Characterisation and soil pollution in agrarian floodplain of ibadan peri urb...Alexander Decker
This document characterizes soils in the floodplain of Ibadan, Nigeria that are used for dry season farming. Soil samples were collected and analyzed. The results showed that the surface soils have high levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus that make them fertile. However, the soils also have very high levels of phosphorus (between 28.99-87.70 ppm) and heavy metals like lead, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, chromium, and cadmium that exceed safe levels for crops based on models of metal uptake. The high levels of phosphorus may inhibit uptake of some metals and explain why crops still grow well and yields are high, despite the presence of toxic metals. The research aims to
Land and Environmental Degradation and Desertification in Africacenafrica
The document discusses the widespread issue of land degradation and desertification across Africa. Several key points are made:
1) Soil degradation from erosion, desertification, deforestation and poor agricultural practices is undermining resources that African farmers depend on for survival.
2) Population growth and pressure are forcing cultivation of marginal lands, exacerbating the problem.
3) Most of Africa will be unable to feed itself by 2025 if trends continue, which could lead to widespread famine and food insecurity.
4) Immediate action is needed to promote sustainable agricultural practices and conservation of natural resources to reverse these damaging trends.
The document discusses livelihood development and agricultural practices of coastal people in Bangladesh. It finds that while agriculture was previously the dominant occupation, its economic contribution is declining. The livelihood status of coastal farmers was assessed based on factors like income, education, assets, and health. However, many face constraints like soil salinity, lack of irrigation water, and variable rainfall. Shrimp farming is now a major source of employment but has negatively impacted soil fertility and traditional crop cultivation. Coastal zone management aims to balance environmental and human activities in sustainable ways.
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of agricultural activities on water quality in the Dufuya wetlands in Zimbabwe. Samples of groundwater, surface runoff water, and fertilizers were collected and analyzed for pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates, and phosphates. The results showed that pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates and phosphates levels in water samples were within WHO guidelines. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations were low and not significantly different between water sources. While fertilizer application rates were high at 30-60 tons/hectare per year, the study found fertilizer use had no negative effects on water quality in the wetlands.
The document describes the Sahelian Eco-Farm (SEF), an integrated agriculture system designed to address multiple constraints facing rain-fed agriculture in Africa. The SEF incorporates trees, shrubs, and annual crops to provide soil erosion control, increase soil fertility, improve water use efficiency, diversify income sources, and provide more consistent labor and animal feed. Initial research results on components of the SEF, including using Acacia seeds in poultry feed and Jatropha oil as a cowpea pesticide, suggest it has potential to improve yields, incomes, and the sustainability of agriculture in the Sahel region.
State of hydrogeological risks in north western rwandaVincent Manirakiza
This document summarizes a study on hydrogeological risks in northwestern Rwanda. The researchers conducted field studies and interviews in five districts to identify factors contributing to landslides and flooding. They found that steep slopes, unstable soils, heavy rainfall, deforestation, and dense population all increase risks. Specific at-risk sites discussed include landslides in Busengo and Gatokoro caused by soil saturation and slope instability, as well as frequent flooding in Bigogwe and Mugogo due to heavy runoff in clay soils and deforested areas. The researchers conclude that sustainable land use practices including afforestation, terracing, and controlled settlement are needed to reduce hydrogeological risks in the region.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation about abstracted groundwater use and the effects of overdrafting. The presentation covered:
- Nigeria's hydrogeology and why groundwater is preferred over surface water.
- Common groundwater uses including agriculture, municipal, and industry.
- Effects of overdrafting like declining well yields, ecological impacts, flooding hazards, and land subsidence.
- The need for groundwater mapping, sustainable management policies, and alternative sources like desalination to prevent overdrafting issues.
Characterisation and soil pollution in agrarian floodplain of ibadan peri urb...Alexander Decker
This document characterizes soils in the floodplain of Ibadan, Nigeria that are used for dry season farming. Soil samples were collected and analyzed. The results showed that the surface soils have high levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus that make them fertile. However, the soils also have very high levels of phosphorus (between 28.99-87.70 ppm) and heavy metals like lead, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, chromium, and cadmium that exceed safe levels for crops based on models of metal uptake. The high levels of phosphorus may inhibit uptake of some metals and explain why crops still grow well and yields are high, despite the presence of toxic metals. The research aims to
Land and Environmental Degradation and Desertification in Africacenafrica
The document discusses the widespread issue of land degradation and desertification across Africa. Several key points are made:
1) Soil degradation from erosion, desertification, deforestation and poor agricultural practices is undermining resources that African farmers depend on for survival.
