Biological oceanography gradually grew into a major scientific discipline with all these observations of marine organisms and their environments. In this episode, the following modules are highlighted:1. Nature of marine environment, 2. Classification of Marine environment, 3. Role of abiotic parameters on marine life, 4. Marine Flora , and 5. Marine Fauna.
Biological oceanography is a major scientific discipline dealing with all aspects of marine life under different zones of the oceanic environments. The interest to study biology by humans started as early as fourth century BC when Aristotle described about 180 species of marine animals. The geographical knowledge of oceans got improved after several great sea expeditions conducted by the people from 15th to 16th centuries. Through Ocean explorations people conducted detailed underwater surveys and mapped the ocean floors with respect to their physical features, chemistry and biological conditions.
The study of physical oceanography helps in understanding all these aspects in detail. Let us see most of these factors and processes in our future modules. Mathematical models of all these processes are also developed using these phenomena and mechanisms. The individual aspects of all the elements of physical oceanography are to be studied in detail.
Biological and chemical oceanography.Chemical Oceanography is fundamentally interdisciplinary. The chemistry of the ocean is closely tied to ocean circulation, climate, the plants and animals that live in the ocean, and the exchange of material with the atmosphere, cryosphere, continents, and mantle
Chemical Oceanography is fundamentally interdisciplinary. The chemistry of the ocean is closely tied to ocean circulation, climate, the plants and animals that live in the ocean, and the exchange of material with the atmosphere, cryosphere, continents, and mantle
Biological oceanography is a major scientific discipline dealing with all aspects of marine life under different zones of the oceanic environments. The interest to study biology by humans started as early as fourth century BC when Aristotle described about 180 species of marine animals. The geographical knowledge of oceans got improved after several great sea expeditions conducted by the people from 15th to 16th centuries. Through Ocean explorations people conducted detailed underwater surveys and mapped the ocean floors with respect to their physical features, chemistry and biological conditions.
The study of physical oceanography helps in understanding all these aspects in detail. Let us see most of these factors and processes in our future modules. Mathematical models of all these processes are also developed using these phenomena and mechanisms. The individual aspects of all the elements of physical oceanography are to be studied in detail.
Biological and chemical oceanography.Chemical Oceanography is fundamentally interdisciplinary. The chemistry of the ocean is closely tied to ocean circulation, climate, the plants and animals that live in the ocean, and the exchange of material with the atmosphere, cryosphere, continents, and mantle
Chemical Oceanography is fundamentally interdisciplinary. The chemistry of the ocean is closely tied to ocean circulation, climate, the plants and animals that live in the ocean, and the exchange of material with the atmosphere, cryosphere, continents, and mantle
Zooplankton distribution and seasonal successionAl Nahian Avro
The seasonal distribution of the major components of the zooplankton community, protozooplankton, copepods and cladocerans, along a eutrophication gradient were examined in order to establish if eutrophication through increases in phytoplankton biomass and productivity has an impact on biomass and composition of the zooplankton community
An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water mixes with fresh water. This module highlights the details of estuaries as one of the productive coastal ecosystems.
seawater is life to many organisms and plants.
it consists of various nutrients which help in the growth and developments of flora and fauna present in the seawater
A presentation to study the origin and development of oceanographic science in details from the ancient peoples to the modern period. This presentation will be very much helpful for the learners of this discipline.
Seas and oceans are very huge bodies of saline waters. Their distribution and dynamics are very influential in several ways. Understanding the properties of seawater is inevitable in oceanographic studies. Seawater is one of the most fascinating and plentiful substances on the planet. The basic properties of seawater and their distribution, the interchange of properties between sea and atmosphere or land, the transmission of energy within the sea, and the geochemical laws which are governing the composition of seawater and marine sediments, are the fundamental aspects studied in the subject oceanography.
