The document provides an overview of the geography, early civilizations, and empires that arose in Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent region between 6000 BC and 500 BC. It describes how the Tigris and Euphrates rivers created fertile land for agriculture. Sumerian city-states like Ur and Babylon emerged around 3500 BC, with priests taking on political and religious leadership roles. Kingship and empires followed, including the Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian empires, which controlled neighboring lands and instituted governance systems to administer their multi-ethnic territories.

1. Chapter 2 Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent

2. Section 1 The Geography of Ancient Mesopotamia

3. Mesopotamia Region where Tigris & Euphrates Rivers flow Name means: “land between two rivers” Rivers: provide water and means of travel

4. Fertile Soil Rain & melting snow caused river flooding Soil picked up from mts. Rivers overflowed their banks causing flooding and spreading of silt onto land (good for growing crops)

5. An Arid Climate Less than 10” of rain w/ hot summers Arid Climate Ancient people could still grow crops due to rivers and fertile soil 3500 B.C. Widespread farming villages across Mesopotamia

6. Flood & Droughts Floods were unpredictable Extent of floods dependent on amount of rain & snow melt Too little rain & snow melt meant no flood Would cause drought & people would starve

7. Irrigation 6000 B.C. People took steps to control water supply Built earth walls to hold back water during floods Built canals to carry water to the fields Constant challenge to keep canals free from muddy silt

8. A Land of Few Resources No forests for wood in Mesopotamia Little stone and minerals Reed & Brick Houses Used to build homes Crumbled easily in bad weather & had to be repaired often Brick Walls Area was invaded easily because it was not surrounded by mts. or other natural barriers Mesopotamia often conquered or stolen from Built brick walls around their towns & villages Sometimes 25 feet thick w/ guard towers and surrounded by open ditches or moats

9. Trading for Resources Obtained stone, wood, copper, and tin through trade Traded for luxuries such as gold, ivory, ebony, and precious stones Offered grain, dates, and other farm products Could do this due to a surplus of crops Jobs such as trading, digging canals, building walls, and farming were done over and over Community leaders organized groups of people to do the work at the right time

10. Section 2 The First Civilizations

11. The Rise of Civilization Villages grew larger & larger Eventually became cities Workers Organized to solve problems Building & cleaning irrigation canals Society & culture grew more complex Changes led to civilization 1st 3300 B.C. in Sumer

12. Sumerian City-States Cities were: Centers of trade, learning, & religion Most people lived in countryside Over time cities ruled surrounding lands & villages Called a city-state Sumer had 12 city-states Babylon, Kish, Nippur, and Ur Fertile land; farmers grew lots of food; supported larger populations

13. A Sumerian City Narrow, winding streets; walls surrounded cities, w/ gates to let people in Homes built of reeds and mud or brick Series of rooms arranged around a courtyard

14. The Ziggurat: Center of the City Largest & most important structure in city Center of temple complex Like a city hall (priests ran irrigation system & other important aspects of city life) People paid for services with grain and other items Priests controlled grain surplus & city-state’s wealth

15. Priests Become Leaders Priests Played political role & religious role People went to them to ask the gods for help Sumerians believed in polytheism Believed in many gods and goddesses 4 main gods: gods of the sky, winds, hills, and fresh water Each city-state worshipped their own main god Believed gods could prevent bad things from happening Each god had many priests who worked to satisfy the gods & claimed to have influence with them Because of this people accepted priests as leaders

16. New Leaders in Sumer 3000 B.C. City-states were attacked because of their wealth Some from far off lands During these times a powerful man was asked to rule them and protect the city At 1st just in time of war; eventually full time New leaders Took over some of priests jobs Maintained canals, managed grain surplus, & acted as judges Eventually became a king of people 2375 B.C. Sumer became a kingdom under one king Priests were still important for pleasing the gods and keeping evil away

17. Sumerian Society Social Classes created King & priests were part of upper class Believed to have links to gods Landowners, gov’t officials, & rich merchants were also part of upper class Middle class All other free people (farmers, artisans, etc.) Lowest class Slaves: had some rights; could conduct business, borrow money, & buy freedom

18. Role of Women Women were included in all social classes Some were priestesses, owned land, worked as merchants and artisans, and raised children