2) Population growth and pressure are forcing cultivation of marginal lands, exacerbating the problem.
3) Most of Africa will be unable to feed itself by 2025 if trends continue, which could lead to widespread famine and food insecurity.
4) Immediate action is needed to promote sustainable agricultural practices and conservation of natural resources to reverse these damaging trends.
The document discusses livelihood development and agricultural practices of coastal people in Bangladesh. It finds that while agriculture was previously the dominant occupation, its economic contribution is declining. The livelihood status of coastal farmers was assessed based on factors like income, education, assets, and health. However, many face constraints like soil salinity, lack of irrigation water, and variable rainfall. Shrimp farming is now a major source of employment but has negatively impacted soil fertility and traditional crop cultivation. Coastal zone management aims to balance environmental and human activities in sustainable ways.
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of agricultural activities on water quality in the Dufuya wetlands in Zimbabwe. Samples of groundwater, surface runoff water, and fertilizers were collected and analyzed for pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates, and phosphates. The results showed that pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates and phosphates levels in water samples were within WHO guidelines. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations were low and not significantly different between water sources. While fertilizer application rates were high at 30-60 tons/hectare per year, the study found fertilizer use had no negative effects on water quality in the wetlands.
The document describes the Sahelian Eco-Farm (SEF), an integrated agriculture system designed to address multiple constraints facing rain-fed agriculture in Africa. The SEF incorporates trees, shrubs, and annual crops to provide soil erosion control, increase soil fertility, improve water use efficiency, diversify income sources, and provide more consistent labor and animal feed. Initial research results on components of the SEF, including using Acacia seeds in poultry feed and Jatropha oil as a cowpea pesticide, suggest it has potential to improve yields, incomes, and the sustainability of agriculture in the Sahel region.
State of hydrogeological risks in north western rwandaVincent Manirakiza
This document summarizes a study on hydrogeological risks in northwestern Rwanda. The researchers conducted field studies and interviews in five districts to identify factors contributing to landslides and flooding. They found that steep slopes, unstable soils, heavy rainfall, deforestation, and dense population all increase risks. Specific at-risk sites discussed include landslides in Busengo and Gatokoro caused by soil saturation and slope instability, as well as frequent flooding in Bigogwe and Mugogo due to heavy runoff in clay soils and deforested areas. The researchers conclude that sustainable land use practices including afforestation, terracing, and controlled settlement are needed to reduce hydrogeological risks in the region.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation about abstracted groundwater use and the effects of overdrafting. The presentation covered:
- Nigeria's hydrogeology and why groundwater is preferred over surface water.
- Common groundwater uses including agriculture, municipal, and industry.
- Effects of overdrafting like declining well yields, ecological impacts, flooding hazards, and land subsidence.
- The need for groundwater mapping, sustainable management policies, and alternative sources like desalination to prevent overdrafting issues.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document summarizes a study on the effects of erosion from the Agulu-Nanka complex on local communities in Anambra State, Nigeria. Data collected through questionnaires with 154 households found that 54 households (35%) were displaced, with 235 hectares of farmland and 80 houses destroyed. The erosion has severely impacted the socio-economic conditions of residents by destroying homes and farmland, disrupting transportation, and forcing people to relocate. While various control efforts have been undertaken, more coordinated long-term efforts are needed to fully address the erosion problem and support affected communities. Recommendations include sustained government funding, reforestation programs, an erosion control appeal fund, and preventing waste from worsening the erosion
Climate change and economic adaptability of indian sunderbanAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses climate change and its impact on the economy of the Indian Sunderban region.
2) It finds that the climate of the region is changing, with rising sea surface temperatures, increasing sea levels, and more frequent cyclones.
3) This is impacting the traditional economy of the region, which relies heavily on agriculture and fishing. Marginal workers are increasing as the climate challenges the local economy.