Brief introduction to the topic on Oceanography. Anyone who have interested to study the basic of oceanography may be refer to this slide.
for me information kindly refer to the text book
"Essentials of Oceanography" Alan P. Trujillo Harold V. Thurman
(Eleventh Edition)
Zooplankton distribution and seasonal successionAl Nahian Avro
The seasonal distribution of the major components of the zooplankton community, protozooplankton, copepods and cladocerans, along a eutrophication gradient were examined in order to establish if eutrophication through increases in phytoplankton biomass and productivity has an impact on biomass and composition of the zooplankton community
An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water mixes with fresh water. This module highlights the details of estuaries as one of the productive coastal ecosystems.
seawater is life to many organisms and plants.
it consists of various nutrients which help in the growth and developments of flora and fauna present in the seawater
A presentation to study the origin and development of oceanographic science in details from the ancient peoples to the modern period. This presentation will be very much helpful for the learners of this discipline.
Seas and oceans are very huge bodies of saline waters. Their distribution and dynamics are very influential in several ways. Understanding the properties of seawater is inevitable in oceanographic studies. Seawater is one of the most fascinating and plentiful substances on the planet. The basic properties of seawater and their distribution, the interchange of properties between sea and atmosphere or land, the transmission of energy within the sea, and the geochemical laws which are governing the composition of seawater and marine sediments, are the fundamental aspects studied in the subject oceanography.
Brief introduction to the topic on Oceanography. Anyone who have interested to study the basic of oceanography may be refer to this slide.
for me information kindly refer to the text book
"Essentials of Oceanography" Alan P. Trujillo Harold V. Thurman
(Eleventh Edition)
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology is a university located in Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India, established in 1975. It is named after the politician and educator Narendra Deva, who served as vice chancellor of the University of Lucknow and Banaras Hindu University. It also has constituent colleges in Ambedkar Nagar district and Azamgarh district, as well as a planned college in Gonda district.
The Physical Oceanography is an essential part of the study in oceanography. It is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters.
Marine ecology deals with the study of the environment and life in marine waters. It involves the study of marine organisms and their habitat. The details of marine ecosystems are given in this module.
E-content is a Comprehensive package of teaching material put into hypermedia format. Hypermedia is multimedia with internet deplorability. E-content can not be created by a teaching faculty alone . It needs the role of teacher, Video editor, production assistants, web developers (HTML 5 or Adobe captivate, etc). Analyze the learner needs and goals of the instructional material development, development of a delivery system and content, pilot study of the material developed, implementation, evaluating, refining the materials etc. In designing and development of E-content we have to adopt one of the instructional design models based on our requirements.
Pedagogy is the most commonly understood approach to teaching. It refers to the theory and practice of learning. Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. Pedagogy has little variations between traditional teaching and online teaching. Online teaching pedagogy is a method of effective teaching practice specifically developed for teaching via the internet. It has a set of prescribed methods, strategies, and practices for teaching academic subjects in an online (or blended) environment, where students are in a physical location separate from the faculty member.
Technology has changed the possibilities within teaching and learning. Classes, which prior to the digital era were restricted to lectures, talks, and physical objects, no longer have to be designed in that manner. Training in a synchronous virtual classroom can only be successful with the active participation and engagement of the learners. Explore the Virtual Classroom’s features and see how they can support and enhance your tutoring style.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA. The pros and cons of this process are also highlighted. Academic and Administrative Audit is the process of evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of the administrative procedure. It includes assessment of policies, strategies & functions of the various administrative departments, control of the overall administrative system, etc. This checklist gives an overview what the audit committee members may look into while visiting an institution for this purpose. It invariably follows the Quality Indicators Framework prescribed by Accreditation Council in India.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA.
Chemical analysis data of water samples can not be used directly for understanding. They are to be used for various calculations in order to determine the quality parameters that have a lot of significances. A. Balasubramanian and D. Nagaraju, of the Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore-570006, Karnataka, India have recently brought out a software and its application manual as a good book for reference and execution. The Name of the software is WATCHIT meaning Water Chemistry Interpretation Techniques. This software computes more than 100 parameters pertaining to water quality interpretations. The software follows its own method of approach to determine the required results. Systems International Units are used. Limited input parameters are required. This is suitable for all scientific research, government water quality data interpretations and for understanding the quality of water before using it.
Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes like domestic usage, industries, agriculture etc. This technical article highlights most of the popular methods of water conservation. A special note on rainwater harvesting is also provided.
