Basic principles-biofunction

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview
• Berbeda bentuk, tetapi tantangan hidup sama
• Hewan menempati hampir semua belahan
biosfer
• Keanekaragaman (diversity) luar biasa banyak
– All animals face a similar set of problems,
including how to nourish themselves

Study Komparasi (perbandingan)
Menunjukkan bahwa terdapat korelasi yang erat
antara bentuk dan biofungsi
Figure 1

Seleksi Alam
• Seleksi alam (Natural selection) can fit
structure, anatomy, to function, physiology
– By selecting, over many generations, what
works best among the available variations in a
population

Ukuran dan Bentuk Hewan
• Hukum alam dan keterbatasan lingkungan
menentukan ukuran dan bentuk hewan
• Physical laws and the need to exchange
materials with the environment
– Place certain limits on the range of animal
forms

Physical Laws and Animal Form
• Kemampuan untuk dapat melakukan kerja
tergantung pada bentuk dan ukuran hewan
• The ability to perform certain actions
– Depends on an animal’s shape and size

Evolusi
• Evolutionary convergence
– Reflects different species’ independent
adaptation to a similar environmental challenge
Figure 40.2a–e
(a) Tuna
(b) Shark
(c) Penguin
(d) Dolphin
(e) Seal

Exchange with the Environment
• An animal’s size and shape
– Ada efek langsung pada bagaimana
pertukaran energi dan material dengan
lingkungan sekitar
– Difusi dan trasnport lewat membran sel plasma
– Have a direct effect on how the animal
exchanges energy and materials with its
surroundings
• Exchange with the environment occurs as
substances dissolved in the aqueous medium

• A single-celled protist living in water
– Has a sufficient surface area of plasma
membrane to service its entire volume of
cytoplasm
Figure 40.3a
Protista
Diffusion
(a) Single cell

• Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan
– Have body walls that are only two cells thick,
facilitating diffusion of materials
Figure 40.3b
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
Diffusion
Diffusion
(b) Two cell layers

• Organisms with more complex body plans
– Have highly folded internal surfaces specialized
for exchanging materials

External environment
Food CO2 O2Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
Circulatory
system
Nutrients
Excretory
system
Digestive
system
Heart
Blood
Cells
Interstitial
fluid
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste
products (urine)
The lining of the small intestine, a diges-
tive organ, is elaborated with fingerlike
projections that expand the surface area
for nutrient absorption (cross-section, SEM).
A microscopic view of the lung reveals
that it is much more spongelike than
balloonlike. This construction provides
an expansive wet surface for gas
exchange with the environment (SEM).
Inside a kidney is a mass of microscopic
tubules that exhange chemicals with
blood flowing through a web of tiny
vessels called capillaries (SEM).
0.5 cm
10 µm
50µm
Figure 40.4

• Animal form and function are correlated at all
levels of organization
• Tubuh hewan tersusun atas sel
• Sel-sel yang kesamaan struktur dan fungsi
berkelompok membentuk jaringan
• Animals are composed of cells
• Groups of cells with a common structure and
function
– Make up tissues
Bentuk hewan berkorealsi dengan biofungsi

• Different types of tissues
– Have different structures that are suited to their
functions
• Tissues are classified into four main categories
– Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
Tissue Structure and Function

Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue
– Covers the outside of the body and lines
organs and cavities within the body
– Contains cells that are closely joined

• Epithelial tissue
Jaringan Epitel
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Columnar epithelia, which have cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes, are often
located where secretion or active absorption of substances is an important function.
A stratified columnar
epithelium
A simple
columnar
epithelium
A pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelia
Simple squamous epithelia
Cuboidal epithelia
Basement membrane
40 µm
Figure 40.5

Jaringan Konektif
• Connective tissue
– Functions mainly to bind and support other
tissues
– Contains sparsely packed cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix

Jaringan Konektif
Collagenous
fiber
Elastic
fiber
Chondrocytes
Chondroitin
sulfate
Loose connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue
100µm
100 µm
Nuclei
30 µm
Bone Blood
Central
canal
Osteon
700 µm 55 µm
Red blood cells
White blood cell
Plasma
Cartilage
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
150µm
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Connective tissue
Figure 40.5

Jaringan Otot
• Muscle tissue
– Is composed of long cells called muscle fibers
capable of contracting in response to nerve
signals
– Is divided in the vertebrate body into three
types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

Jaringan syaraf
• Nervous tissue
– Senses stimuli and transmits signals
throughout the animal

• Muscle and nervous tissue
Jaringan Otot dan Syaraf
MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal muscle
100 µm
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Smooth muscle Nucleus
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neurons Process
Cell body
Nucleus
50 µm
Figure 40.5