Land Degradation in Semi-Arid Areas and Farmers’ Livelihoods: Experiences fro...Premier Publishers
This study examines farmers’ experiences and perspectives on land degradation and livelihoods in the Lawra Municipality, a semi-arid area in north-western Ghana. An explanatory sequential mixed method approach, which combines both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques, was used. Data was collected through a survey of 228 farming households, two key informant interviews and observation. The study revealed that land degradation, in the form of reduced vegetation cover, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, is mainly caused by over-cultivation and inappropriate land use practices. Majority of farming households experienced transitory food shortages as a result of land degradation. Farmers’ livelihoods are threatened as farming has become unattractive with several long-term implications including pushing many people into other ventures such as illegal small-scale mining. The land degradation challenge in the Municipality needs to be approached differently from conventional ways of addressing the problem. This paper recommends the adoption of new and innovative ways of regulating land use by incorporating wider social processes of efficient land management and alternative sustainable livelihood strategies.
Land, water, soil, and natural vegetation are important natural resources. Land is used for agriculture, housing, and industry. Uneven terrain and climate lead to uneven population distributions. Conservation of land is needed due to increasing demand and degradation. Water scarcity exists in many regions due to overuse and pollution. Conservation methods include water harvesting and efficient irrigation. Soil is formed from weathered rocks and organic matter. Factors like deforestation and overgrazing can degrade soils. Conservation involves practices like contour ploughing and shelter belts. Natural vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources that provide materials and maintain ecosystems. Their distribution depends on climate and moisture. Conservation efforts include protected areas and awareness programs.
CLASS 8 CHAPTER 2 LAND WATER SOIL NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFESarukrishnaV
The document discusses how natural resources like land, soil, water, natural vegetation and wildlife vary significantly between different regions of the world. It explains that differences in climate, topography, and the quality of land and water lead to differences in the types of resources available. As a result, people live in different ways depending on their local environment. The document then goes on to provide more details on specific natural resources like land, soil, water, and natural vegetation - describing their characteristics, uses, conservation issues, and importance.
Enhancing environmental integrity in the northern savanna zone of ghana a rem...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on land degradation in northern Ghana and proposes sites for woodlot development. The study analyzed satellite imagery from 2010 to classify land cover in Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions. It found high levels of bare soil/degraded land, indicating risk of desertification. Interviews with farmers revealed environmental challenges and criteria for woodlot sites. The analysis identified potential woodlot sites in less populated districts where agriculture is not the primary land use. The study concludes by proposing suitable sites to address land degradation through woodlot development.
Soil erosion is a major problem in India caused by various natural and human factors. The main natural causes are heavy rainfall, wind, and steep slopes. Key human factors include deforestation, overgrazing, and improper agricultural techniques such as lack of crop rotation. Soil erosion occurs through processes such as sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, and wind erosion. It leads to negative environmental and economic impacts like loss of fertile topsoil and siltation of waterways. Efforts are needed to prevent erosion through terracing, contour ploughing, afforestation, and other conservation methods.
Chapter 2-Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources-Geogra...Agna Yashin
Land is an important natural resource that covers 30% of the Earth's surface. However, its distribution is uneven, with populated areas located mainly in plains, river valleys, and other flat lands suitable for agriculture. Land is used for various purposes like agriculture, housing, industry, and forestry. It can be publicly or privately owned. Over time, population growth has led to more common lands being converted to urban and agricultural use, threatening the environment through issues like soil erosion. Conservation methods to protect land resources include afforestation, land reclamation, and controlling overgrazing. Landslides, a major natural disaster, can be mitigated through hazard mapping, retaining walls, drainage control, and increasing vegetation cover.
Land is one of India's most important natural resources. It supports life and economic activity. India has approximately 1.3 million square miles of land with varied terrain, including plains, mountains, and plateaus. Land is used for agriculture, forests, wastelands, and pastures. While 162 million hectares are under cultivation, land degradation from causes like deforestation, overgrazing, and poor farming practices threatens this valuable resource. Conservation efforts include contour plowing, terracing, afforestation, restricting tree felling and overgrazing, building dams and gully traps, and educating landholders.
this presentation focuses on the different types of land and soils found in India along with attractive images and graphs and has a short questionnaire at the end.
Adaptive mechanisms of rural fishermen towards climate change on quantity of ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigated the adaptive mechanisms of rural fishermen towards climate change in Asari-Toru Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. The study found that fishermen employed building sea walls, diversifying to off-farm activities, and restoring mangroves to adapt to climate impacts like flooding, sea level rise, and changes in fish populations. Using an analysis of costs and revenues, the study determined that these adaptation mechanisms improved fishermen's productivity and profitability, with a net profit of N500,455.1 reported. However, the major problem identified was the high cost of fishing materials.
