkeys developed their trichromatic vision separately.
- 20. Tarsiers and Owl monkeys are secondarily nocturnal
- 22. Early Primates Early primates were lemur-like in body form, and their brains were shaped like those of present-day lemurs, although smaller.
- 23. Somatosensory Cortex VP S1 S2 Ancestral State Derived State V3 DM MT V1 Visual System
- 24. Most of the large number of specializations that likely evolved in early primates or their immediate ancestors
- 26. Evolution of Hominin Brains Human brains are not symmetrical in shape, so that the planum temporale, the sheet of cortex on the lower surface of the lateral sulci, is usually larger in the left cereberal hemisphere than on the right.
- 27. Interestingly, however, great apes exhibit the same asymmetry of the temporal lobe as humans, despite their lack of language.
- 29. Australopithecus ~600 cc Homo habilis ~800 cc
- 30. Homo erectus ~1000 cc Homo sapiens ~1400 cc
- 33. The issues of a Big Brain Inverse Ninja Law: The more ninjas there are, the weaker each individual ninja is Selection has to be based on a few developmental mechanisms Higher metabolic cost may require better diet .
- 34. Large brains generally devote much more of their mass to connections. Small morphological adjustments dramatically change the area affected.
- 36. Primates brains simply have many more neurons than rodent brains of the same size
Editor's Notes
- The neocrotex is critically involved in mental activities and processes that are considered to be distinctly human.
- Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy
- The Dorsal Cortex is a very thin sheet of a single neuron, the neocortex can have over a hundred
- Study this section more thouroughly