This module gives an overview of general applications of current hydrogeological aspects. It is for the basic understanding of students and research scholars.
Climate Extreme (extreme weather or climate event) refers to the occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. Extreme weather and climate events, interacting with exposed and vulnerable human and natural systems, can lead to disasters.
WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITIES IN CHAMARAJANAGAR TALUK...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
Any unplanned development and utilization of water resources with result in water scarcity. In many parts of the developing world. Such a situation exists. In order to do proper planning and
management of water resources, it is necessary to conduct detailed analyses of the factors, which influence the water availability and its uses. In the present study, a comprehensive analysis have been undertaken for proper utilization of water resources in Chamarajanagar Taluk, which has been identified as one of the drought hit districts of Karnataka, in India. The factors analysed in this work are, surface and groundwater availability, land use, cropping pattern, recharge potential of soils and the rainfall pattern in typical areas of Taluk. It is observed that the problem of water scarcity is mainly due to the lack of irrigation planning and management. Hence, a
modified cropping pattern is suggested by taking into consideration of all available water resources and other conditions.
In broad terms, cultural geography examines the cultural values, practices, discursive and material expressions and artefacts of people, the cultural diversity and plurality of society.
It also emphasizes on how cultures are distributed over space, how places and identities are produced, how people make sense of places and build senses of place, and how people produce and communicate knowledge and meaning.
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
Soils are complex mixers forming the skin of the earth's surface. Soil is a dynamic layer in which many complex chemical, physical and biological activities are going on constantly. Soils become adjusted to conditions of climate, landform and vegetation, and will change internally when those controlling conditions change. Soils are products of weathering. Soils play a dominant role in earth's geomorphic processes in a cyclic manner. The characteristics of soils are very essential for several reasons. This module highlights these characteristics.
GIS TECHNIQUES IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN CHAMARAJANAGAR ...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
The over-exploitation and contamination of groundwater continue to threaten the long-term sustainability of our precious water resources, in spite of the best efforts made by various agencies.
This has many serious implications to the economic development of a country like India. Lack of
judicious planning and integration of environmental consideration to ground water development
projects are primarily responsible for such a state of affair in the ground water sector. Geographical Information Systems could be of immense help in planning sustainable ground water management strategies, especially in hard rock areas with limited ground water potential. Data collected from
Satellite Imagery and through field investigations have been integrated, on a GIS platform, for demarcation and prioritization of areas suitable for ground water development and ground water augmentation. An attempt has also been made to assess the vulnerability of the area to ground water
contamination. This paper demonstrates the utility of GIS in planning judicious management of ground water resources in a typical hard rock area of Chamarajanagar Taluk, Karnataka, state India.
Nanobiomaterials are very effective components for several biomedical and pharmaceutical studies. Among the metallic, organic, ceramic and polymeric nanomaterials, metallic nanomaterials have shown certain prominent biomedical applications. Enormous works have been done to synthesize, analyse and administer the metallic nanoparticles for various kinds of medical and therapeutic applications, during the last forty years. In these analyses, the prominent biomedical applications of ten metallic nanobiomaterials have been reviewed from various sources and works. It has been found that almost nine of them are used in a very wide spectrum of medical and theranostic applications.
A variety of Nano-biomaterials are synthesised, characterised and tested to find out their potentialities by global scientific communities, during the last three decades. Among those, nanostructured ceramics, cements and coatings are being considered for major use in orthopaedic, dental and other medical applications. The development of novel biocompatible ceramic materials with improved biomedical functions is at the forefront of health-related applications, all over the world. Understanding of the potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials will provide a major insight into the future developments. This study reviews and enlists the prominent potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials, like Calcium Phosphate (CaP), Tri-Calcium Phosphate (TCP), Hydroxy-Apatite(HAP), TCP+HAP, Si substituted HAP, Calcium Sulphate and Carbonate, Bioactive Glasses, Bioactive Glass Ceramics, Titania-Based Ceramics, Zirconia Ceramics, Alumina Ceramcis and Ceramic Polymer Composites.