1. Land, soil, water, natural vegetation, and wildlife are important natural resources. Soil provides nutrients for plants but is vulnerable to erosion from deforestation, overgrazing, and weathering.
2. Water is necessary for life but human activities like agriculture, industry, and urbanization are straining water supplies. Conservation methods like rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation can help manage water resources.
3. Natural vegetation and wildlife exist in delicate ecosystems and are threatened by habitat loss, pollution, and hunting. Protected areas and awareness programs aim to preserve biodiversity.
A Framework for Regional Agroecosystems Characterization Using the National R...Steve Oberle
An agroecological framework uses spatial data from the National Resources Inventory to characterize regional agroecosystems in the Midwest. Maps show the extent natural resources have been modified to support agriculture, with over 70% of land used for crops and pasture and less than 10% remaining as natural vegetation. Over 35% of some areas have installed subsurface or surface drainage systems, decreasing wetlands and potentially impacting water quality. Irrigation has diverted water from natural ecosystems and may increase agrichemical leaching. Excess erosion in parts of the region could threaten long-term productivity despite implemented conservation practices. Examining these agroecosystem components may help sustain agriculture and resources in the region.
Este documento ofrece ideas para decorar una casa sin gastar mucho dinero, como retirar objetos innecesarios, utilizar detalles como cuencos o cajas para organizar objetos, y colocar pequeños objetos decorativos en superficies planas para crear rincones acogedores. También recomienda buscar objetos guardados como cojines, cuadros o plantas para renovar espacios sin costo.
Assessment of some cardiac biomarkers in adult hivAlexander Decker
This study assessed cardiac biomarkers in 300 adult HIV participants in Nnewi, Nigeria. The participants were grouped as 100 symptomatic HIV subjects on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 100 symptomatic HIV subjects not on ART, and 100 HIV seronegative controls. Blood samples were tested for HIV, CD4+ count, and serum levels of myoglobin, troponin, creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). The results showed mean myoglobin and troponin levels were significantly higher in symptomatic HIV subjects not on ART compared to asymptomatic subjects. Mean total CK, CK-MB, LDH, and AST were
O documento resume o processo de elaboração do Plano Estadual de Cultura da Bahia, incluindo as instâncias de participação, 12 princípios, 23 objetivos e detalhes sobre uma das 7 diretrizes e suas ações associadas.
A tabela mostra a relação entre tempo e distância percorrida pelo som. Duas ondas de frequências diferentes se interferem, gerando uma onda composta com frequências de 8Hz e 10Hz.
Este documento muestra cómo utilizar las herramientas de agrupación en Adobe Flash mediante un ejemplo. Primero, crea varios rectángulos y óvalos usando las herramientas correspondientes y los modifica. Luego, los agrupa usando la herramienta de agrupar para tratarlos como un solo objeto y moverlos juntos. El documento provee instrucciones paso a paso para crear y modificar formas geométricas simples y agruparlas.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document summarizes a study on the effects of erosion from the Agulu-Nanka complex on local communities in Anambra State, Nigeria. Data collected through questionnaires with 154 households found that 54 households (35%) were displaced, with 235 hectares of farmland and 80 houses destroyed. The erosion has severely impacted the socio-economic conditions of residents by destroying homes and farmland, disrupting transportation, and forcing people to relocate. While various control efforts have been undertaken, more coordinated long-term efforts are needed to fully address the erosion problem and support affected communities. Recommendations include sustained government funding, reforestation programs, an erosion control appeal fund, and preventing waste from worsening the erosion
Climate change and economic adaptability of indian sunderbanAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses climate change and its impact on the economy of the Indian Sunderban region.
2) It finds that the climate of the region is changing, with rising sea surface temperatures, increasing sea levels, and more frequent cyclones.
3) This is impacting the traditional economy of the region, which relies heavily on agriculture and fishing. Marginal workers are increasing as the climate challenges the local economy.
