The document provides information on batteries, including:
1) Batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions and can be recharged by passing current in the opposite direction of discharge.
2) Batteries contain hazardous materials like sulfuric acid and lead that can cause burns, nerve damage, and other health issues if exposed.
3) Primary batteries convert chemical energy directly while secondary batteries must be charged first before use and can be recharged multiple times.
This document discusses electrolytic cells, which use an electric current to drive non-spontaneous redox reactions called electrolysis. In electrolytic cells, the cathode is the negative electrode where reduction occurs and the anode is the positive electrode where oxidation occurs, unlike in voltaic cells. Electrolytic cells are used for processes like metal extraction and refining, electroplating, and producing industrial gases. They involve immersing inert electrodes in a common electrolyte, with the cathode being the negative terminal of the power supply where positive ions are reduced.
This document discusses electricity and electrical circuits. It covers the following key points:
1) Conductors allow charge to flow easily, while insulators do not allow charge to flow well. Common conductors include metals like copper and graphite. Insulators include materials like glass, wood, plastic and rubber.
2) A switch is used to open or close an electric circuit. There are different types of switches like push-to-break and push-to-make.
3) Current intensity, measured in amps, refers to the amount of charge flowing through a point in a circuit each second. The current depends on factors like the voltage and the resistance in the circuit.
Voltaic cells harness spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric currents. They contain two half-cells, each with a different metal electrode immersed in a solution of its ions. A salt bridge allows ion flow between half-cells. In a zinc-copper cell, zinc oxidizes in one half-cell while copper reduces in the other, generating a spontaneous current through the external circuit. The salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality as ions cross between half-cells.
The document discusses electricity, including what electricity is, how electric circuits work, different circuit components like batteries, switches, resistors, and how to draw circuit diagrams. It explains key concepts such as current, voltage, resistance, and the differences between series and parallel circuits. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts and how circuits with different components can be arranged.
Electricity is associated with stationary or moving electric charges borne by elementary particles like electrons. Various manifestations of electricity result from the accumulation or motion of electrons. Key historical figures involved in the study and advancement of electricity include Thales, William Gilbert, Thomas Browne, Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and Thomas Edison. Volta invented the first electric battery that produced a steady electric current. Faraday created the first electric generator, solving the problem of generating electric current in an ongoing, practical way.
This chapter discusses electrical safety and hazards. It explains that electrocution, burns, fires and explosions are dangers of improper electricity use. Damaged insulation, overloading, overheating, damp conditions and poor connections can cause hazards. The chapter also describes safe electricity use at home, including proper three-pin plug wiring, using fuses of the correct rating, and ensuring appliances are earthed or have double insulation. Precautions like switching off main power and not touching victims are advised for electrocutions.
A battery produces a constant potential difference through chemical reactions. Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Resistance is the ratio of voltage to current and determines how current flows in a circuit. Power in a circuit is determined by the current and voltage, with alternating current varying sinusoidally over time.
This document discusses electrolytic cells, which use an electric current to drive non-spontaneous redox reactions called electrolysis. In electrolytic cells, the cathode is the negative electrode where reduction occurs and the anode is the positive electrode where oxidation occurs, unlike in voltaic cells. Electrolytic cells are used for processes like metal extraction and refining, electroplating, and producing industrial gases. They involve immersing inert electrodes in a common electrolyte, with the cathode being the negative terminal of the power supply where positive ions are reduced.
This document discusses electricity and electrical circuits. It covers the following key points:
1) Conductors allow charge to flow easily, while insulators do not allow charge to flow well. Common conductors include metals like copper and graphite. Insulators include materials like glass, wood, plastic and rubber.
2) A switch is used to open or close an electric circuit. There are different types of switches like push-to-break and push-to-make.
3) Current intensity, measured in amps, refers to the amount of charge flowing through a point in a circuit each second. The current depends on factors like the voltage and the resistance in the circuit.
Voltaic cells harness spontaneous redox reactions to produce electric currents. They contain two half-cells, each with a different metal electrode immersed in a solution of its ions. A salt bridge allows ion flow between half-cells. In a zinc-copper cell, zinc oxidizes in one half-cell while copper reduces in the other, generating a spontaneous current through the external circuit. The salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality as ions cross between half-cells.
The document discusses electricity, including what electricity is, how electric circuits work, different circuit components like batteries, switches, resistors, and how to draw circuit diagrams. It explains key concepts such as current, voltage, resistance, and the differences between series and parallel circuits. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts and how circuits with different components can be arranged.
Electricity is associated with stationary or moving electric charges borne by elementary particles like electrons. Various manifestations of electricity result from the accumulation or motion of electrons. Key historical figures involved in the study and advancement of electricity include Thales, William Gilbert, Thomas Browne, Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and Thomas Edison. Volta invented the first electric battery that produced a steady electric current. Faraday created the first electric generator, solving the problem of generating electric current in an ongoing, practical way.
This chapter discusses electrical safety and hazards. It explains that electrocution, burns, fires and explosions are dangers of improper electricity use. Damaged insulation, overloading, overheating, damp conditions and poor connections can cause hazards. The chapter also describes safe electricity use at home, including proper three-pin plug wiring, using fuses of the correct rating, and ensuring appliances are earthed or have double insulation. Precautions like switching off main power and not touching victims are advised for electrocutions.
A battery produces a constant potential difference through chemical reactions. Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Resistance is the ratio of voltage to current and determines how current flows in a circuit. Power in a circuit is determined by the current and voltage, with alternating current varying sinusoidally over time.
Electricity can be used for heating, lighting, and powering motors. Heating elements get hot when electricity passes through, lighting works when the filament in a bulb is heated to glow, and motors use magnetic fields to convert electricity into rotational motion. Dangers of electricity include damaged insulation, overheating of cables from overloading or thin wires, and damp conditions allowing electricity to pass through water to a person's body. Proper and safe use of electricity in the home requires awareness of these hazards.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS.
Introduction to P-N Junction Diode and V-I Characteristics
Half wave and Full wave rectifiers
Capacitor filters
Zener diode and its Characteristics
Zener Diode as Voltage regulator
Electric cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy to produce electricity. Multiple cells connected together form a battery. Batteries produce a potential difference across their terminals through chemical reactions, providing energy to move electrons through an external circuit. The electromotive force (emf) of a battery is the voltage when no current flows, while internal resistance causes voltage to drop under load. Batteries can be connected in series, where the total emf is the sum of individual cells and current is the same through each, or in parallel, where the total current is the sum of individual cells and voltage is the same across each.
Electricity involves the movement of electrons. It can be static electricity from electrons moving between objects, or current electricity from electrons flowing in a conductor. There are two types of electric charge - positive and negative - which attract and repel each other. Electricity flows through circuits that can be either closed, allowing current to flow, or open with a break preventing current. Circuits can be connected in series or parallel.