The present forest and tree cover of the country is 78.37 million ha in 2007 which is 23.84% of the geographical areas and it includes 2.82% tree cover. This becomes 25.25%, if the areas above tree line i.e., 4000m are excluded from the total geographical area. The forest cover is classified into 3 canopy density classes.
1. Very Dense Forest (VDF) with canopy density more than 70%
2. Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) with Canopy density between 40-70% and
3. Open Forest (OF) with Canopy density between 10-40%
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
2. 2
Introduction:
Seas and Oceans occupy about 71% of the Earths
surface.
The total volume of water under marine
environment is 1370 million cubic km.
The space available for marine life is 300 times
more than the space available for other aquatic or
terrestrial life on land. It is also believed that the
earliest organisms originated from the ancient
oceans, many million years before.
3. 3
The first texts of Oceanography were published by
Charles Wyville Thomson in 1873, entitled as
the “The Depths of the sea”. His initiation made
the Challenger Expeditions of 1872-76 in which
people traveled for 110, 900 km visiting all the
major oceans except Arctic.
Detailed surveys were made with respect to the
physical features, chemistry and biology of oceans.
The Challenger expedition also attempted to
integrate the geology, biology, chemistry and the
physico-chemical phenomena of the oceans.
4. 4
It was carried out for about 19 years by a group of
76 scientists.
The first seafloor map was produced with details
of life existing at greater depths. About 715 new
genera and 4417 new species of marine organisms
were described by the great German Biologist
Ernst Haeckel.
Since 1872, different countries conducted many
major biological oceanographic expeditions.
5. 5
The study of marine life has seen more and more
such findings in course of time.
Biological oceanography gradually grew into a
major scientific discipline with all these
observations of marine organisms and their
environments.
New tools and techniques were adopted from
sonar methods to satellite borne sensors to study
the oceans.
6. 6
These include sonar, underwater sound recording
devices, submarines, scuba diving and sensors for
continuous recording of oceanography
parameters.
In this episode, the following modules are
highlighted:
1. Nature of marine environment
2. Classification of Marine environment
3. Role of abiotic parameters on marine life
4. Marine Flora
5. Marine Fauna
7. 7
I. NATURE OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Historical Development:
The interest to study biology by Humans started as
early as fourth century BC when Aristotle
described about 180 species of marine animals.
The geographical knowledge of oceans got
improved after the great sea expeditions of the
15th and 16th centuries.
Edward Forbes, a British Naturalist (1815-1854) is
the founding father of Oceanography, who has
systematically studied the marine biota and
benthic marine animals.
8. 8
It was he, who specified that different species
occupy different depth zones. His Nephew, James
Ross during 1839-43 collected the benthic animals
as deep as 730m, and gave a lot of information to
others. Marine ecosystem is characterized by the
following biotic and abiotic components:
Biotic components:
Organisms and species ,Predators, Parasites,
Competitors and Mates.
9. 9
Abiotic Components (Physical and Chemical)
Temperature , Concentration of Nutrients
Sunlight
Turbulence
Salinity and density.
Temperature decreases and light diminishes with
depth.
Hydrostatic pressure increases with depth.
Nutrients become more concentrated with depth.
About 2% of the total human food consumption
comes from the marine species.
10. 10
The economic utilization of marine natural
resources is very high. Hence, biological
oceanography is a rapidly developing field of
marine sciences and Earth sciences.
Marine environments have altogether different
kinds of Physical conditions for life to survive.
Marine species are buoyed up by water and need
not have to store large amount of energy is skeletal
material. Majority of marine plants are floating
species and microscopic.
11. 11
Many marine animals are invertebrates. They do
not have massive skeletons.
For floating and swimming the animals require
little energy.
Water which is a fundamental constituent of all
living organisms, is available in plenty within these
marine environments.
Temperature is yet another parameter which do
not vary as drastically as seen on land or in air.
12. 12
However, there are certain properties which are
less favourable for life in the seas and oceans.
Plant growth in the sea is limited by light. It is a
fact that 50% of the total solar radiation which
penetrates into the sea surface gets disappeared
rapidly with depth.