Organs and Organ Systems
• In all but the simplest animals
– Different tissues are organized into organs

Lumen of
stomach
Mucosa. The mucosa is an
epithelial layer that lines
the lumen.
Submucosa. The submucosa is
a matrix of connective tissue
that contains blood vessels
and nerves.
Muscularis. The muscularis consists
mainly of smooth muscle tissue.
0.2 mm
Serosa. External to the muscularis is the serosa,
a thin layer of connective and epithelial tissue.
• Dalam beberapa organ
– Jaringan ditata dalam lapisan-lapisan
– The tissues are arranged in layers
Figure 40.6

• Representing a level of organization higher
than organs
– Organ systems carry out the major body
functions of most animals

• Organ systems in mammals
Table 40.1

• Concept 40.3: Animals use the chemical
energy in food to sustain form and function
• All organisms require chemical energy for
– Growth, repair, physiological processes,
regulation, and reproduction

• The flow of energy through an animal, its
bioenergetics
– Ultimately limits the animal’s behavior, growth,
and reproduction
– Determines how much food it needs
• Studying an animal’s bioenergetics
– Tells us a great deal about the animal’s
adaptations
Bioenergetics

Energy Sources and Allocation
• Animals harvest chemical energy
– From the food they eat
• Once food has been digested, the energy-
containing molecules
– Are usually used to make ATP, which powers
cellular work

• After the energetic needs of staying alive are
met
– Any remaining molecules from food can be used
in biosynthesis
Figure 40.7
Organic molecules
in food
Digestion and
absorption
Nutrient molecules
in body cells
Cellular
respiration
Biosynthesis:
growth,
storage, and
reproduction
Cellular
work
Heat
Energy
lost in
feces
Energy
lost in
urine
Heat
Heat
External
environment
Animal
body
Heat
Carbon
skeletons
ATP

• An animal’s metabolic rate
– Is the amount of energy an animal uses in a
unit of time
– Can be measured in a variety of ways
Quantifying Energy Use

• One way to measure metabolic rate
– Is to determine the amount of oxygen consumed
or carbon dioxide produced by an organism
Figure 40.8a, b
This photograph shows a ghost crab in a
respirometer. Temperature is held constant in the
chamber, with air of known O2 concentration flow-
ing through. The crab’s metabolic rate is calculated
from the difference between the amount of O2
entering and the amount of O2 leaving the
respirometer. This crab is on a treadmill, running
at a constant speed as measurements are made.
(a)
(b) Similarly, the metabolic rate of a man
fitted with a breathing apparatus is
being monitored while he works out
on a stationary bike.

• An animal’s metabolic rate
– Is closely related to its bioenergetic strategy
Bioenergetic Strategies

• Birds and mammals are mainly endothermic,
meaning that
– Their bodies are warmed mostly by heat
generated by metabolism
– They typically have higher metabolic rates

Stem Elongation
• Amphibians and reptiles other than birds are
ectothermic, meaning that
– They gain their heat mostly from external
sources
– They have lower metabolic rates

• The metabolic rates of animals
– Are affected by many factors
Influences on Metabolic Rate

Size and Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic rate per gram
– Is inversely related to body size among similar
animals

• The basal metabolic rate (BMR)
– Is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest
• The standard metabolic rate (SMR)
– Is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest
• For both endotherms and ectotherms
– Activity has a large effect on metabolic rate
Activity and Metabolic Rate

• In general, an animal’s maximum possible
metabolic rate
– Is inversely related to the duration of the activity
Figure 40.9
Maximummetabolicrate
(kcal/min;logscale)
500
100
50
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
A H
A H
A
A
A
H
H
H
A = 60-kg alligator
H = 60-kg human
1
second
1
minute
1
hour
Time interval
1
day
1
week
Key
Existing intracellular ATP
ATP from glycolysis
ATP from aerobic respiration

• Different species of animals
– Use the energy and materials in food in
different ways, depending on their environment
Energy Budgets

• An animal’s use of energy
– Is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity,
homeostasis, growth, and reproduction
Endotherms Ectotherm
Annualenergyexpenditure(kcal/yr)
800,000 Basal
metabolic
rate
Reproduction
Temperature
regulation costs
Growth
Activity
costs
60-kg female human
from temperate climate
Total annual energy expenditures(a)
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguin
from Antarctica (brooding)
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mouse
from temperate
North America
8,000
4-kg female python
from Australia
Energyexpenditureperunitmass
(kcal/kg•day)
438
Deer mouse
233
Adélie penguin
36.5
Human
5.5
Python
Energy expenditures per unit mass (kcal/kg•day)(b)Figure 40.10a, b