Atoms contain protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and are located on the outer edges of atoms. Static electricity is the build up of an electric charge on the surface of an object without flowing. It can be discharged through friction, conduction, or induction. Electricity flows through circuits, which provide a path for electrons. Direct current flows in one direction, while alternating current changes direction.
1. The document discusses electric current, batteries, resistance, and their relationships as defined by Ohm's Law and how power is calculated.
2. It explains that a battery produces electromotive force (emf) and maintains a voltage between its terminals, and that current is measured in Amperes.
3. Resistance depends on properties of the material like length, cross-sectional area, and resistivity, and that power is calculated based on voltage, current, and resistance as defined by Ohm's Law.
This document provides information about various topics related to electricity and circuits, including:
- Static electricity is caused by an imbalance of electric charges, usually through friction.
- Electric fields are regions surrounding charged objects that can exert force on other charges.
- Current is the flow of electric charge. It is measured in amperes and defined as the rate of flow of electric charge past a point.
- Resistance opposes the flow of current and is measured in ohms. It depends on the material and its temperature.
- Kirchhoff's laws and combinations of resistances describe how current and voltage are related in circuits.
The document discusses the three main effects of electric current: heating, chemical, and magnetic. It focuses on the heating effect, explaining Joule's law that heat produced is proportional to resistance times the square of current. It also discusses electrolysis as the chemical effect and how domestic circuits are arranged. High voltage transmission and safety features like earthing and bonding are explained.
Electronic Devices and Circuits by Dr. R.Prakash Raorachurivlsi
This document provides an overview of electronic devices and circuits in 5 units:
1. PN junction diodes, tunnel diodes, varactor diodes, and photo diodes.
2. Rectifiers, filters, and voltage regulation using zener diodes.
3. Bipolar junction transistors, characteristics, configurations, and transistor amplifiers.
4. Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques.
5. Field effect transistors including JFETs, MOSFETs, and FET amplifiers.
This document provides definitions and explanations of basic electronics concepts. It discusses conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. It also defines the atom as the basic unit of matter, and describes the parts of an atom including protons, neutrons, electrons, and quarks. Additional concepts covered include voltage, current, direct and alternating current, resistors, diodes, transistors, capacitors, transformers, inductors, LEDs, solar cells, switches, magnetic flux, and logic gates. Boolean equations are also introduced.
Electricity is the flow of electrons. Static electricity occurs when there is a buildup of electrons on an object without a discharge path, such as through friction. Current electricity requires a closed circuit or conductive path for electrons to flow from a power source through a load. Circuits can be in series, with one conductive path, or parallel with multiple paths. Conductors allow electron flow while insulators do not. Switches open or close circuits to control electron flow.
Diodes and diode circuits are described in the document. Key points include:
- Diodes only conduct current in one direction, blocking it in the other. Forward biased diodes conduct more easily than reversed biased diodes.
- Zener diodes are intended for operation in the breakdown region to provide a stable voltage.
- Rectifier circuits like half-wave and full-wave converters use diodes to convert AC to DC power.
- Voltage regulator circuits employ zener diodes to provide a constant output voltage despite varying input levels.
The document provides information about current electricity including:
- Defining current electricity as the flow of electric charge through a medium.
- Explaining how circuits work and the relationships between current, voltage, and resistance.
- Describing parallel and series circuits and how current is distributed in each.
- Introducing concepts of electrical power and different methods of power generation.
8 chemical effects of electric currentthemassmaker
This document discusses several experiments to test the conductivity of various materials:
1. Liquids like lemon juice and vinegar are tested using a homemade tester and found to be good conductors of electricity, while distilled water is a poor conductor unless salt is dissolved in it.
2. Another homemade tester using a compass needle is used to detect even weak currents in liquids. Various common liquids are tested and classified as good or poor conductors.
3. Passing an electric current through a conducting solution like salt water results in the production of gas bubbles and other chemical effects, demonstrating that a chemical change occurs.
4. Potatoes are found to develop a greenish spot around the positive wire when used
Heating effect of electric current, Physics, ElectricityPragyan Poudyal
The document discusses the heating effect of electricity, which is one of the most common effects. It explains that when electric current passes through a conductor, the electrons collide with atoms and transfer their kinetic energy, producing heat. The amount of heat generated depends on the current, resistance of the material, and duration of current flow, as defined by Joule's law. Common applications that use this heating effect include electric irons, heaters, stoves, and light bulbs. Nichrome is often used as the heating element due to its high melting point and resistance.
The document discusses diodes and their applications. It explains that diodes allow current to flow easily in one direction but block it in the other, acting like a one-way valve. It describes the basic diode characteristics and models. It then discusses how a p-n junction forms and how applying a voltage bias allows current to flow. Different types of diodes are also summarized, including power diodes, signal diodes, and Zener diodes. Two diode circuit applications - a clamp and stiff clamp - are explained briefly.
The document discusses symbols used to represent electrical components in circuit diagrams such as cells, switches, wires, and batteries. It provides examples of circuit diagrams and problems involving wiring cells to make batteries and identifying issues that prevent circuits from working properly. Safety tips are also discussed such as using MCBs instead of fuses and avoiding overloading circuits.
Here are the circuit diagrams drawn as requested:
1.
+ -
2.
+ -
3.
A
V
+ -
Now let's assemble the circuits using the appropriate components.
Thursday, 16 September 2010
CIRCUITS: diagrams & assembly
Draw the following circuit diagrams in the spaces
provided AND when you have finished, assemble them:
1. Two cells in series
+ -
2. Three lamps in parallel
+ -
3. A switch and a lamp in series
S
L
+ -
Now let's assemble the circuits using the appropriate components.
5. Screening, Density Scale,Lab Milling Equipment_ May 2016Shantel Breytenbach
The document describes several laboratory testing devices:
1. The Marcy Pulp Density & Specific Gravity Scale measures weight, specific gravity of liquids and pulps, percent solids, and specific gravity of dry solids using interchangeable dials. It eliminates errors from charts and calculations.
2. The MACSALAB 200 Cross Beater Lab Mill is used to crush materials like coal, ores, chemicals and more. Materials are fed into the grinding chamber and pulverized against the chamber lining by fast moving hammers then discharged through screens.
3. The MACSALAB ES-200 Sieve Shaker is recommended for general laboratory sieving including fine particles. It can hold up to 16 test
The document discusses energy storage as a prerequisite for harnessing renewable energy. It summarizes various methods of energy storage including chemical, heat, electric, electrochemical, and gravitational. It then focuses on batteries as a form of electrochemical energy storage. Batteries can store electrical energy chemically and convert it back to electrical energy when needed. The document discusses lead-acid batteries in detail, covering their fundamental principles, classifications based on plate type and electrolyte, uses, and factors that affect battery capacity over time.