Much of the marine environment is in perpectual
darkness. Under such circumstances many of the
marine life depends on the availability of essential
nutrients only. Much of the decaying matter sinks
inside the seas.
13. 13
The zone just below the sea surface, experiences
the maximum environmental fluctuation. This is
the zone where there is air-water interactions,
variations in temperature, sality and turbulence of
water from winds.
All environmental parameters show predominant
vertical gradients.
14. 14
II. CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
It is necessary to understand the basic ecological
divisions of the ocean (Fig) Marine environments
can be subdivided into two divisions as Pelagic
and Benthic environments.
The word Pelagic means ‘Open sea’ and benthic
means ‘bottom’, Pelagic refers to the ocean water
column from the surface to the greatest depth.
15. 15
Benthic refers to the deep ocean floor. In the open
sea, the zone extending from the high water and
low water coastal belt, upto a depth of 200 m
inside the sea is called as Neritic zone.
The Pelagic zone is further subdivided into
a) Epipelagic zone – extends upto 200m from
the ocean surface
b) Mesopelagic zone – extends upto 1000m
below epipelagic zone
16. 16
c) Bathypelagic zone – extends from 1200 to
4000m below the ocean surface
d) Abyssopelagic zone – extend beyond 5200 m
and upto 6000m from the surface
e) Hadal Pelagic zone – beyond 6000m and upto
10000m below the ocean surface.
Benthic environments are further classified into
a) Supra littoral zone – on the beach, high water
line
b) Littoral zone – High water to low water line
region
17. 17
c) Sub littoral zone – Low water line to 200m
depth on continental shelf.
d) Bathyal zone – 200m to 3000m depth zone
e) Abyssal zone from 2000m to 6000m depth on
continental slope region
And
f) Hadal zone lying beyond 6000m upto the end
of 1000+m depth in the deep oceans.
The Pelagic environment supports the life of
Planktons and Nektons.
18. 18
It is seen that the epipelagic zone is the sunlit zone.
Enough amount of sun light penetrates into the
top layer of oceans for plants to carry on
photosynthesis.
The mesopelagic zone is known as twilight zone.
This is a dim zone where little light penetrates,
but not enough light for plants to grow.
The bathypelagic zone is known as the midnight
zone.
19. 19
This is the layer between 1000m and 4000m
depth where there is no light penetration.
The abyssal zone is the pitch-black bottom layer of
the oceans. The oceanic water present in this zone
is almost freezing and its pressure is immense.
The Hadal zone is the last deepest zone. This is the
most inhospitable zone of the oceans.
Plants are found only in the sunlit zones where
there is sufficient light for photosynthesis.
20. 20
Animals are found at all depths of the oceans
though their numbers are greater near the surface
where food is plentiful. Still over 90% of all
species dwell on the ocean bottom where a single
rock can be home to over ten major groups of
organism like corals, mollusks and sponges.
Almost all marine life depends directly or
indirectly on microscopic algae found only at the
ocean surface. Hence, most of the animals in the
oceans live in the sunlit zone or migrate to it in
search of food.
21. 21
Some animals eat only plants.
III. ROLE OF ABIOTIC PARAMETERS ON
MARINE LIFE
The ecology of seas depends on the biotic and
abiotic physical and chemical parameters. Nature
of sea water, properties of sea water, interaction of
sea water with atmosphere, solar radiation and
density differences, wind driven forces and
hydrostatic pressure are the abiotic aspects
controlling the oceanic marine environment.
22. 22
The significant roles played by the following
parameters are to be understood:
1. Solar Radiation
2. Temperature
3. Salinity
4. Density
5. Pressure
6. Surface currents
23. 23
Solar Radiation:
Sunlight is the most important parameter for
many marine life in the sea. Only a fraction of
sunlight can penetrate thought the surface zone
and help in carrying out the photosynthesis by
plants. The energy is consumed for the conversion
of inorganic matter to organic compounds. Some
amount of radiation is absorbed by water
molecules and converted to heat. This heat
controls the temperature variations of the oceans.
