To understand human culture, we must examine our biological evolution and capacity for culture. Our large brains enabled complex thinking, language, and tool use. Our dexterous hands and opposable thumbs allowed for precision grips needed for toolmaking. Our ability to walk upright on two legs freed our hands for tasks while traveling. These biological adaptations formed the basis for advanced cognition and culture that distinguishes humans from other primates.

1. Human Biological and
Cultural Evolution
Cultural Anthropology

2. Culture in Evolutionary Perspective
To understand culture, we need to:
 (1) Know our biological capacity for culture
 (2) How we fit into the animal kingdom
 (3) How we came to be what we are: Homo
sapiens
 We are the only human species in the world.
 Neanderthals, our closest “relatives”
disappeared 30,000 years ago.

3. Our Capacity For Culture: Our
Biological Roots
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(1) Our thinking ability
(2) Our language ability
(3) Our ability to make and use tools
(4) Our bipedalism—ability to stand and walk
on two feet
If the “science of humankind” is to be taken
seriously, we need to know our own anatomy

4. Topics of This Section I
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We start with the taxonomy, and where we fit in the
animal kingdom.
We then look at human anatomy and compare it with
the chimps.
Primary foci of the analysis of our anatomy:
Capacity for thinking
Capacity for language
Capacity for tool making and use
Capacity for bipedalism, which enables us to do
many other things.

5. Topics of This Section II
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We then look at hominin/hominid fossils and the
tools they made—or didn’t make.
We then look at the behavior of our closest relatives
—the chimps, bonobos, and gorillas.
For example, we diverged from our chimpanzee
ancestors 6 million years ago (6 mya)
By observing nonhuman primate behavior (monkeys
and apes), we might get an inkling of fossil hominin
behavior too—and of our own.
All of these have a bearing on our capacity for
culture.

6. First Things First: Taxonomy
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Definition: Hierarchical,
systematic classification of all
lifeforms
From the general (kingdom.
Phylum, class, order)
To the specific (genus, species,
variety)
Taxon (pl. taxa): categories at all
levels from broad to specific

7. Taxonomy: Binomial
Nomenclature
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Every species has at least two names
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens
Variety: sapiens? (If we accept the lumpers’ terms)
Stylistic Convention
Italicize or underline all names
Capitalize the genus
Lowercase the species and variety
Example: Homo (sapiens) sapiens

8. Taxonomy: The General Taxa
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Kingdom: Animalia (ingests food, moves)
Phylum: Chordata (has spinal cord)
Subphylum: Vertebrata (has segmented
protective bone or cartilage)
Class: Mammalia (warm blooded, female
secretes milk, has hair or fur)
(Pop quiz: what is our constant temperature
fixed at?)

9. Taxonomy: Order Primata
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Order: Primata
Larger brain relative to body size.
Stereoscopic vision: eyes angled toward the same
direction, enabling depth perception
Flexible digits: Hands only in humans; hand and feet
with other primates.
Complex sociability: We live in groups but have
complex interactions, from grooming to dominance
hierarchies to infant rearing.
Suborder: Anthropoidea (monkey, apes, humans)

10. Taxonomy: Suborder Anthropoidea
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Suborder Prosimii: These are the lemurs,
tarsiers, and other so-called prosimians.
The don’t look much like human, but have all
the features of primates.
Suborder Anthropoidea (“Manlike”)
These are the monkeys (New World, Old
World) and apes
They look like men: almost upright, hands like
ours, even the feet look similar.