This document discusses different types of cells and batteries. It describes how batteries were invented by Alessandro Volta in 1799 and how they work by producing electricity through a chemical reaction between two different metals. It distinguishes between primary batteries, which cannot be recharged, and secondary batteries, which can be recharged. The document also discusses dry cells versus wet cells, battery safety issues like explosions, and environmental concerns related to battery production, use, and disposal.
1. The document presents information about lead acid batteries, including their construction, types of cells, and working.
2. A lead acid battery consists of lead plates immersed in sulfuric acid electrolyte within a sealed case. During discharge, the plates convert chemical energy to electrical energy through chemical reactions.
3. The battery works by reversing these chemical reactions during charging, restoring the plates and electrolyte to their original state to allow for further use.
Electricity can be used for heating, lighting, and powering motors. Heating elements get hot when electricity passes through, lighting works when the filament in a bulb is heated to glow, and motors use magnetic fields to convert electricity into rotational motion. Dangers of electricity include damaged insulation, overheating of cables from overloading or thin wires, and damp conditions allowing electricity to pass through water to a person's body. Proper and safe use of electricity in the home requires awareness of these hazards.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS.
Introduction to P-N Junction Diode and V-I Characteristics
Half wave and Full wave rectifiers
Capacitor filters
Zener diode and its Characteristics
Zener Diode as Voltage regulator
Electric cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy to produce electricity. Multiple cells connected together form a battery. Batteries produce a potential difference across their terminals through chemical reactions, providing energy to move electrons through an external circuit. The electromotive force (emf) of a battery is the voltage when no current flows, while internal resistance causes voltage to drop under load. Batteries can be connected in series, where the total emf is the sum of individual cells and current is the same through each, or in parallel, where the total current is the sum of individual cells and voltage is the same across each.
Electricity involves the movement of electrons. It can be static electricity from electrons moving between objects, or current electricity from electrons flowing in a conductor. There are two types of electric charge - positive and negative - which attract and repel each other. Electricity flows through circuits that can be either closed, allowing current to flow, or open with a break preventing current. Circuits can be connected in series or parallel.
Atoms contain protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and are located on the outer edges of atoms. Static electricity is the build up of an electric charge on the surface of an object without flowing. It can be discharged through friction, conduction, or induction. Electricity flows through circuits, which provide a path for electrons. Direct current flows in one direction, while alternating current changes direction.
1. The document discusses electric current, batteries, resistance, and their relationships as defined by Ohm's Law and how power is calculated.
2. It explains that a battery produces electromotive force (emf) and maintains a voltage between its terminals, and that current is measured in Amperes.
3. Resistance depends on properties of the material like length, cross-sectional area, and resistivity, and that power is calculated based on voltage, current, and resistance as defined by Ohm's Law.
This document provides information about various topics related to electricity and circuits, including:
- Static electricity is caused by an imbalance of electric charges, usually through friction.
- Electric fields are regions surrounding charged objects that can exert force on other charges.
- Current is the flow of electric charge. It is measured in amperes and defined as the rate of flow of electric charge past a point.
- Resistance opposes the flow of current and is measured in ohms. It depends on the material and its temperature.
- Kirchhoff's laws and combinations of resistances describe how current and voltage are related in circuits.
The document discusses the three main effects of electric current: heating, chemical, and magnetic. It focuses on the heating effect, explaining Joule's law that heat produced is proportional to resistance times the square of current. It also discusses electrolysis as the chemical effect and how domestic circuits are arranged. High voltage transmission and safety features like earthing and bonding are explained.
Electronic Devices and Circuits by Dr. R.Prakash Raorachurivlsi
This document provides an overview of electronic devices and circuits in 5 units:
1. PN junction diodes, tunnel diodes, varactor diodes, and photo diodes.
2. Rectifiers, filters, and voltage regulation using zener diodes.
3. Bipolar junction transistors, characteristics, configurations, and transistor amplifiers.
4. Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques.
5. Field effect transistors including JFETs, MOSFETs, and FET amplifiers.
This document provides definitions and explanations of basic electronics concepts. It discusses conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. It also defines the atom as the basic unit of matter, and describes the parts of an atom including protons, neutrons, electrons, and quarks. Additional concepts covered include voltage, current, direct and alternating current, resistors, diodes, transistors, capacitors, transformers, inductors, LEDs, solar cells, switches, magnetic flux, and logic gates. Boolean equations are also introduced.
Electricity is the flow of electrons. Static electricity occurs when there is a buildup of electrons on an object without a discharge path, such as through friction. Current electricity requires a closed circuit or conductive path for electrons to flow from a power source through a load. Circuits can be in series, with one conductive path, or parallel with multiple paths. Conductors allow electron flow while insulators do not. Switches open or close circuits to control electron flow.
Diodes and diode circuits are described in the document. Key points include:
- Diodes only conduct current in one direction, blocking it in the other. Forward biased diodes conduct more easily than reversed biased diodes.
- Zener diodes are intended for operation in the breakdown region to provide a stable voltage.
- Rectifier circuits like half-wave and full-wave converters use diodes to convert AC to DC power.
- Voltage regulator circuits employ zener diodes to provide a constant output voltage despite varying input levels.
The document provides information about current electricity including:
- Defining current electricity as the flow of electric charge through a medium.
- Explaining how circuits work and the relationships between current, voltage, and resistance.
- Describing parallel and series circuits and how current is distributed in each.
- Introducing concepts of electrical power and different methods of power generation.
8 chemical effects of electric currentthemassmaker
This document discusses several experiments to test the conductivity of various materials:
1. Liquids like lemon juice and vinegar are tested using a homemade tester and found to be good conductors of electricity, while distilled water is a poor conductor unless salt is dissolved in it.
2. Another homemade tester using a compass needle is used to detect even weak currents in liquids. Various common liquids are tested and classified as good or poor conductors.
3. Passing an electric current through a conducting solution like salt water results in the production of gas bubbles and other chemical effects, demonstrating that a chemical change occurs.
4. Potatoes are found to develop a greenish spot around the positive wire when used
Heating effect of electric current, Physics, ElectricityPragyan Poudyal
The document discusses the heating effect of electricity, which is one of the most common effects. It explains that when electric current passes through a conductor, the electrons collide with atoms and transfer their kinetic energy, producing heat. The amount of heat generated depends on the current, resistance of the material, and duration of current flow, as defined by Joule's law. Common applications that use this heating effect include electric irons, heaters, stoves, and light bulbs. Nichrome is often used as the heating element due to its high melting point and resistance.
The document discusses diodes and their applications. It explains that diodes allow current to flow easily in one direction but block it in the other, acting like a one-way valve. It describes the basic diode characteristics and models. It then discusses how a p-n junction forms and how applying a voltage bias allows current to flow. Different types of diodes are also summarized, including power diodes, signal diodes, and Zener diodes. Two diode circuit applications - a clamp and stiff clamp - are explained briefly.