24. 24
The depth-wise distribution of plants and animals
is also controlled by the light. There is also a
periodic change in the solar radiation and light
penetration. These help the vision in animals,
their migration and breeding periods within the
sea.
Radiation at the sea surface:
Solar radiation at the sea surface and the vertical
variation in the light intensity are to be measured
in proper units.
25. 25
The notable light units used for biological studies
of oceans are
a) Einstein (E) which measure Photons and
b) Watt (W) which measures the energy of
radiation.
The energy of radiation depends on the
wavelength of the light.
Photosynthesis radiation happens between 400
and 700 mm.
26. 26
One Einstein is mole of Photons
(OR) 6.02 x 1023 Photons
One Wm-2 is approximately equal to 4.16 E m-2 S-1
About half of the solar energy is absorbed (or)
scattered by various layers of the atmosphere only
50% of it is reaching the sea surface. In this, some
portion is reflected back to the atmosphere
depending upon the angle of incidence.
27. 27
The amount of radiant energy reaching the surface
is a function of the sun angle, the length of the day,
time of the day, time of the year, the latitude, and
the prevailing weather conditions.
The temporal variations of radiation may be
a) Diel variation – change between day and
night
b) Diurnal variation – only during day time
c) Seasonal variation – between seasons,
especially at high altitudes.
28. 28
Radiation in the sea:
The properties of water are very unique when
compared to other liquids. Water is normally
transparent to solar radiation.
About 50% of light which penetrates the sea
surface is found to be having the wavelength
longer than 780 nm.
This part is the IR radiation which is absorbed and
converted into heat in the upper surface of the
oceans.
29. 29
The visible portion between 400 and 700 nm
penetrates further below the sea and helps many
life to survive.
This portion is known as Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (PAR) as it helps phytoplanktons to
carryout in photosynthesis.
Much of the energy is absorbed and scattered on
further penetration.
30. 30
The intensity of light also decreases with reference
to depth.
This is called attenuation of light and is also
referred by a parameter called Extinction
coefficient.
The extinction coefficient depends on the amount
of colored, dissolved organic substances present in
seawater and the chlorophyll pigments of
phytoplanktons.
31. 31
Based on the light intensity and relative
penetration of light in the sea, three vertical
ecological zones have been identified as:
a) Euphotic zone
b) Disphotic zone
c) Aphotic zone
The shallowest zone is the euphotic zone just
below the sea surface. Light penetration fully
supports all phytoplanktons to grow and
reproduce.
32. 32
The respiration loss is also balanced by a
compensation depth which is the lower boundary
of Euphotic zone.
The dimby lighted zone below the euphotic
layer is the disphotic zone.
The last layer which is under complete darkness
where sunlight can not reach is the aphotic zone.
33. 33
Temperature in Ocean
Many marine processes are controlled by the
temperature of water. They may be physical,
chemical and biological processes. Temperature
and salinity of oceanic waters determine the
density. Due to this, the vertical water circulation
and movements are fully controlled by all these
three properties.
Exchange of heat happens between ocean and
atmosphere continuously.
34. 34
There is also a wide range of temperature
variation on the sea surface. It exceeds 300C in
tropical oceans, 400C in shallow seas, and as low as
– 1.90C in Polar Regions.
Oceans are cooled by evaporation. A good amount
of heat is transferred during this transformation of
water into water vapor.
Ocean surface temperature fluctuates with
reference to days, months, seasons and years. It
also varies with reference to Polar, tropical,
subtropical and temperate zones of the globe.
35. 35
The surface turbulent waters also transfer heat
downwards. Due to this, the uppermost part of
Oceanic water has a relatively raised temperature.
This gets decreased at a depth of 200 to 300m and
upto 1000m.
The water layer showing the steepest temperature
gradient is known as thermocline. The zone
showing the rapid changes in density of water is
known as Pycnocline. Pycnoline acts like a barrier
to vertical water circulations, and also animal
movement.
36. 36
At 2000 – 3000, the oceanic water temperature,
never rises above 40C. It also goes upto 00C to 30C
in deeper zones. (Fig).
Salinity of Oceans
Seawater is a Unique water. It contains more
dissolved salts than river, lake and rain waters.
