More Related Content Similar to Anatomi_dan_Fisiologi_Hewan_Kuliah_1.pptx Similar to Anatomi_dan_Fisiologi_Hewan_Kuliah_1.pptx (20) 1. Anatomi dan Fisiologi Hewan dan
Manusia
1. Basic principles of animal form and function, animal nutrition
2. Circulation and gas exchange
3. The immune system
4. Osmoregulation and excretion
5. Hormones and the endocrine system
6. Tutorial
7. UTS
8. Animal reproduction
9. Animal development
10. Neuron, synapses, signalling and nervous systems
11. Sensory and motor mechanisms
12. Animal behaviour
13. Tutorial
14. UAS
3. Overview: Diverse Forms, Common
Challenges
• Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an
organism
• Physiology is the study of the biological
functions an organism performs
• The comparative study of animals reveals that
form and function are closely correlated
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
6. • Most animals are composed of specialized cells
organized into tissues that have different
functions
• Tissues make up organs, which together make
up organ systems
• Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to
more than one organ system
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
7. • Different tissues have different structures that are
suited to their functions
• Tissues are classified into four main categories:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
Exploring Structure and Function in
Animal Tissues
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
8. Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body
and lines the organs and cavities within the body
• It contains cells that are closely joined
• The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like
dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous
(like floor tiles)
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9. • The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple
(single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of
cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells
of varying length)
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12. Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue mainly binds and supports
other tissues
• It contains sparsely packed cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix
• The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike,
or solid foundation
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13. • There are three types of connective tissue fiber,
all made of protein:
– Collagenous fibers provide strength and
flexibility
– Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their
original length
– Reticular fibers join connective tissue to
adjacent tissues
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
14. • Connective tissue contains cells, including
– Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of
extracellular fibers
– Macrophages that are involved in the
immune system
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15. • In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine
to form six major types of connective tissue:
– Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to
underlying tissues and holds organs in place
– Cartilage is a strong and flexible support
material
– Fibrous connective tissue is found in
tendons, which attach muscles to bones,
and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
16. – Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation
and fuel
– Blood is composed of blood cells and cell
fragments in blood plasma
– Bone is mineralized and forms the
skeleton
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
17. Figure 40.5ba
Blood
Connective Tissue
Plasma
White
blood cells
55
μm
Red blood cells
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
Chondroitin sulfate
100
μm
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
150
μm
Bone
Central
canal
Osteon
700
μm
Nuclei
Fibrous connective tissue
Elastic
fiber
30
μm
120
μm
Collagenous fiber
Loose connective tissue
18. Muscle Tissue
• Muscle tissue consists of long cells called
muscle fibers, which contract in response to
nerve signals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
19. • It is divided in the vertebrate body into three
types:
– Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is
responsible for voluntary movement
– Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary
body activities
– Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction
of the heart
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
21. Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits
signals throughout the animal
• Nervous tissue contains
– Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve
impulses
– Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish,
insulate, and replenish neurons
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
23. Feedback Control in Homeostasis
• The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is
maintained by negative feedback, which helps to
return a variable to a normal range
• Most homeostatic control systems function by
negative feedback, where buildup of the end
product shuts the system off
• Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does
not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
24. Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function,
and behavior
• Thermoregulation is the process by which
animals maintain an internal temperature within a
tolerable range
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25. • Endothermic animals generate heat by
metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external
sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates,
fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles
Endothermy and Ectothermy
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26. • In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation
in internal temperature, while endotherms are
active at a greater range of external temperatures
• Endothermy is more energetically expensive than
ectothermy
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32. • Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the
process of animal nutrition
• In general, animals fall into three categories:
– Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae
– Carnivores eat other animals
– Omnivores regularly consume animals as well
as plants or algae