The document discusses symbols used to represent electrical components in circuit diagrams such as cells, switches, wires, and batteries. It provides examples of circuit diagrams and problems involving wiring cells to make batteries and identifying issues that prevent circuits from working properly. Safety tips are also discussed such as using MCBs instead of fuses and avoiding overloading circuits.
Here are the circuit diagrams drawn as requested:
1.
+ -
2.
+ -
3.
A
V
+ -
Now let's assemble the circuits using the appropriate components.
Thursday, 16 September 2010
CIRCUITS: diagrams & assembly
Draw the following circuit diagrams in the spaces
provided AND when you have finished, assemble them:
1. Two cells in series
+ -
2. Three lamps in parallel
+ -
3. A switch and a lamp in series
S
L
+ -
Now let's assemble the circuits using the appropriate components.
5. Screening, Density Scale,Lab Milling Equipment_ May 2016Shantel Breytenbach
The document describes several laboratory testing devices:
1. The Marcy Pulp Density & Specific Gravity Scale measures weight, specific gravity of liquids and pulps, percent solids, and specific gravity of dry solids using interchangeable dials. It eliminates errors from charts and calculations.
2. The MACSALAB 200 Cross Beater Lab Mill is used to crush materials like coal, ores, chemicals and more. Materials are fed into the grinding chamber and pulverized against the chamber lining by fast moving hammers then discharged through screens.
3. The MACSALAB ES-200 Sieve Shaker is recommended for general laboratory sieving including fine particles. It can hold up to 16 test
The document discusses energy storage as a prerequisite for harnessing renewable energy. It summarizes various methods of energy storage including chemical, heat, electric, electrochemical, and gravitational. It then focuses on batteries as a form of electrochemical energy storage. Batteries can store electrical energy chemically and convert it back to electrical energy when needed. The document discusses lead-acid batteries in detail, covering their fundamental principles, classifications based on plate type and electrolyte, uses, and factors that affect battery capacity over time.
This document discusses different types of cells and batteries. It describes how batteries were invented by Alessandro Volta in 1799 and how they work by producing electricity through a chemical reaction between two different metals. It distinguishes between primary batteries, which cannot be recharged, and secondary batteries, which can be recharged. The document also discusses dry cells versus wet cells, battery safety issues like explosions, and environmental concerns related to battery production, use, and disposal.
1. The document presents information about lead acid batteries, including their construction, types of cells, and working.
2. A lead acid battery consists of lead plates immersed in sulfuric acid electrolyte within a sealed case. During discharge, the plates convert chemical energy to electrical energy through chemical reactions.
3. The battery works by reversing these chemical reactions during charging, restoring the plates and electrolyte to their original state to allow for further use.
Batteries store chemical energy and convert it to electrical energy. They contain a cathode, anode, and electrolyte. The electrolyte allows charge to flow between the electrodes. Batteries are used in automobiles, power systems, and other applications. In cars, batteries power accessories and start the vehicle. Common battery types include lead-acid, used in car batteries, lithium-ion in phones, alkaline in household batteries, and zinc-carbon in disposable batteries. Proper maintenance like regular inspections is important for long battery life.
The document summarizes key concepts about lead-acid batteries, including:
1) Lead-acid batteries use lead and lead dioxide electrodes with a sulfuric acid electrolyte. Chemical reactions at the electrodes involve the transfer of electrons between the electrodes and ions in the electrolyte.
2) As the battery charges and discharges, the concentration of the sulfuric acid electrolyte changes. This affects the voltage according to the Nernst equation.
3) Factors like internal resistance and surface chemistry effects cause the terminal voltage to differ from the theoretical voltage. Battery models account for these factors.
The document discusses batteries and their components. It describes how batteries work by converting chemical energy into electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions. The two main types are primary batteries that cannot be recharged and secondary batteries that can be recharged by passing a current in the opposite direction of discharge. Key components include electrodes, electrolyte and separators. Safety issues like ventilation and handling of hazardous materials like sulfuric acid and lead are also covered.
The document provides information about batteries, including their components and functions. It discusses the basic components of batteries like electrodes, electrolytes and separators. It explains the differences between primary and secondary batteries and provides examples like dry cell and lead acid batteries. It also covers topics like charging, discharging, specific gravity, electrolysis, series and parallel connections. Guidelines are provided for maintenance, safety, ventilation and jump starting batteries.
This document provides information about batteries, including their components and functions. It discusses:
- The basic components of a battery including electrodes, electrolyte, and separator. Batteries produce voltage through chemical reactions between the electrodes and electrolyte.
- Different types of batteries like lead-acid, lithium-ion, and dry cell and how they work. Secondary batteries can be recharged while primary batteries cannot.
- Battery maintenance like cleaning, monitoring electrolyte levels, and proper charging/ventilation techniques to prevent overcharging and gas buildup.
The document provides information about batteries, including their components and functions. It discusses how batteries work by converting chemical energy to electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions. It also describes different types of batteries like primary batteries that directly convert chemical energy and secondary batteries that must be charged first before use. Additionally, it covers battery safety, maintenance, charging, and electrical connections like series and parallel configurations.
This document provides information about batteries, including their components and functions. It discusses:
- The basic components of a battery including electrodes, electrolyte, and separator. Batteries produce voltage through chemical reactions between the electrodes and electrolyte.
- Different types of batteries like lead-acid, lithium-ion, and dry cell and how they work. Secondary batteries can be recharged while primary batteries cannot.
- Key parameters for batteries like state of charge, specific gravity, voltage, capacity ratings. Specific gravity and voltage indicate a battery's charge level.
- Safety information on charging, ventilation requirements to avoid explosive hydrogen gas, and jump starting procedures.
The document discusses the basics of electrochemical cells and batteries. It covers topics like nominal voltage, operating voltage, capacity, self-discharge, depth of discharge, energy density, service life, and shelf life. It also discusses primary cells like Leclanché cells, alkaline cells, and lithium primary cells. Their chemistries and applications are explained. Secondary cells and batteries are defined. The differences between galvanic cells and electrolytic cells are highlighted.
The document discusses caring for and testing lead-acid batteries used in railway signaling applications. It describes the classification of primary and secondary cells, the types of lead-acid cells used, their construction, chemical reactions, and how to monitor state of charge through specific gravity measurements. It also provides guidance on initial charging, maintenance, capacity testing, and tips to maximize battery life.
The document discusses caring for and testing lead-acid batteries used in railway signaling applications. It describes the classification of primary and secondary cells, the types of lead-acid cells used, their construction, chemical reactions, and how to monitor state of charge through specific gravity measurements. It also provides guidance on initial charging, maintenance, capacity testing, and tips to maximize battery life.