Land Degradation in Semi-Arid Areas and Farmers’ Livelihoods: Experiences fro...Premier Publishers
This study examines farmers’ experiences and perspectives on land degradation and livelihoods in the Lawra Municipality, a semi-arid area in north-western Ghana. An explanatory sequential mixed method approach, which combines both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques, was used. Data was collected through a survey of 228 farming households, two key informant interviews and observation. The study revealed that land degradation, in the form of reduced vegetation cover, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, is mainly caused by over-cultivation and inappropriate land use practices. Majority of farming households experienced transitory food shortages as a result of land degradation. Farmers’ livelihoods are threatened as farming has become unattractive with several long-term implications including pushing many people into other ventures such as illegal small-scale mining. The land degradation challenge in the Municipality needs to be approached differently from conventional ways of addressing the problem. This paper recommends the adoption of new and innovative ways of regulating land use by incorporating wider social processes of efficient land management and alternative sustainable livelihood strategies.
Land, water, soil, and natural vegetation are important natural resources. Land is used for agriculture, housing, and industry. Uneven terrain and climate lead to uneven population distributions. Conservation of land is needed due to increasing demand and degradation. Water scarcity exists in many regions due to overuse and pollution. Conservation methods include water harvesting and efficient irrigation. Soil is formed from weathered rocks and organic matter. Factors like deforestation and overgrazing can degrade soils. Conservation involves practices like contour ploughing and shelter belts. Natural vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources that provide materials and maintain ecosystems. Their distribution depends on climate and moisture. Conservation efforts include protected areas and awareness programs.
CLASS 8 CHAPTER 2 LAND WATER SOIL NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFESarukrishnaV
The document discusses how natural resources like land, soil, water, natural vegetation and wildlife vary significantly between different regions of the world. It explains that differences in climate, topography, and the quality of land and water lead to differences in the types of resources available. As a result, people live in different ways depending on their local environment. The document then goes on to provide more details on specific natural resources like land, soil, water, and natural vegetation - describing their characteristics, uses, conservation issues, and importance.
Enhancing environmental integrity in the northern savanna zone of ghana a rem...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on land degradation in northern Ghana and proposes sites for woodlot development. The study analyzed satellite imagery from 2010 to classify land cover in Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions. It found high levels of bare soil/degraded land, indicating risk of desertification. Interviews with farmers revealed environmental challenges and criteria for woodlot sites. The analysis identified potential woodlot sites in less populated districts where agriculture is not the primary land use. The study concludes by proposing suitable sites to address land degradation through woodlot development.
Soil erosion is a major problem in India caused by various natural and human factors. The main natural causes are heavy rainfall, wind, and steep slopes. Key human factors include deforestation, overgrazing, and improper agricultural techniques such as lack of crop rotation. Soil erosion occurs through processes such as sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, and wind erosion. It leads to negative environmental and economic impacts like loss of fertile topsoil and siltation of waterways. Efforts are needed to prevent erosion through terracing, contour ploughing, afforestation, and other conservation methods.
Chapter 2-Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources-Geogra...Agna Yashin
Land is an important natural resource that covers 30% of the Earth's surface. However, its distribution is uneven, with populated areas located mainly in plains, river valleys, and other flat lands suitable for agriculture. Land is used for various purposes like agriculture, housing, industry, and forestry. It can be publicly or privately owned. Over time, population growth has led to more common lands being converted to urban and agricultural use, threatening the environment through issues like soil erosion. Conservation methods to protect land resources include afforestation, land reclamation, and controlling overgrazing. Landslides, a major natural disaster, can be mitigated through hazard mapping, retaining walls, drainage control, and increasing vegetation cover.
Land is one of India's most important natural resources. It supports life and economic activity. India has approximately 1.3 million square miles of land with varied terrain, including plains, mountains, and plateaus. Land is used for agriculture, forests, wastelands, and pastures. While 162 million hectares are under cultivation, land degradation from causes like deforestation, overgrazing, and poor farming practices threatens this valuable resource. Conservation efforts include contour plowing, terracing, afforestation, restricting tree felling and overgrazing, building dams and gully traps, and educating landholders.
this presentation focuses on the different types of land and soils found in India along with attractive images and graphs and has a short questionnaire at the end.
Adaptive mechanisms of rural fishermen towards climate change on quantity of ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigated the adaptive mechanisms of rural fishermen towards climate change in Asari-Toru Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. The study found that fishermen employed building sea walls, diversifying to off-farm activities, and restoring mangroves to adapt to climate impacts like flooding, sea level rise, and changes in fish populations. Using an analysis of costs and revenues, the study determined that these adaptation mechanisms improved fishermen's productivity and profitability, with a net profit of N500,455.1 reported. However, the major problem identified was the high cost of fishing materials.