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: The Need to Feed
35. Essential Nutrients
• There are four classes of essential nutrients:
– Essential amino acids
– Essential fatty acids
– Vitamins
– Minerals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
41. Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients
• Deficiencies in essential nutrients can cause
deformities, disease, and death
• “Golden Rice” is an engineered strain of rice
with beta-carotene, which is converted to
vitamin A in the body
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
42. • Undernutrition results when a diet does not
provide enough chemical energy
• An undernourished individual will
– Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
– Break down its own proteins
– Lose muscle mass
– Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
– Die or suffer irreversible damage
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Undernutrition
43. Concept 41.2: The main stages of food
processing are ingestion, digestion,
absorption, and elimination
• Ingestion is the act of eating
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
45. Suspension Feeders
• Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders,
which sift small food particles from the water
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48. Fluid Feeders
• Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a
living host
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49. Bulk Feeders
• Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
50. Concept 41.3: Organs specialized for
sequential stages of food processing
form the mammalian digestive system
• The mammalian digestive system consists of an
alimentary canal and accessory glands that
secrete digestive juices through ducts
• Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary
glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the
gallbladder
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
51. • Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic
contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal
• Valves called sphincters regulate the movement
of material between compartments
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54. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• The first stage of digestion is mechanical and
takes place in the oral cavity
• Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
• Teeth chew food into smaller particles that are
exposed to salivary amylase, initiating
breakdown of glucose polymers
• Saliva also contains mucus, a viscous mixture of
water, salts, cells, and glycoproteins
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
55. • The tongue shapes food into a bolus and
provides help with swallowing
• The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens
to both the esophagus and the trachea
• The esophagus connects to the stomach
• The trachea (windpipe) leads to the lungs
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
56. • The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx
down to the stomach by peristalsis
• Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to
the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx,
the upper part of the respiratory tract
• Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails
and food or liquids reach the windpipe
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
58. Digestion in the Stomach
• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric
juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme
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59. Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• Gastric juice has a low pH of about 2, which kills
bacteria and denatures proteins
• Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and pepsin
• Pepsin is a protease, or protein-digesting
enzyme, that cleaves proteins into smaller
peptides
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
60. • Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions
separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach
• Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which
is activated to pepsin when mixed with
hydrochloric acid in the stomach
• Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric
juice
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
61. Gastric gland
Gastric pits on
interior surface
of stomach
Sphincter
Small
intestine
Epithelium
Mucous cell
Chief cell
Parietal cell
Chief
cell
Pepsinoge
n
Parietal
cell
Pepsin
Folds of
epithelial
tissue
Sphincter
Esophagus
Stomach
3
2
1
10
μm
HCl
H+
Cl
−
Figure 41.11
62. • Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused
mainly by the bacterium Heliobacter pylori
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
63. Stomach Dynamics
• Coordinated contraction and relaxation of
stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents
• Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the
esophagus and regulate its entry into the small
intestine
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
64. Digestion in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine is the longest section of the
alimentary canal
• It is the major organ of digestion and absorption
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
65. • The first portion of the small intestine is the
duodenum, where chyme from the stomach
mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas,
liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
66. Pancreatic Secretions
• The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and
chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of
the duodenum
• Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic
chyme
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
67. Bile Production by the Liver
• In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and
absorption of fats
• Bile is made in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder
• Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
68. Role of Bile Acids
• Emulsification of lipid aggregates: Bile acids have detergent
action on particles of dietary fat which causes fat globules to
break down or be emulsified into minute, microscopic droplets.
• Solubilization and transport of lipids in an aqueous environment
• Bile acids are also critical for transport and absorption of the fat-
soluble vitamins.