The document discusses several key concepts about electricity and circuits:
- Phase changes like melting and boiling absorb energy without changing temperature. This energy is called latent heat and allows substances to change state.
- Electric circuits allow electric current to flow through a conductive loop. Current is the flow of electric charge and is measured in amps. It flows from high to low voltage according to Ohm's Law.
- Circuits can be connected in series, where there is one path, or parallel, where there are multiple paths. This determines how components influence each other. Fuses and circuit breakers protect parallel circuits if too much current flows.
A potentiostat is an electronic instrument that measures and controls the voltage difference between a Working Electrode and a Reference Electrode. It measures the current flow between the Working and Counter Electrodes.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in electric circuits for an AP Physics exam. It defines important terms like charge, current, voltage, and resistance. It explains the differences between series and parallel circuits and introduces Kirchhoff's laws. Formulas for voltage, resistance, power, and circuit calculations are presented. Example problems demonstrate applying the concepts and formulas to calculate current, power usage, and the number of light bulbs that can be connected before tripping a circuit breaker.
prepared notes as pre Tanzanian syllabus by Mr Saad Miraji a bachelor degree holder in science with education (chemistry and biology) currently teaching at Shamsiye boys secondary school advance chemistry
Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions caused by the passage of an electric current and the production of electrical energy from chemical reactions. It encompasses phenomena like corrosion and devices like batteries and fuel cells. Electrochemical cells are either electrolytic cells, where an external power source drives non-spontaneous reactions, or galvanic/voltaic cells, where spontaneous reactions produce electricity. The kinetics and rates of electrochemical reactions, as well as mass transfer of reactants, influence current production in fuel cells and other devices.
This will cover chapter one and two of medical physics.Slides to help students in electrotherapy medical physics part.will cover part from the book and internet source includes
Thermal effect of current
Chemical effects
Cell/batteries
Electronic tube
Diodes
Triodes
Electrolysis
Electrical burns
This document discusses electrochemical cells, which can generate electrical energy from chemical reactions (voltaic cells) or use electrical energy to cause chemical reactions (electrolytic cells). Voltaic cells rely on spontaneous redox reactions to produce electricity, as in batteries. Electrolytic cells require an external electrical input to drive non-spontaneous redox reactions, such as in water electrolysis or electroplating. The document explains the basic concepts and applications of both voltaic and electrolytic cells.
Voltaic cells harness energy from chemical reactions through redox processes. An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells where oxidation and reduction occur separately. A voltaic cell specifically converts chemical energy to electrical energy via a spontaneous redox reaction. The standard cell potential, which determines if a reaction is spontaneous, can be calculated from the standard reduction potentials of each half-cell reaction.
The document discusses batteries and their components. It defines a battery as a cell or group of cells that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions, and can be recharged by passing current in the opposite direction of discharge. Batteries contain hazardous materials like sulfuric acid and lead that can cause health issues like burns, blindness, nerve damage and cancer. The document also describes primary batteries that directly convert chemical to electrical energy, and secondary batteries that must be charged first before converting stored chemical energy to electrical energy.
Saman Tanoli will present on electrochemical cells. The presentation will define electrochemical cells, describe their components and types, including voltaic/galvanic cells and electrolytic cells. It will explain the differences between galvanic and electrolytic cells and provide examples of their applications. Voltaic cells generate electricity from spontaneous redox reactions, while electrolytic cells use electricity to drive non-spontaneous reactions. Common examples are batteries and electroplating/electrorefining of metals.
The document defines basic electrical components and concepts. It explains that electricity can be broken down into electric charge, voltage, current and resistance. It describes the three classifications of materials as conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. It compares and contrasts direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC), and explains the concepts of grounding, Ohm's law, and Watt's law.
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3) Standard reduction potentials which indicate the tendency of elements to gain or lose electrons. More positive potentials indicate easier reduction. This can be used to determine if a reaction is spontaneous.
4) The Nernst equation relates cell potential to non-standard conditions by accounting for react
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9
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occur natural.
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2. The Battery
• Main Entry: storage battery
• Function: noun
• Date: 1881
• : a cell or connected group of cells that converts
chemical energy into electrical energy by
reversible chemical reactions and that may be
recharged by passing a current through it in the
direction opposite to that of its discharge -- called
also storage cell.
3. Battery
HAZARDOUS POSSIBLE
CONSTITUENT EFFECTS
Corrosive, causes
severe skin burns,
SULFURIC ACID
and can cause
blindness.
Causes nerve and
kidney damage,
LEAD suspected
carcinogen
4. Types of Batteries
The primary battery converts chemical energy
to electrical energy directly, using the chemical
materials within the cell to start the action.
The secondary battery must first be charged
with electrical energy before it can convert
chemical energy to electrical energy.
The secondary battery is frequently called a
storage battery, since it stores the energy that is
supplied to it.
5. DRY CELL
• Uses An electrolytic paste.
• The electrolytic paste
reacts with the electrodes
to produce a negative
charge on one electrode
and a positive charge on
the other.
• The difference of potential
between the two
electrodes is the output
voltage.
6. Lead Acid Battery
• Electrolyte for the
most part distilled
(pure) water, with
some sulfuric acid
mixed with the water.
• Electrodes must be of
dissimilar metals.
• An active electrolyte.
8. The basic primary wet cell
• The metals in a cell are called
the electrodes, and the chemical
solution is called the
electrolyte.
• The electrolyte reacts
oppositely with the two
different electrodes
• It causes one electrode to lose
electrons and develop a positive
charge; and it causes one other
electrode to build a surplus of
electrons and develop a
negative charge.
• The difference in potential
between the two electrode
charges is the cell voltage.
9. The Electrolyte
• When charging first started,
electrolysis broke down each
water molecule (H2O) into two
hydrogen ions (H+) and one
oxygen ion (O-2).
• The positive hydrogen ions
attracted negative sulfate ions
(SO4-2) from each electrode.
• These combinations produce
H2SO4, which is sulfuric acid.
10. Electrolysis
• The producing of
chemical changes by
passage of an electric
current through an
electrolyte.
11. Specific Gravity
• Ratio of the weight of • Example: It is the
a given volume of a weight of the sulfuric
substance to the acid - water mixture
weight of an equal compared to an equal
volume of some volume of water. Pure
reference substance, water has a specific
or, equivalently, the gravity of 1,000.
ratio of the masses of
equal volumes of the
two substances.
13. Hydrometer
The chart below gives state of charge vs.
specific gravity of the electrolyte.
State of Charge Specific
Gravity
• 100% Charged 1.265
• 75% Charged 1.239
• 50% Charged 1.200
• 25% Charged 1.170
• Fully Discharged 1.110
• These readings are correct at 75°F
14. Voltmeter = Hydrometer
•If you are simply using an accurate voltmeter, along with occasional checks with your hydrometer, this
chart should be helpful in determining your batteries state of charge.