19. Sumerian Scientific Developments Good at solving problems Invented and developed knowledge to better their lives Early Inventions: The plow: helped farmers The wheel: transport goods & used to make pottery faster Mathematics: Developed arithmetic to keep records of crops and trade goods Number system based on 60

20. Written language Invented writing to meet business needs Merchants needed records of exchange Also wanted to label goods Marked outside of containers with pictographs Pictographs: 1st showed actual objects Later stood for ideas & sounds Eventually stopped using pictures & used wedge-shaped symbols Wedge-shaped writing called cuneiform Writing System was complex 600 different symbols; took years to learn; few people were able to read and write Scribes: people to specialized in writing Professional record keepers Writing later used to write about wars, floods, & reigns of kings

21. Section 3 Empires of the Fertile Crescent

22. The First Empire Builders 3000 to 2000 B.C. Kings fought over Sumer land More land = more wealth and power to king No single king was able to control all of Mesopotamia

23. The Akkadian Empire Sargon 2371 B.C. took control of region 1st creator of 1st empire (Akkadian Empire) Eventually ruled lands from Persian Gulf through Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Sea Area known as Fertile Crescent: rich soil and water made area good for farming Empires Important because they change the way people live May bring peace, encourage trade, include people from several cultures (ideas, technology, & customs)

24. The Babylonian Empire & Hammurabi Akkadian Empire fell apart due to attacks from outside people Amorites invaded Sumer & set capital in Babylon Hammurabi ruled Empire Created a code of law to control the lands & that people had to follow He reviewed all existing laws and drew up a single law & displayed it on a huge pillar in Babylon

25. Hammurabi Code Goal: justice to everyone in empire Id wrongdoings & their punishment Society should be run by the rule of law & apply to everyone People have right to know laws and the punishment for not following them

26. Assyrians & Chaldeans Assyria took control of F.C. Built powerful army and set out to control neighboring lands A Powerful Empire Used latest inventions for war Iron swords, iron-tipped spears, battering rams, ladders,& dug tunnels Ashurbanipal Ruled during height of Assyrian Empire Assyrians governed land by appoint governor to rule each land Sent tribute to Assyrian emperor Pay for protection give by Assyrian army Fail to pay & army destroyed cities in governors land & people where exiled

27. Assyria Crumbles Medes & Chaldeans joined forces to defeat Assyrians Burned capital of Nineveh to the ground

28. A New Babylonian Empire Chaldeans ruled former Assyrian empire Capital was Babylon Nebuchadnezzar II was emperor Rebuilt city of Babylon Added artificial mts. covered with trees and plants; appeared to be floating gardens Chaldeans were cruel rulers Destroyed Hebrews’ sacred temple in Jerusalem Held thousands of Hebrews captive

29. Persia Controls Southwest Asia Medes Controlled east of F.C. Area bounded by mts. ranges Perians Nomads from Central Asia Created tiny kingdoms & thrived through trade Grew in power and threatened for control

30. Cyrus Founds the Persian Empire Cyrus took control of Medes Empire Vision of conquering lands around Persia & uniting to form one empire Conquered Anatolia, lands once controlled by Assyrians & Chaldeans Needed way to control lands filled w/ different people Set up a policy of toleration Allowed people to keep their customs & beliefs Worship their own gods, speak their language, & practice their own way of life Had to pay tribute though Fewer revolts & people lived in peace

31. Darius Expands the Empire Cambyses Successor of Cyrus Ruled through hard means After his death rebellions broke out Darius Strong leader who came to power & dealt with rebellions Looked to expand boundaries Expanded as far east as India (2,800 miles) New policies for huge empire Empire divided into 20 provinces Each had local gov’t Satraps (governors) carried out orders in provinces and collected taxes Military commander for each satrap Had spies (king’s eyes and ears) to be sure satraps followed orders

32. Darius also built a Royal Road to help unite the empire 1,775 miles long Royal messages sent along the road Mail and military troops also used road Darius set up a code of law based on Hammurabi’s model & minted coins (promoted business and made it easy to pay taxes) Planned a march against Egyptian rebels But died before that happened Son Xerxes dealt with Egypt