69. Secretions of the Small Intestine
• The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces
several digestive enzymes
• Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis
moves the chyme and digestive juices along the
small intestine
• Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the
jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption
of nutrients and water
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
70. Absorption in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine has a huge surface area,
due to villi and microvilli that are exposed to
the intestinal lumen
• The enormous microvillar surface creates a
brush border that greatly increases the rate of
nutrient absorption
• Transport across the epithelial cells can be
passive or active depending on the nutrient
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
71. Figure 41.13
Vein carrying
blood to liver
Muscle layers
Blood
capillaries
Villi
Intestinal wall
Epithelial
cells
Large
circular
folds
Key
Nutrient
absorption
Villi
Microvilli (brush
border) at apical
(lumenal) surface
Epithelial
cells
Lumen
Basal
surface
Lacteal
Lymph
vessel
72. • The hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich
blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver,
then to the heart
• The liver regulates nutrient distribution,
interconverts many organic molecules, and
detoxifies many organic molecules
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73. • Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and
monoglycerides and recombine them into
triglycerides
• These fats are coated with phospholipids,
cholesterol, and proteins to form water-soluble
chylomicrons
• Chylomicrons are transported into a lacteal, a
lymphatic vessel in each villus
• Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing
lymph to large veins that return blood to the heart
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
75. Absorption in the Large Intestine
• The colon of the large intestine is connected to
the small intestine
• The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant
material and connects where the small and large
intestines meet
• The human cecum has an extension called the
appendix, which plays a very minor role in
immunity
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
77. • A major function of the colon is to recover water
that has entered the alimentary canal
• The colon houses bacteria (e.g., Escherichia
coli) which live on unabsorbed organic material;
some produce vitamins
• Feces, including undigested material and
bacteria, become more solid as they move
through the colon
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
78. • Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be
eliminated through the anus
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus
control bowel movements
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79. Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
• Many carnivores have large, expandable
stomachs
• Herbivores and omnivores generally have longer
alimentary canals than carnivores, reflecting the
longer time needed to digest vegetation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
81. Mutualistic Adaptations
• Many herbivores have fermentation chambers,
where mutualistic microorganisms digest
cellulose
• The most elaborate adaptations for an
herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals
called ruminants
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
83. • Rumen acts as a storage or holding vat for
feed. It is also a fermentation vat. A microbial
population in the rumen digests or ferments
feed eaten by the animal.
• Reticulum. The tissues are arranged in a
network resembling a honeycomb. Heavy or
dense feed and metal objects eaten by the
cow drop into this compartmen
84. • Omasum contains leaves of tissue (like pages in a
book). The omasum absorbs water and other
substances from digestive contents. Feed material
(ingesta) between the leaves will be drier than that
found in the other compartments.
• Abomasum. Hydrochloric acid and digestive
enzymes, needed for the breakdown of feeds, are
secreted into the abomasum. The abomasum is
comparable to the stomach of the non-ruminant.
85. Regulation of Digestion
• Each step in the digestive system is activated as
needed
• The enteric division of the nervous system helps
to regulate the digestive process
• The endocrine system also regulates digestion
through the release and transport of hormones
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
89. Regulation of Energy Storage
• The body stores energy-rich molecules that are
not needed right away for metabolism
• In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and
muscle cells in the polymer glycogen
• Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue, the
most space-efficient storage tissue
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
90. Glucose Homeostasis
• Oxidation of glucose generates ATP to fuel
cellular processes
• The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose
• The liver is the site for glucose homeostasis
– A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels,
which triggers the synthesis of glycogen
– Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate
the breakdown of glycogen and release glucose
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
91. Figure 41.20
Transport of
glucose into
body cells
and storage
of glucose
as glycogen
Breakdown
of glycogen
and release
of glucose
into blood
Homeostasis:
70–110 mg glucose/
100 mL blood
Stimulus:
Blood glucose
level drops
below set point.
Pancreas
secretes
glucagon.
Stimulus:
Blood glucose
level rises
after eating.
Pancreas
secretes
insulin.
92. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
• Overnourishment causes obesity, which results
from excessive intake of food energy with the
excess stored as fat
• Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer
of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and
strokes
• Researchers have discovered several of the
mechanisms that help regulate body weight
94. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The problem of maintaining weight partly stems
from our evolutionary past, when fat hoarding
was a means of survival
• Individuals who were more likely to eat fatty food
and store energy as adipose tissue may have
been more likely to survive famines