Charge Level Specific Gravity Voltage 2V n Voltage 6V n Voltage 12V n Voltage 24V n
100.00% 1.270 2.13 6.38 12.75 25.50
75.00% 1.224 2.08 6.24 12.48 24.96
50.00% 1.170 2.02 6.06 12.12 24.24
20.00% 1.097 1.94 5.82 11.64 23.28
0.00% 1.045 1.89 5.67 11.34 22.68
n stands for nominal voltage
15. Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s Law can be
expressed by the
equation:
– E = IR
– I = E/R
– R = E/I
16. Ohm’s Law
• Series circuits, the total voltage is equal to
the sum of the individual voltages. The
current is constant.
• Parallel circuits, the voltage is constant.
The current is equal to the sum of the
individual currents.
17. Currents
• If one volt of potential difference across a
device causes on ampere of current to flow,
then the device has a resistance of
1 ohm = 1Ω = 1V/A
• Most of your electrical resistance is in your
skin and varies from 500 ohms (clean) to
several million ohms (dirty).
18. Currents
Current Physiological Effect on Man
Amperes Phenomena
< 0.001 None Imperceptible
0.001 Perception Threshold Mild Sensation
0.003 Pain Threshold Painful Sensation
0.010 Paralysis Threshold of Person cannot release grip;
Arms and Hands if no grip, victim may be
thrown clear. Tighter grip
because of paralysis may
allow more current to flow;
may be fatal.
0.030 Respiratory Paralysis Stoppage of breathing,
frequently fatal.
0.075 Fibrillation Threshold Heart action uncoordinated,
probably fatal.
4.000 Heart Paralysis Threshold Heart stops on current
passage, normally restarts
when current interrupted.
5.000 Tissue Burning Not fatal unless vital organs
are burned
19. Series Connected Batteries
• Positive terminal of one
cell is connected to the
negative terminal of the
next, is called a series
connected battery.
• The voltage of this type of
battery is the sum of a
individual cell voltages.
20. Parallel Connected Batteries
• Connect the negative
terminal from one cell to
the negative of the next
cell
• Connect the positive
terminal to the positive
terminal, is parallel
connected.
• Voltage remains constant
and the current is
cumulative.
22. Capacity Rating System
• The Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) has established two ratings for
domestic made batteries:
– Reserve Capacity (RC)
– Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)
23. Reserve Capacity
• Reserve capacity is the time required (in
minutes) for a fully charged battery at 80°F
under a constant 25 amp draw to reach a
voltage of 10.5 volts.
24. Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)
• CCA is an important measurement of
battery capacity.
• This rating measures the discharge lead (in
amps) that a battery can supply for 30
seconds at 0°F (-17°C), while maintaining a
voltage of 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts per
battery or higher).
25. Preventive Maintenance
• When the top of a battery is “dirty or looks
damp.
• Give a battery a general cleaning, use hot
water (130° F to 170° F) with a neutralizer /
detergent solution.
26. Charging
• Chemical reaction occur during charging.
• Lead sulfate on both plates is separated into Lead
(Pb).
• Sulfate (SO4) leaves both plates.
• It combines with hydrogen (H) in the electrolyte
to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
• Oxygen (O) combines with the lead (Pb) at the
positive plate to form lead oxide (PbO2).
• The negative returns to original form of lead (Pb.
27. Charging
• Clean Battery Terminals.
• Attach clamps to the battery in proper polarity.
• Keep open flames and sparks away from battery.
• Ventilate the battery well while charging.
28. Charging
• The charge a battery receives is equal to the
charge rate in amperes multiplied by the
time in hours.
• Measure the specific gravity of a cell once
per hour during charging to determine full
charge.
29. Overcharging
• Results in warped or broken plates,
damaged separators, severe shedding of the
active materials pasted to the plates, and
excessive loss of water, which cause plates
to dry out.
30. Ventilation Requirements
• The oxygen and hydrogen gases released during
the gassing phase of a typical flooded lead-acid
battery recharge can be dangerous if allowed to
exceed 0.8 % (by volume) or 20 percent of the
lower explosive range. Concentrations of
hydrogen between 4 % and 74% are considered
explosive (40,000 ppm and 740,000 ppm).
31. HYDROGEN
• Chemical Formula: H2
• Specific Gravity: 0.0695
• Color: None Odor: None
• Taste: None
• Origin: Applying water to super hot mine fires, explosions electrolysis of
battery acid.
• Explosive Range: 4.1% - 74%
• Ignition Temp: 1030o - 1130o F
• % Oxygen Needed To Burn or Explode: 5%
• TLV: None
• STEL: None
• Effect on Body:Asphxysiant Due to Displacement of Oxygen.
• How Detected: Electronic Detectors, Squeeze Tube Detectors, Chemical
Analysis.
•
32. Ventilation
• All lead acid power batteries give off gases
when recharging and also for a period after
the charge is completed.
– A Concentration of hydrogen in excess of 4%
(by volume). It is suggested that the
concentration be controlled to a maximum of
2% (by volume).
33. Ventilation (cont.)
• A typical lead acid motive power cell will, evolve
approximately .016 cubic feet of hydrogen gas over A.H.
overcharge.
• Since this gas is given off at the maximum rate at the end
of the charging period, the following calculation assumes a
charging current of 5% of the 6 hour A.H. capacity (C6)
during this over charge period. (This charging current is
excessive but has been used to take account of the worst
case.)
• Gas given off per hour per cell = 0.16 x .05 = .0008 C6
cu / ft. / cell / hr.
34. Example:
• Consider a battery of 24 cells, type 75CB-13 (C6 = 450 A.H.).
• From the above formula, the rate of gas evolution during overcharge is
24 x .0008 x 450 A.H. = 8.64 cu. Ft./hr.
• Assume that there are 10 such batteries on charge simultaneously in a
room whose dimensions are 25 ft. x 20ft. x 12 ft. high.
• Volume of charging room = 6,000 cu. Ft.
• Volume of Hydrogen gas given off = 8.64 x 10 = 86.4 cu. Ft./hr.
• In order that the concentration of hydrogen is kept at 2% maximum,
the air must be changer every 6,000 x 60/83 = 86.4 cu. X 60 = 83
minutes.
• Consequently, fans capable of extracting 6,000 x 60/83 = 4337 cu.ft.
per hour should be installed as near the roof as possible.
35. Jump Starting
• Be sure to turn off accessories.
• Connect the red cable to the positive terminal on the good battery while the
engine is running.
• Connect the other end of the red cable to the positive terminal on the dead
battery.
• Then connect one end of the black cable to the negative terminal on the good
battery.