1. Land, soil, water, natural vegetation, and wildlife are important natural resources. Soil provides nutrients for plants but is vulnerable to erosion from deforestation, overgrazing, and weathering.
2. Water is necessary for life but human activities like agriculture, industry, and urbanization are straining water supplies. Conservation methods like rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation can help manage water resources.
3. Natural vegetation and wildlife exist in delicate ecosystems and are threatened by habitat loss, pollution, and hunting. Protected areas and awareness programs aim to preserve biodiversity.
A Framework for Regional Agroecosystems Characterization Using the National R...Steve Oberle
An agroecological framework uses spatial data from the National Resources Inventory to characterize regional agroecosystems in the Midwest. Maps show the extent natural resources have been modified to support agriculture, with over 70% of land used for crops and pasture and less than 10% remaining as natural vegetation. Over 35% of some areas have installed subsurface or surface drainage systems, decreasing wetlands and potentially impacting water quality. Irrigation has diverted water from natural ecosystems and may increase agrichemical leaching. Excess erosion in parts of the region could threaten long-term productivity despite implemented conservation practices. Examining these agroecosystem components may help sustain agriculture and resources in the region.
Este documento ofrece ideas para decorar una casa sin gastar mucho dinero, como retirar objetos innecesarios, utilizar detalles como cuencos o cajas para organizar objetos, y colocar pequeños objetos decorativos en superficies planas para crear rincones acogedores. También recomienda buscar objetos guardados como cojines, cuadros o plantas para renovar espacios sin costo.
Assessment of some cardiac biomarkers in adult hivAlexander Decker
This study assessed cardiac biomarkers in 300 adult HIV participants in Nnewi, Nigeria. The participants were grouped as 100 symptomatic HIV subjects on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 100 symptomatic HIV subjects not on ART, and 100 HIV seronegative controls. Blood samples were tested for HIV, CD4+ count, and serum levels of myoglobin, troponin, creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). The results showed mean myoglobin and troponin levels were significantly higher in symptomatic HIV subjects not on ART compared to asymptomatic subjects. Mean total CK, CK-MB, LDH, and AST were
O documento resume o processo de elaboração do Plano Estadual de Cultura da Bahia, incluindo as instâncias de participação, 12 princípios, 23 objetivos e detalhes sobre uma das 7 diretrizes e suas ações associadas.
A tabela mostra a relação entre tempo e distância percorrida pelo som. Duas ondas de frequências diferentes se interferem, gerando uma onda composta com frequências de 8Hz e 10Hz.
Este documento muestra cómo utilizar las herramientas de agrupación en Adobe Flash mediante un ejemplo. Primero, crea varios rectángulos y óvalos usando las herramientas correspondientes y los modifica. Luego, los agrupa usando la herramienta de agrupar para tratarlos como un solo objeto y moverlos juntos. El documento provee instrucciones paso a paso para crear y modificar formas geométricas simples y agruparlas.
El documento enumera varias quejas comunes sobre las condiciones de trabajo como un teléfono que suena constantemente, una silla incómoda y mala iluminación, y luego aconseja no quejarse demasiado y estar agradecido por el trabajo, ya que muchos otros no tienen un trabajo tan bueno. Finalmente, anima al lector a seguir trabajando.
Este documento apresenta o Plano Estadual de Cultura do Amapá, com 4 diretrizes, 14 desafios, 3 oportunidades e 4 objetivos para a política cultural do estado. As estratégias incluem a criação de editais anuais e a regulamentação do Sistema Estadual de Cultura, com foco na formação de profissionais das artes.
Este documento apresenta o Plano Estadual de Cultura de Mato Grosso do Sul. Resume os principais pontos do plano em três frases:
1) O plano detalha o processo de participação de várias instâncias como seminários, fóruns e reuniões ampliadas para discutir a política cultural estadual.
2) Estabelece diretrizes, desafios, oportunidades, objetivos, estratégias e ações para valorizar a diversidade cultural do estado e fortalecer as políticas públicas para a cultura nos próximos
Status and Challenges of Soil Management in Nigeria - Olatunji OjuolaFAO
This document summarizes the status and challenges of soil management in Nigeria. It finds that Nigerian soils are generally low in nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter. The major challenges to soil management in Nigeria include soil erosion, salinity, flooding, desertification, declining soil fertility, lack of soil-specific fertilizer use, and mismanagement. Improving soil management will be important for boosting agricultural productivity in Nigeria.