• Concept 40.4: Animals regulate their internal
environment within relatively narrow limits
• The internal environment of vertebrates
– Is called the interstitial fluid, and is very
different from the external environment
• Homeostasis is a balance between external
changes
– And the animal’s internal control mechanisms
that oppose the changes

• Regulating and conforming
– Are two extremes in how animals cope with
environmental fluctuations
Regulating and Conforming

• An animal is said to be a regulator
– If it uses internal control mechanisms to
moderate internal change in the face of
external, environmental fluctuation
• An animal is said to be a conformer
– If it allows its internal condition to vary with
certain external changes

• Mechanisms of homeostasis
– Moderate changes in the internal environment
Mechanisms of Homeostasis

• A homeostatic control system has three
functional components
– A receptor, a control center, and an effector
Figure 40.11
Response
No heat
produced
Room
temperature
decreases
Heater
turned
off
Set point
Too
hot
Set
point
Control center:
thermostat
Room
temperature
increases
Heater
turned
on
Too
cold
Response
Heat
produced
Set
point

• Most homeostatic control systems function by
negative feedback
– Where buildup of the end product of the
system shuts the system off

• A second type of homeostatic control system is
positive feedback
– Which involves a change in some variable that
triggers mechanisms that amplify the change

Termoregulasi
• Thermoregulation contributes to homeostasis
and involves anatomy, physiology, and
behavior
• Thermoregulation
– Is the process by which animals maintain an
internal temperature within a tolerable range

• Ectotherms
– Include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians,
and non-bird reptiles
• Endotherms
– Include birds and mammals
Ectotherms and Endotherms

• In general, ectotherms
– Tolerate greater variation in internal temperature
than endotherms
Ektoterm
Figure 40.12
River otter (endotherm)
Largemouth bass (ectotherm)
Ambient (environmental) temperature (°C)
Bodytemperature(°C)
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 400

• Endothermy is more energetically expensive
than ectothermy
– But buffers animals’ internal temperatures
against external fluctuations
– And enables the animals to maintain a high
level of aerobic metabolism
Endoterm

Perpindahan Panas pada Hewan
• Organisms exchange heat by four physical
processes
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic
waves by all objects warmer than absolute
zero. Radiation can transfer heat between
objects that are not in direct contact, as when
a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the sun.
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a
liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Evaporation of water from a lizard’s moist surfaces that
are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the
movement of air or liquid past a surface,
as when a breeze contributes to heat loss
from a lizard’s dry skin, or blood moves
heat from the body core to the extremities.
Conduction is the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat)
between molecules of objects in direct contact with each
other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.
Figure 40.13

Keseimbangan Panas Tubuh HewanBalancing
Heat Loss and Gain
• Thermoregulation involves physiological and
behavioral adjustments
– That balance heat gain and loss

Insulasi
• Insulation, which is a major thermoregulatory
adaptation in mammals and birds
– Mengurangi perpindahan panas dari tubuh
hewan dan lingkungan
– Panas atau dinginReduces the flow of heat
between an animal and its environment
– Bulu, rambut, May include feathers, fur, or
blubber

Kulit pada mammal
Hair
Sweat
pore
Muscle
Nerve
Sweat
gland
Oil gland
Hair follicle
Blood vessels
Adipose tissue
Hypodermis
Dermis
Epidermis
• In mammals, the integumentary system
– Acts as insulating material
Figure 40.14

• Many endotherms and some ectotherms
– Can alter the amount of blood flowing between
the body core and the skin
Circulatory Adaptations

• In vasodilation
– Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating
heat loss
• In vasoconstriction
– Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat
loss
Vasodilatasi dan Vasokontriksi

• Many marine mammals and birds
– Have arrangements of blood vessels called
countercurrent heat exchangers that are important
for reducing heat loss
In the flippers of a dolphin, each artery is
surrounded by several veins in a
countercurrent arrangement, allowing
efficient heat exchange between arterial
and venous blood.
Canada
goose
Artery Vein
35°C
Blood flow
Vein
Artery
30º
20º
10º
33°
27º
18º
9º
Pacific
bottlenose
dolphin
2
1
3
2
3
Arteries carrying warm blood down the
legs of a goose or the flippers of a dolphin
are in close contact with veins conveying
cool blood in the opposite direction, back
toward the trunk of the body. This
arrangement facilitates heat transfer
from arteries to veins (black
arrows) along the entire length
of the blood vessels.
1
Near the end of the leg or flipper, where
arterial blood has been cooled to far below
the animal’s core temperature, the artery
can still transfer heat to the even colder
blood of an adjacent vein. The venous blood
continues to absorb heat as it passes warmer
and warmer arterial blood traveling in the
opposite direction.
2
As the venous blood approaches the
center of the body, it is almost as warm
as the body core, minimizing the heat lost
as a result of supplying blood to body parts
immersed in cold water.
3
Figure 40.15
1 3