The Salinity is refered interms of total dissolved
inorganic ions and other compounds and gases.
The average Salinity of the oceans is 35.
37. 37
When surface water gets evaporated salinity is
increased in the ocean surface. The Salinity gets
lowered due to rainfall, river water inflow and
after snow melts.
Vertical variation of Salinity is an important
limiting factor for marine life. The layer at which a
rapid change in Salinity occurs is known as
Halocline. Salinity varies with reference to
seasons and locations.
Marine life has unique physiological mechanisms
to cope up with salinity.
38. 38
Osmoregulation is one of the essential
mechanisms.
The marine life is also classified based on their
tolerance level of salinity.
The species which can tolerate a wide range of
salinity are called Euryhaline and those which can
tolerate a narrow range of salinity are called as
Stenohaline species.
39. 39
Density in Ocean Water
The density of seawater depends mainly on
salinity and temperature and to some extent by
hydrostatic pressure.
When salinity increases, density also increases.
Movement of water masses in the oceans are
controlled by all these 3 parameters.
Horizontal water movement- wind, temperature
and Salinity
Vertical movement of water- Temperature, Salinity
and density.
40. 40
The normal density of Seawater at the surface level
is very low.
When it increases, the water mass sinks down
below and reaches the appropriate strata of
matching density zone.
The sinking of water is called downwelling and
upward movement of water is called as upwelling.
Advection is the term used for horizontal and
vertical movements.
41. 41
Pressure:
Hydrostatic Pressure of oceanic water is
determined by the equation Sgh, where
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
S is the density of water and
H is the thickness of water column.
Pressure increases due to weight of overlying
mass. It is expressed in newtons per Sq. metre. At
10m depth, the pressure will be 105 Nm-2. This is
equal to 1 bar (or) 1 atom.
42. 42
Hence, the depth wise variation in pressure is
calculated based on this range.
Marine life existing in the deep oceans are
subjected to very high pressures.
The pressures may go upto 1000 atom in deep
ocean basins.
Some animals travel up and down for several
hundred metres and experience this change. Both
pelagic and benthic species do inhabit these
changes.
43. 43
They are called as eurybathic species. The marine
life which cannot tolerate such pressure variations
are called as stenobathic species.
Surface Currents
Ocean water surface currents are generated by
winds.
These water movements influence biological
productivity and nutrient availability. Due to this,
the geographical distribution of pelagic and
benthic marine species are also varied.
44. 44
Ocean surface currents are fully controlled by
global wind systems. Their directions are
modified by the earth’s rotation.
IV. MARINE FLORA
Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons are the two
types of planktons existing in the shallow depth
layer of the oceans. Most of the phytoplanktons
are unicellular alge.
45. 45
They also include diatoms, green algae, yellow-
green algae, blue green algae, red algae,
silicoflagellates and dinoflagellates.
Cryptomonads, Prasinomonads, Chloromonads
and Chrysomonads are the other marine
phytoplanktons of the seas and oceans.
These are present throughout the lighted regions
of oceans.
Phytoplaktons are the major primary producers in
the pelagic realm. The rate of primary production
in plant mass is called as Primary Productivity.
46. 46
The total weight of all organisms in a given area
(or) volume is known as the biomass.
Physical controls of Primary Production
The properties controlling primary production in
oceanic shallow waters are:
1. Light
2. Physical forces
3. Abundance of nutrients
4. Temperature
It also varies with reference to seasons and
location.
47. 47
There are two general types of plants found in the
ocean.
They are those having roots that are attached to
the ocean bottom and those that are not having
roots which simply drift about with water.
The rooted plants are only found in shallow water
because of the availability of sunlight for
photosynthesis.
48. 48
The most abundant plants in the ocean are the
phyto planktons.
These are usually single-celled, minute floating
plants that drift throughout the surface of the
oceans.
The word Plankton means wandering or drifting in
Greek. Planktons are floating plants or organisms.
There may be Phytoplanktons denoting plants and
Zooplankton denoting the animals.
49. 49
Planktons are mostly microscopic dimension.
Nektons are free-swimming animals.