11. Taxonomy: Superfamily
Hominoidea
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Superfamily Cercopithecoidea: Old World Monkey
Most have tails, smaller brained, smaller in size.
Superfamily Hominoidea: All apes and humans.
They look even more humanlike than the monkeys
Larger brains
No tails
Larger body size
Social behavior more humanlike

12. Taxonomy: Hominids (Old
Taxonomy)
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Now the confusion begins
Old taxonomy: three hominoid families
Hylobatidae or Hylobates: the lesser apes—
gibbons and siamangs
Pongidae, or pongids: Orangutans (SE Asia),
gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos (all
African apes)
Hominidae: All bipedal humans and
prehumans: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus
and Homo

13. Taxonomy: Hominids (New
Taxonomy)
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This is the new taxonomy:
Hominids apply to all humans and African apes
Hominins apply to Homo sapiens and
All extinct ancestors: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, H.
erectus, H. heidelbergensis, and H. neanderthalensis

14. On Hominid Taxonomy, DNA, and
Monkey Wrenches
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Why can’t they leave well enough alone?
Answer: DNA comparisons versus morphology
Humans and chimps DNA genomes vary only by
about 99.5%; gorillas, by about 99% or so.
Human and Orangutan genomes vary by about 95%,
justifying another taxon, pongidae (orangutans); the
hylobates (gibbons) are even more distant.
The new taxonomy is justified by genetic variations
We’ll stick to the old system for now; but you should
know that this issue exists.

15. Human Comparative Anatomy
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Why anatomy? We need to know what biological
features give us the capacity for culture.
The brain is the seat of thinking ability, language, and
even tool use.
Our vocal tract enables speech, as we will see in the
unit on language.
Our hands are key to our ability to make and use
tools.
Our ability to stand and walk on two feet frees our
hands to do these things and many others.

16. Overview: The Human Skeleton
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You do need to know
some of the parts of the
human skeleton
Use the online graphics
(such as this)
Or your printed handouts

17. Where It All Begins: The Brain
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Frontal Lobe and Motor
Cortex:
Cognition
Motor Abilities
Parietal Lobe: Touch
and Taste
Primary somatosensory
cortex: feedback from our
motor abilities
Temporal Lobe: Hearing
Occipital Lobe: Vision
Olfactory Bulb: Smell

18. Frontal Lobe: Cognitive Areas
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The Frontal Lobe directs
much of our thinking
Note the following:
Executive area for task
management
Working memory for spatial
tasks
Working memory for object
recall tasks
Area for solving multitask
problems

19. Parts of the Brain: Motor Cortex,
Cross Section
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Related to Language:
Lower Part:
Lips
Tongue
Vocalization
Related to Tool Making
and Use: Upper part:
Fingers and Thumb
Hand
Arm

20. Cerebral Cortex: Essential
Language Centers
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These are the essential language
centers:
Broca’s area (purple): where speech
is generated
Wernicke’s area (orange brown):
where speech is received and
processed
Arcuate fasciculus (green bundle):
transmission between speech
generation and reception
Geschwind’s territory: where the
five senses are interconnected.

21. Parts of the Brain: Language
Centers in Context I
Parts of Cerebrum:
Frontal Lobe (Thinking)
Motor Cortex: Voluntary
movement
Somato-Sensory Cortex:
Feedback from
voluntary movement

22. Parts of the Brain: Language
Centers in Context II
Parts of Language
Mechanism
Broca’s Area (Speech
production))
Temporal Lobe (Hearing)
Auditory Cortex (Hearing)
Wernicke’s Area (Speech
reception)
Arcuate Fasciculus
(Coordinator of Broca’s
with Wernicke’s areas

23. Parts of the Brain: Language
Centers in Context III
Parts that provide content to
language:
Parietal Lobe (Taste and touch)
Occipital Lobe (Sight)
Geschwind’s Territory (Intersensory
Connector
Angular Gyrus (Specialized part that
links sound with meaning;
coordinates touch, taste, sight,
and hearing)

24. Comic Relief, Anyone?
(Courtesy of Geico)
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So easy a caveman can do it. . . .?