Countercurrent Heat Exchangers
• Some specialized bony fishes and sharks
– Also possess countercurrent heat exchangers
Figure 40.16a, b
21º
25º 23º
27º
29º
31º
Body cavity
Skin
Artery
Vein
Capillary
network within
muscle
Dorsal aorta
Artery and
vein under
the skin
Heart
Blood
vessels
in gills
(a) Bluefin tuna. Unlike most fishes, the bluefin tuna maintains
temperatures in its main swimming muscles that are much higher
than the surrounding water (colors indicate swimming muscles cut
in transverse section). These temperatures were recorded for a tuna
in 19°C water.
(b) Great white shark. Like the bluefin tuna, the great white shark
has a countercurrent heat exchanger in its swimming muscles that
reduces the loss of metabolic heat. All bony fishes and sharks lose
heat to the surrounding water when their blood passes through the
gills. However, endothermic sharks have a small dorsal aorta,
and as a result, relatively little cold blood from the gills goes directly
to the core of the body. Instead, most of the blood leaving the gills
is conveyed via large arteries just under the skin, keeping cool blood
away from the body core. As shown in the enlargement, small
arteries carrying cool blood inward from the large arteries under the
skin are paralleled by small veins carrying warm blood outward from
the inner body. This countercurrent flow retains heat in the muscles.

Endothermik
• Many endothermic insects
– Have countercurrent heat exchangers that help
maintain a high temperature in the thorax
Figure 40.17

Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
• Many types of animals
– Lose heat through the evaporation of water in
sweat
– Use panting to cool their bodies

• Bathing moistens the skin
– Which helps to cool an animal down
Figure 40.18

• Both endotherms and ectotherms
– Use a variety of behavioral responses to
control body temperature
Behavioral Responses

• Some terrestrial invertebrates
– Have certain postures that enable them to
minimize or maximize their absorption of heat
from the sun
Figure 40.19

Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
• Some animals can regulate body temperature
– By adjusting their rate of metabolic heat
production

• Many species of flying insects
– Use shivering to warm up before taking flight
Figure 40.20
PREFLIGHT PREFLIGHT
WARMUP
FLIGHT
Thorax
Abdomen
Temperature(°C)
Time from onset of warmup (min)
40
35
30
25
0 2 4

• Mammals regulate their body temperature
– By a complex negative feedback system that
involves several organ systems
Feedback Mechanisms in Thermoregulation

• In humans, a specific part of the brain, the
hypothalamus
– Contains a group of nerve
cells that function as
a thermostat
Hypothalamus
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates cooling
mechanisms.
Sweat glands secrete
sweat that evaporates,
cooling the body.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill
with warm blood;
heat radiates from
skin surface. Body temperature
decreases;
thermostat
shuts off cooling
mechanisms.
Increased body
temperature (such
as when exercising
or in hot
surroundings)
Homeostasis:
Internal body temperature
of approximately 36–38C
Body temperature
increases;
thermostat
shuts off warming
mechanisms.
Decreased body
temperature
(such as when
in cold
surroundings)
Blood vessels in skin
constrict, diverting blood
from skin to deeper tissues
and reducing heat loss
from skin surface.
Skeletal muscles rapidly
contract, causing shivering,
which generates heat.
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates
warming
mechanisms.
Figure 40.21

Adjustment to Changing Temperatures
• In a process known as acclimatization
– Many animals can adjust to a new range of
environmental temperatures over a period of
days or weeks

• Acclimatization may involve cellular
adjustments
– Or in the case of birds and mammals,
adjustments of insulation and metabolic heat
production

Torpor and Energy Conservation
• Torpor
– Is an adaptation that enables animals to save
energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous
conditions
– Is a physiological state in which activity is low
and metabolism decreases

• Hibernation is long-term torpor
– That is an adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity during which the animal’s body
temperature declines
Additional metabolism that would be
necessary to stay active in winter
Actual
metabolism
Body
temperature
Arousals
Outside
temperature Burrow
temperature
June August October December February April
Temperature(°C)
Metabolicrate
(kcalperday)
200
100
0
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
Figure 40.22

• Estivation, or summer torpor
– Enables animals to survive long periods of
high temperatures and scarce water supplies
• Daily torpor
– Is exhibited by many small mammals and birds
and seems to be adapted to their feeding
patterns

Basic principles-biofunction

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