• Connect the other end of the negative cable to a known good ground in the
vehicle with the dead battery.
• After starting the vehicle with the discharged battery, allow the engine to
return to idle speed.
• Remove the negative jumper cable starting with the end that is connected to
the vehicle ground
• Remove the positive cable.
-:A CELL OR CONNECTED GROUP OF CELLS THAT CONVERT CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY -BY REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS -AND THAT MAY BE RECHARGED BY PASSING A CURRENT THROUGH IN A OPPOSITE DIRECTION TO ITS DISCHARGE -ALSO CALLED STORAGE CELL.
-REFER TO MSDS SHEETS FOR SULFURIC ACID / LEAD SULFURIC ACID -- CORROSIVE, CAUSES SEVERE SKIN BURNS, AND CAN CAUSE BLINDNESS. LEAD -- CAUSES NERVE AND KIDNEY DAMAGE, SUSPECTED CARCINOGEN
-PRIMARY BATTERY CONVERTS CHEMICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY DIRECTLY -USING THE CHEMICAL MATERIALS WITHIN THE CELL TO START THE ACTION. -SECONDARY BATTERY MUST FIRST BE CHARGED WITH ELECTRICAL ENERGY BEFORE IT CAN CONVERT CHEMICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY -SECONDARY BATTERY CALLED A STORAGE BATTERY, SINCE IT STORES THE ENERGY THAT IS SUPPLIED TO IT.
-USES AN ELECTROLYTIC PASTE -THE ELECTROLYTIC PASTE REACTS WITH THE ELECTRODES -TO PRODUCE A NEGATIVE CHARGE ON ONE ELECTRODE -AND A POSITIVE CHARGE ON THE OTHER. -THE DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL BETWEEN THE TWO ELECTRODES IS THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE..
-ELECTROLYTE -- 64% WATER(H20) (SP.GR.=1.000) + 36% SULFURIC ACID(H2SO4) (SP.GR.=1.83) = ELECTROLYTE (SP.GR.=1.270) -THE ELECTROLYTE IS MEASURED BY ITS SPECIFIC GRAVITY. -ELECTRODES MUST BE OF DISSIMILAR METALS. -POSITIVE IS A COMPOUND OF LEAD (Pb) AND OXYGEN (O2) FORMING LEAD OXIDE (PbO2) -NEGATIVE IS SPONGE LEAD (Pb) -OXYGEN IN THE POSITIVE PLATE COMBINES WITH HYDROGEN IN THE EXLECTROLYTE TO FORM WATER (H2O). -AT THE SAME TIME, LEAD IN THE POSITIVE PLATE COMBINES WITH THE SULFATE RADICAL (SO4) TO FORM LEAD SULFATE (PbSO4) -AT THE NEGATIVE PLATE WHERE LEAD (Pb) COMBINES WITH THE SULFATE RADICAL (SO4) TO FORM LEAD SULFATE (PbSO4)
-ELECTROLYTE -- 64% WATER(H20) (SP.GR.=1.000) + 36% SULFURIC ACID(H2SO4) (SP.GR.=1.83) = ELECTROLYTE (SP.GR.=1.270) -THE ELECTROLYTE IS MEASURED BY ITS SPECIFIC GRAVITY. -ELECTRODES MUST BE OF DISSIMILAR METALS. -POSITIVE IS A COMPOUND OF LEAD (Pb) AND OXYGEN (O2) FORMING LEAD OXIDE (PbO2) -NEGATIVE IS SPONGE LEAD (Pb) -OXYGEN IN THE POSITIVE PLATE COMBINES WITH HYDROGEN IN THE EXLECTROLYTE TO FORM WATER (H2O). -AT THE SAME TIME, LEAD IN THE POSITIVE PLATE COMBINES WITH THE SULFATE RADICAL (SO4) TO FORM LEAD SULFATE (PbSO4) -AT THE NEGATIVE PLATE WHERE LEAD (Pb) COMBINES WITH THE SULFATE RADICAL (SO4) TO FORM LEAD SULFATE (PbSO4)
-THE METALS IN A CELL ARE CALLED ELECTODES, -THE CHEMICAL SOLUTION IS CALLED THE ELECTOLYTE. -THE ELECTROLYTE REACTS OPPOSITELY WITH THE TWO DIFFERENT ELECTRODES. -IT CAUSES ONE ELECTRODE TO LOSE ELECTRONS AND DEVELOP A POSITIVE CHARGE. -THE OTHER ELECTRODE BUILDS A SURPLUS OF ELECTRONS AND DEVELOPS A NEGATIVE CHARGE. -THE DIFFERENCE IN POTENTIAL BETWEEN THE TWO ELECTRODES CHARGES IS THE CELL VOLTAGE
Remember that when charging first started, electrolysis broke down each water molecule (H 2 O) into two hydrogen ions (H + ) and one oxygen ion (O -2 ). The positive hydrogen ions attracted negative sulfate ions (SO 4 -2 ) from each electrode. These combinations produce H 2 SO 4 , which is sulfuric acid .
Electrolysis When charging fist starts, the current flowing through the battery causes electrolysis of the water. The water molecules (H 2 O) begin to break down into their constituent ions. For each negative oxygen ion (O -2 ) that is produced, there are two positive hydrogen ions (H + ), so that the electrolyte is neutral.
THE MOST WIDELY USED REFERENCE SUBSTANCE FOR DETERMINING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY’S OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS IS WATER. BECAUSE THE DENSITY OF WATER IS VERY NEARLY 1g/cm 3 , THE DENSITY OF ANY SUBSTANCE IN g/cm 3 IS NEARLY THE SAME NUMERICALLY AS ITS SPECIFIC GRAVITY RELATIVE TO WATER. IN THE ENGLISH SYSTEM OF UNITS THE DENSITY OF WATER IS ABOUT 62.4 lb/ft 3 , SO THE NEAR EQUALITY BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITYAND DENSITY IS NOT PRESERVED IN THIS SYSTEM. SPECIFIC GRAVITY’S OF GASES ARE OFTEN GIVEN WITH DRY AIR AS THE THE REFERENCE SUBSTANCE. BECAUSE OF THE DENSITIES OF ALL SUBSTANCES VARY WITH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE, THE TEMPERATURE AND (PARTICULARLY FOR GASSES) THE PRESSURE FOR BOTH THE REFERENCE SUBSTANCE AND THE SUBSTANCE OF INTEREST ARE OFTEN INCLUDED WHEN PRECISE VALUES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY’S ARE GIVEN.
GIVES THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY READING DIRECTLY. IT USUALLY CONSISTS OF A THIN GLASS TUBE CLOSED AT BOTH ENDS, WITH ONE END ENLARGED INTO A BULB THAT CONTAINS FINE LEAD SHOT OR MERCURY TO CAUSE THE INSTRUMENT TO FLOAT UPRIGHT IN A LIQUID.