25. Human Skull
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Note the following:
High forehead
Rounded skull
No brow ridge
Chin is present
Teeth are small
The bones are named
after the lobes of the
brain they cover

26. Skull Morphology: Chimp and
Human
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Note the following
Larger brow ridge (supraorbital torus) of chimp than
human’s
Sloping forehead of chimp compared to human
More prognathous jaw of chimp compared to human
Larger canine and gap (diastema) of chimp than human

27. Human and Chimp Skulls
Compared: Brain Structure
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Compare the following
Chimp’s brain is much
smaller (400cc vs 1400cc)
It has reduced frontal lobe
It has no Broca’s or
Wernicke’s area
It does have Brodmann’s
area 10, where calls may
originate—but no speech
It does have planum
temporale, where calls are
received—but not
processed as language

28. What This All Means
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Our brains are larger than the chimps’
We have a well-developed frontal lobe
We have well developed language areas:
Broca’s and Wernicke’s area
The motor strip is more well developed among
humans than among chimps

29. Dentition
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For each jaw (upper or
maxilla or lower or
mandible:
Incisors (4) for cutting
Canines (cuspid) (2) for
piercing
Premolars (4) for light
grinding
Molars (6) for grinding

30. Chimp and Human Jaws
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Note the following:
Dental Arcade: Humans’ are arclike; apes, parallel back
teeth, which are larger than human molars
Canines and Diastema (gap): Apes have larger canines
and gaps in opposite jaw to fit them; humans do not
Ape incisors are more horizontal than vertical.

31. Anatomy of Tool Making and Use:
The Hand
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Note The Following:
Our digits are straight
Our thumb is opposable
The thumb is long
The wrist bones are
known as carpals.
The bones of the hand
are called metacarpals.
The fingers are known
as phalanges.

32. Ape and Human Hands
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Hands of orangutan, chimpanzee, gorilla and human
Note the following:
Our thumbs are longer than the others’
We can make a finer grip than the others can
Less visible: apes’ digits are curved, ours are straight

33. Power and Precision Grip
Note the Following:
 Power grip: Fingers
and thumbs wrap
around the object
 Precision grip:
Forefingers and thumb
hold the object
 Importance: We can do
finer work compared to
nonhuman primates

34. Bipedalism
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We are the only mammals
that can stand and walk on
two feet
Kangaroos hop and maintain
balance with their tails
Apes are semibipedal, but use
their knuckles to get around
Notice the human is on his
knees, not just his feet

35. Chimp and Human Locomotion

36. Advantages of Bipedalism
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Efficient locomotion
Freeing of hands
Foraging and hunting/scavaging
Tool making and use
Care and provisioning of offspring
Tracking migrating herds
Predator avoidance

37. Vertebral Column and Pelvis
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Note the following
Human vertebral
column is S-Shaped
Chimp verebral
column is bow-shaped
Human pelvis, with
ilium, is bowl-shaped
Chimp pelvis is long,
with flat ilium

38. Pelvis and Femur
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Note the following:
Longer ilium of chimp
Shorter, more curved
ilium of human
Straight vertical
orientation of chimp
femur
Inward angle of human
femur

39. Foot Structure
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Note the following:
Large toe of chimp foot
(right) is opposable to other
digits
Large toe of human foot
(left) is aligned with other
digits
Ankle bones (tarsals) of
human food are larger and
more rigid than the chimps’

40. Foot Arch: Longitudinal and
Transverse
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Note the following:
Longitudinal arch
reflected from
First metatarsal to
Calcaneus (heel bone)
Transverse arch can be
inferred from
Lower placement of
outside foot.

41. The Evolution of Humankind
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The fossil records tells us one thing: human
populations today are very different from those one
million years ago.
Human biological evolution is well established for
that reason.
This section provides a cultural and intellectual
history of creationism and evolutionism
It describes the mechanisms of evolution
It concludes with a record of both biological and
cultural evolution to the present.

42. The Model of Evolution
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The model of evolution: genetic change interacting
with environmental pressures
Mutation: Genetic change that is random
Natural Selection: environmental pressures that
favor some lifeforms over others
Gene Flow: Change in the population by migration
of life form from another population
Genetic Drift: Change induced in small population
by differential reproduction of the new lifeform.