Some of the Phytoplanktons are passively
transported by the currents in the sea.
Fish, squid and marine mammals are the major
Nektons, of oceans.
Pelagic organisms are classified into various types
based
Virio Plankton – 0.02-0.2mm – Femto plankton
Bacterio Plankton - 0.2 -2.0 mm – Pico plankton
50. 50
Myco plankton - 2.0-20.0 mm – Nano plankton
Phyto plankton - 20-200 mm – Micro plankton
Protozoo plankton - 20-200 mm – Micro
plankton.
Metazoo plankton - 0.2 -20 mm Meso plankton
- 2.0 to 20 cm Macro plankton
- 20-200 cm – Mega plankton
A bucket of seawater might hold a million
microscopic diatoms which are relatives of sea
weeds encased in glassy boxes.
51. 51
To grow, phytoplankton need nutrients from the
seawater and lots of sunlight.
The large quantities of diatoms and phytoplankton
give a color to the sea water.
V. MARINE FAUNA
Marine animals are divided into 3 groups:
1. Zooplankton
2. Nekton and
3. Benthos
Zooplankton are drifting animals and are usually
small but grow to fairly large size.
52. 52
Eg: Jellyfish
The zoo plankton population also includes some
members like fish eggs or larval forms of
organisms which may grow up and leave the plank
tonic community to join the nekton or bethos.
Nektons are the free swimmers and the largest
portion of familiar population of animals found in
the oceans.
53. 53
Common fishes, octopus, whales, eels and squid
are all examples of nekton.
Whales, Sea mammals, dolphin and porpoise
codfish/trout
The third type of sea animals spend their entire life
on or in the ocean bottom. This group of marine
animals is called benthos.
Lobsters, starfish, various norms, snails, oysters,
etc.
54. 54
All marine life need food.
Plants make their own food but animals obtain
food from their environment. A food chain
represents the transfer of body-building
substances and energy when one organism eats
another. Diatoms form the first link in the marine
food chain.
In the ocean, there are innumerable individual
food chains overlapping and intersecting to form
complex food webs.
55. 55
Most marine creatures eat a variety of foods. The
rich diversity of life in the sea forms a delicately
balanced.
Network of predators and prey.
All organisms are dependent on one another for
survival.
Marine Zooplanktons animals range from
microscopic unicellular organisms to jellyfish size
which are several metres in diameter.
56. 56
They are of two kinds as
a) Holoplankton (Permanent Planktons-Spend
their entire life cycle in water column) and
b) Meroplankton (Temporary residents of
Plankton community)
There are about 5000 species of holoplanktons
existing in seawaters.
Many notable ones are
Forminifers, Radiolarians, Ciliates, Tintinids
Jellyfish, Cnidaria & Ctenophores.
57. 57
Arrow worms and some heteropods, Pteropods
Copepods, Ostrocods, Amphipods, Euphansiids,
Mysids, Decapods and Salps.
The Meroplanktons are miniature adults spending
a few minutes to several months and years in the
upper layers.
Most of them are larvae of benthic forms. They
include Snail religers, starfish, sea urchins,
barnacles and crabs.
58. 58
Planktons show vertical migration within every 24
hours.
This is called as diel vertical migration.
This occurs in many epipelagic and mesopelagic
species.
Marine Zooplanktons show three kinds of patterns
as:
a) Nocturnal migration - after sunset
b) Twilight migration - rising up at sunrise
c) Reverse migration- surface rise during the
day and descent to depths at nights.
59. 59
There are also seasonal vertical migrations
happening in the shallow waters for marine life.
Zoogeographic studies help understanding the
distributions of living organisms and the
physiological or ecological reasons behind these
mobilities.
Long–term observations show that plankton
abundance and species composition may change
with reference to time, climatic variations,
stratification and nutrient availability.
60. 60
Properties affecting marine life are:
1. Quality of sea water
2. Skeleton shape and size of organisms
3. Buoyancy
4. Gravity
5. Temperature of ocean water
6. Density
7. Light
8. Availability of Nutrients
9. Water turbulence
10. Hydrostatic pressure.