THE QUICKEST WAY TO RUIN LEAD ACID BATTERIES IS TO DISCHARGE THEM DEEPLY AND LEAVE THEM STAND DEAD FOR AN EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME. WHEN THEY DISCHARGE A CHEMICAL CHANGE IN THE POSITIVE PLATES OF THE BATTERY. THEY CHANGE FROM LEAD OXIDE WHEN CHARGED TO LEAD SULFATE WHEN DISCHARGED. IF THEY REMAIN IN THE LEAD SULFATE STATE FOR A FEW DAYS, SOME PART OF THE PLATE DOES NOT RETURN TO LEAD OXIDE WHEN THE BATTERY IS RECHARGED. IF THE BATTERY REMAINS DISCHARGED LONGER, A GREATER AMOUNT OF THE POSITIVE PLATE WILL REMAIN LEAD SULFATE. THE PLATE BECOMES “SULFATED” AND NO LONGER STORES ENERGY USE ONLY DISTILLED WATER. TAP WATER MAY CONTAIN CHEMICALS OR OTHER IMPURITIES HARMFUL TO BATTERIES. BATTERIES SHOULD BE FILLED ONLY AT THE END OF THE CHARGING CYCLE.
THEY ARE ALSO ONLY ACCURATE FOR BATTERIES AT REST. MEANING THAT THE VOLTAGE IS NOT LOWERED BY A LOAD, OR ELEVATED BY A CHARGING SOURCE. YOU HAVE THE MOST ACCURACY AFTER A HALF HOUR OF REST TIME.
E = VOLTAGE I = CURRENT R = RESISTANCE SERIES CIRCUITS, THE TOTAL VOLTAGE IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGES. THE CURRENT IS CONSTANT. PARALLEL CIRCUITS, THE VOLTAGE IS CONSTANT. THE CURRENT IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE INDIVIDUAL CURRENTS.
IF ONE VOLT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS A DEVICE CAUSES ONE AMPERE OF CURRENT TO FLOW, THEN THE DEVICE HAS A RESISTANCE OF 1OHM = 1 OHM = 1 = 1V/A MOST OF YOUR ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE IS IN YOUR SKIN AND VARIES FROM 500 OHMS (CLEAN TO SEVERAL MILLION OHMS (DIRTY).
LARGE CURRENTS MOVE IONS TO WHERE THEY SHOULD NOT BE, DISRUPTING BODILY PROCESSES.
THE WAY BATTERIES ARE CONNECTED DETERMINES THE VOLTAGE AND CAPACITY OF THE BATTERY.
BOTH METHODS INVOLVE MEASURING THE BATTERY DISCHARGE CURRENTS OVER A SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME. EACH TEST PROVIDES A STANDARD WAY TO COMPARE BATTERIES IN SPECIFIC GROUP SIZES WITH REGARD TO VEHICLE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY AND COLD CRANKING CAPACITY. THE BATTERY COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL (BCI) HAS ALSO ACCEPTED THESE RATINGS AS SATISFATORY BATTERY MEASUREMENT STANDARDS. CONSEQUENTLY, RC AND CCA ARE OFTEN REFERRED TO AS BCI RATINGS.
THIS RATING HELPS DETERMINE THE BATTERY’S ABILITY TO SUSTANIN IN A MINIMUM VEHICLE ELECTRICAL LOAD IN THE EVENT OF A CHARGING SYSTEM FAILURE. THE MINIMUM ELECTRICAL LOAD UNDER THE WORST POSSIBLE CONDITIONS (WINTER DRIVING AT NIGHT) WOULD LIKELY REQUIRE CURRENT FOR THE IGNITION, LOW BEAM HEADLIGHTS, WINDSHIELD WIPERS AND THE DEFROSTER AT LOW SPEED. RC IS ALSO USEFUL TO MEASURE THE BATTERY’S ABILITY TO POWER A VEHICLE THAT HAS SMALL BUT LONG-TERM PARASITIC LOADS, AND STILL HAVING ENOUGH RESERVE TO CRANK THE ENGINE.
THE PRIMARY DUTY OF THE BATTERY IS TO START THE ENGINE TO CRANK OR ROTATE THE CRANKSHAFT WHILE ALSO MAINTAINING SUFFICIENT VOLTAGE TO ACTIVATE THE IGNITION SYSTEM UNTIL THE ENGINE STARTS. THIS REQUIREMENT INVOLVES A HIGH DISCHARGE OVER A VERY SHORT TIME SPAN. IT IS DIFFICULT FOR A BATTERY TO DELIVER POWER WHEN IT IS COLD FURTHERMORE, COLD ENGINES REQUIRE MORE POWER TO TURN OVER.
THE NEUTRALIZER/DETERGENT SOLUTION IS MADE BY MIXING 1/2 POUND OF BAKING SODA, OR 1/2 PINT OF HOUSEHOLD CLEANING AMMONIA, WITH THE RECOMMENDED AMOUNT OF DETERGENT FOR GENERAL CLEANING WITH 1/2 GALLON OF CLEAR WATER. APPLY THE SOLUTION WITH A CLEAN PAINT BRUSH TO THE TOP OF THE BATTERY, WORKING IT UNDER THE INTER-CELL CONNECTORS AND THE TERMINALS TO LOOSEN THE GRIME AND NEUTRALIZE THE ACID. IF BAKING SODA IS IN THE SOLUTION, APPLY THE MIXTURE UNTIL THE “FIZZING” ACTION STOPS. RINSE THE BATTERY WITH CLEAN, HOT WATER FROM A LOW PRESSURE HOSE TO REMOVE ALL TRACES OF THE SOLUTION AND LOOSE DIRT. DURING ANY CLEANING MAKE CERTAIN THAT ALL VEN CAPS ARE TIGHTLY IN PLACE.
Thus a 5-A rate applied to a battery for 10 h would be a 50 - a-h charge to the battery. To fully recharge a battery, you must replace the ampere hours or ampere minutes removed from it plus an extra 20 % charge. This is due to the fact the batteries are not 100 % efficient on recharging.
It is a common misconception that since the positive jumper cable is attached to the positive end of each battery, the negative cable should be attached to both negative terminals. Doing so can be dangerous. Batteries contain gas that can ignite or explode. This gas forms in each cell of the battery as it is charged either by a battery charger or by the vehicle’s generator. Part of this gas escapes through the vent holes at the top of the battery. Connecting the negative battery cable and completing the circuit will create an arc that could cause and explosion. NOTICE: It is always best to follow the manufacturer’s recommended procedure. CAUTION: Use extreme caution when attaching booster cables for jump starting . Keep sparks, flames and cigarettes away from the battery at all times. Protect your eyes with safety glasses or a face shield, and do not lean over the battery.