43. Early Models: The Great Chain of
Being
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A hierarchy of entities from the
simplest to most complex
anticipated the later rise of
taxonomy; Karl von Linné
(discussed below) drew on this
model.
In this view, the human race was
the most complex and perfect of
all living forms
Humans, however, were below the
divine beings (including demons
in the model depicted here.

44. Catastrophism
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Earth’s history is product of sudden
change
Example: Creation of Earth in six
days (upper left), including Adam
Example: Flood (Noah’s Ark),
which eliminated all life except
Noah’s family and the male and
female animals he allowed into the
ark
Catastrophism does have some basis
of reality: an asteroid that struck the
earth 65 million years ago (lower
left) nearly destroyed all life

45. Catastrophists: Ussher and Linnaeus
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James Ussher (1581-1656): Argued that
humankind created noon, Oct. 23, 4004
BCE (Upper left)
He based his calculations on biblical
history and astronomy
Carolus Linnaeus (Carl Linné; 17071778)
Inventor of taxonomy—classification of
lifeforms based on similarities and
differences (Sample taxonomy next slide)
Viewed system as divinely ordained

46. The Garden of Eden: Overview
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Location: Southern Iraq where the Tigris and Euphrates meet
(left)
The Garden of Eden, Home of the First Couple—and of
Original Sin

47. The Garden of Eden: The Myth
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The beginning: Adam and Eve
live in the Garden of Eden
God: “Of every tree, thou
mayest eat freely
But of the Tree of Knowledge of
Good and Evil, thou mayest not
eat
For in the day thou eatest of it,
thou shalt surely die”

48. Garden of Eden: The Temptation
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Tempted by the Serpent, Eve does so (left)
She is the one who starts the Fall
Tempted by Eve, Adam also eats the fruit
God confronts the pair for having done so
(lower left)
Despite their supplications, He carries out
His punishment

49. Garden of Eden: The Expulsion
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The couple is expelled from the
Garden of Eden
Consequences:
Woman must bear the pain of
childbirth
And be subject to man’s dominion
Man toils by the sweat of his brow
The serpent is forever reviled

50. Of Course, Others Besides
Adam Talk to God . . .
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But was bombing the
Garden of Eden back to
the Stone Age
Something God had in
mind?
(Censored by the FCC)

51. Uniformitarianism
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Definition: All geological processes occurred
in the past as they do today
Implications: It takes millions, perhaps
billions of years for the geological processes to
take place
The earth could not be only 6,000 years ago as
Ussher would have claimed

52. Uniformitarianism According to Charles
Lyell
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Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
Espoused extreme form of uniformitarianism
by denying catastrophism (Principles of
Geology)
Three aspects hold up today
Geological processes of past are the same as
today
Stratigraphy serves to reconstruct history of
the earth
Immense amount of time necessary for
geological processes to effect change in the
landscape
Age of earth: The current estimate is 4.5
billion years

53. Evolutionary Theories: Natural
Selection
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Natural selection defined:
Evolutionary change by
Differential reproductive success
of individuals
within a species (group of
organism able to reproduce fertile
offspring)
Through successful adaptation to
an environment

54. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Origin of
Species
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Charles Darwin (above) observed that
pigeons, dogs, and horses were subjected to
artificial selection in order to improve
their breeding
On Galapagos Islands in 1832, Darwin
observed that 13 species of finches adapted
in different niches descended from a
common ancestor (next slide)
He conceived the idea of natural selection
and after years of dithering finally
published his conclusions in The Origin of
Species in 1859

55. Charles Darwin and Natural
Selection

56. Natural Selection: Definition and
Implications
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Variations are already present when selection occurs
Natural selection has no particular direction—
change is random
Therefore, not all evolution is from the simple to the
complex
Species can and do become extinct
New species can and do arise (Darwin had no way
of explaining how the originated, however.)
New species fill new niches
Dark-winged moths filled a new environment in a
soot-darkened coal-fired steel city; birds couldn’t
see them

57. Genetics and Mutation
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Natural selection is one principle of evolution.
Species proliferate
Some are removed by natural selection.
But how do new species emerge in the first
place?
An Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel, provided
a partial answer

58. Principles of Evolution: Genetics I
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Gregor Mendel: Genetic theory, based on
experiments with peas
Genes: Hereditary information determining physical
characteristics
Genotype: the genetic makeup of a particular
characteristic (color of flowers in pea plant)
Phenotype: the physical characteristics created by the
genetic makeup
Genes are always paired: male contributes half,
female contributes half
Alleles: Variations of a genetic characteristic

59. Principles of Evolution: Genetics II
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When different alleles combine:
Allele of one manifests in physical characteristic
(Dominant)
The other does not (Recessive)
Or both may manifest as hybrid (Codominant)
Traits change when mutation occurs in the genes
change in the sex cells of one or both individuals.
This process of mutation requires information beyond
the scope of this course.

60. Reconstructing Fossil Hominins and
their Tools
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If taxonomies keep changing, it’s
because we rely on fragments and
infer from them
Human remains: mostly teeth, bones,
and stones—because they are
preserved the best
Here is Lucy—that’s one of the most
complete remains we have that is
dated 3.7 million years
Here are two stone choppers—we
think (lower left)

61. Trends in Human Evolution:
Australopithecus to Homo
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Australopithecus afarensis to A. africanus: Gracile
Australopithecines
Paranthropus robustus and P. boisei: Robust
Australopithecines—Dead end?
A. africanus to Homo habilis: Rise of tool manufacture?
H. habilis to H. erectus: Migration throughout Old
World; more kinds of tools
H. erectus to H. heidelbergensis to H. sapiens: Tool
specialization and population explosion to New World
H. neanderthalensis: Dead end?

62. Fossil Hominins: Skull, Arms,
Hands
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Large bulbous cranium
Short face compared to ape
Vertical carriage of head
Shortened forelimb
Hands (manipulation, not locomotion)
Enlarged thumb
Straight fingers, not curved
Enhanced finger sensitivity

63. Fossil Hominins: Bipedalism
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S-shaped vertebrae (backbone)
Short, wide, bowl-shaped pelvis
Femoral head (ball of femur at pelvis) angled
and strengthened
Lengthened hindlimb
Angle of knee: femur “slopes” to pelvis
Platform (arched) structure of foot
Nonopposable big toe; toes not curved

64. Encephalization (a.k.a. Bigger
Brains)

Defining Cranial Capacity (and cc’s)
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Ardipithecus ramidus: ca. 400 cc
A. afarensis: 390-500 cc; av. 440 cc
A. africanus: 435-530 cc; av. 450 cc
A./P robustus: 520 cc, one specimen
A.P. boisei: 500-530 cc; av. 515 cc.
H. habilis: 500-800 cc; av. 680 cc.
H. erectus: 750-1250 cc; av. 1000 cc
H. neanderthalensis: 1300-1750 cc; av. 1450
H. (s.) sapiens: 900-2350 cc. av. 1400
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65. Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) the
Former First Biped—and Us
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Note the Following:
Shorter (3’6”)
Longer arms
Curved fingers
Shorter lower legs
Greater prognathism
Sloped forehead
Smaller cranial capacity
What are the Similarities?
Hint: it’s all related to bipedalism
Give up? Check on Ardi, next slide.

66. Ardipithecus ramidus: The New Kid
on the Fossil Hominin Block
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What’s new?
Ardi is bipedal
She has an opposable toe
She lived in a wooded environment
She is dated at about 4.4 mya
Otherwise,. . .
About 4 feet tall
Longer arms
Cranial capacity: 400 cc
Curved fingers and the rest.

67. Ardipithecus ramidus: A Comparison
with Other Fossil Hominins

68. When We Became Bipedal
(According to Gary Larson)
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
“Hey! Look! No
hands!”
(Does he look like Lucy
to you. . .?)

69. Gracile and Robust
Australopithecines
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For A. africanus (top), note:
Somewhat rounder skull
No sagittal crest
Prognathous jaw
For Paranthropus boisei, note:
Sagittal crest (ate a lot of veggies)
Massive lower jaw (mandible)
Flatter face
Massive cheek bones (zygomatic arch)

70. Homo habilis: The First Known
Toolmaker

Note the following:

Face is much flatter
Reduced brow ridge (supraorbital
torus)
Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.)



Toolmaking Technique

Hammerstone used to strike
A core (lump of stone) to knap
A Flake (stone chip)
Note: Stone has to be crystalline (so it
will fracture predictably)
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71. Homo erectus: Cranial Structure

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Note the Following:
Cranial capacity: 1,000 cc
Occipital bun
Reduced brow ridge
Reduced sloping forehead
Reduced prognathism
No chin; jaw is reinforced by a
simian shelf
Artist’s conception of H. erectus

72. Homo Erectus (H. ergaster to Some):
Postcranial Skeleton
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Note the following:
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Fully bipedal
Arms about length of Homo sapiens
Cranial capacity: 1000 cc (average)
Main apelike features:
Prognathous lower face
Sloping forehead
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73. Lower Paleolithic
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Oldowan Tradition:
Four or five strokes
Unspecialized: choppers
Flakes also made and used
Acheulean Tradition:
50-75 strokes
Symmetrical design
Multiple uses: cutting,
piercing, chopping

74. Homo heidelbergensis (a.k.a.
“Archaic” Homo sapiens
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Note the following:
Brow ridges much reduced
Forehead is higher, though sloping
Reduced prognathism
Cranial capacity 1200 cc.
Artist’s conception shows closer
similarities to ourselves

75. Manufacturing Levallois Cores
and Flakes
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Knappers:
Selects the appropriate core,
up to a pound of stone
Strikes the edge of the core
Knaps the surface of the
intended flake
Knocks off the flake
Retouches the flake to
desired shape
May knap four to five flakes

76. Homo neanderthalensis and H.
sapiens skull
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Note the following for “Classic” Neanderthal
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Greater prognathism; humans lower jaw is straight
Absence of chin that humans have.
Presence of brow ridge; human has none, has higher forehead
Presence of occipital bun
Larger cranial capacity: 1450 cc vs. 1400 cc in humans
Also note: Artist’s conception of Neanderthal child
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77. Homo neanderthalensis and H.
sapiens: Postcranial Skeletons
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Note the following for
Neanderthals:
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Heavier brow ridge and sloping
forehead
Bones generally more robust
Larger rib cage
Broader pelvis
Shorter forearm
Shorter tibia
Larger ankle joint
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78. Neanderthal Tools: Mousterian and
Châtelperronian Traditions
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Mousterian (top)
Bordes: 63 types
Burins (engravers)
Scrapers and knives
Even a type of handaxe
Part of the Mesolithic
Châtelperronian (bottom)
First blades—by Neanderthals
Definition: flakes twice as wide
as they are long
Initiated the Upper Paleolithic

79. Upper Paleolithic: Modern
Human Tool Traditions.
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Commonalities of Tools:
Blades: Ever thinner and
smaller
Increased tool specialization
Other material: bone, ivory,
antler
Other Developments
Artwork (such as this mural at
Altamira, Spain)
Ornamentation (Venus
statuettes)

80. Review and Conclusion
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We have. . .
Looked at the biological bases of culture: for
language, toolmaking, and bipedalism
Compared our anatomy with chimps, our closest
relatives
Discussed evolutionary change based on natural
selection and mutation
Looked at our ancestors and the tools they made

81. The Territory Ahead
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Nonhuman Primate Behavior: How close in behavior are
our cousins?
Language: The medium of culture
Making a Living: Industrial societies are not the only cultures
in the world
Sex, Family, and Its Extensions: The world’s first social
organizations
Economics: How goods and services are provided
Social Control: Governance and law
Psychology: Freud didn’t start it all
The Supernatural: Were there gods before God?
Culture Change and Globalization: Is there life outside
corporations?