Water source and water demand needs assessments for bonwireAlexander Decker
The document assesses the water supply and demand in Bonwire, Ghana. It identifies four rivers and two boreholes as the water sources for the town. Discharge measurements found the total river flow to be 14,153 m3/day, while the boreholes supply 86 m3/day. The current population of 7,099 people demands 274 m3/day, exceeding the borehole supply by 188 m3/day. Water quality testing revealed the rivers exceed standards for coliform bacteria, nitrates, sulfates and hardness, rendering them unpotable. It was concluded there is a water deficit as only the groundwater meets drinking standards but the supply is insufficient. Recommendations included controlling river pollution, drilling additional
EFFECTS OF INCREASED LAND USE CHANGES ON RUNOFF AND SEDIMENT YIELD IN THE UPP...IAEME Publication
River Nzoia originates from three water towers namely Nandi hills, Cherengany Hills and Mount Elgon. With increased anthropogenic activities in Nzoia river catchments, land cover has continuously been altered. This scenario has resulted into increased quantity of physical parameters in runoff among them, sediment load and turbidity, during rainy season. This study modelled effects of increased land use changes on runoff and sediment loads. Digital Elevation Model, spatial soil data, sediment loads and meteorological data for the year 2000 to 2012 were the main input into the Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT 2012) model for calibration and validation
Perceived and actual rainfall trends and variability in eastern uganda implic...Alexander Decker
1) The document analyzes rainfall trends and variability in three agro-ecological zones in Eastern Uganda between 1971-2010 using observational data and interviews.
2) It finds statistically significant increasing rainfall trends in highland areas but negative non-significant trends in low-lying areas. Within-season and between-season variability is high for some zones.
3) Over 90% of interviewed farmers perceived changes in rainfall patterns over the past 10-15 years, with undesirable rainfall situations. Adaptation may include early warning systems, stress-tolerant crops, and preparedness for climate risks.
Characterization and quantitative indicators of ground water quality in okrik...IJSIT Editor
This document summarizes a study that characterized groundwater quality in Okrika, Rivers State, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from boreholes and analyzed for various physicochemical parameters. The results found that groundwater pH ranged from weakly acidic to alkaline. Total dissolved solids and chloride levels exceeded standards at some locations, indicating potential saltwater intrusion issues. Overall, the study concluded that while some locations had elevated parameters, the groundwater in the area was generally suitable for domestic and agricultural use when compared to international standards. Continued monitoring was recommended to protect the aquifers from pollution and identify any future water quality degradation.
Assessment of groundwater potentials of the crystalline aquifers using hydra...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the groundwater potentials of crystalline aquifers in Gidanwaya Town and its environs in southern Kaduna State, Nigeria. Pumping test data from 25 boreholes was used to evaluate the hydraulic properties of the aquifers derived from crystalline basement rocks in the area. Transmissivity values ranged from 1.16x10-1 to 9.76x10-3 m2/s, indicating high to very high groundwater potentials. Hydraulic conductivity values ranged from 1.12x10-2 to 9.24x10-3 m/s. Specific capacity values ranged from 1.00x10-1 to 9.95x10-
Pollution studies on ground water contamination waterAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on groundwater contamination and water quality in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. It provides background on groundwater, noting that it is replenished from precipitation and often used for drinking, industry, and agriculture. The study area of Abeokuta lies within basement complex rocks and has problems locating productive aquifers. Groundwater potential depends on weathering and fracturing of the crystalline bedrock. Many people depend on hand-dug wells and groundwater, but supply is problematic especially in the dry season, with low yields and water quality issues from activities like urbanization.
Characterisation and soil pollution in agrarian floodplain of ibadan peri urb...Alexander Decker
This document characterizes soils and determines pollution in agricultural floodplains near Ibadan, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from two profile pits and analyzed. The floodplain soil had evidence of waste deposition including plastic and metal. Testing found high levels of phosphorus and several heavy metals. While crop uptake of some metals could be toxic, field evidence showed no impact on plant health or yields. The surface soils were fertile with moderate to high nutrients but elevated concentrations of lead, zinc, and iron that could potentially be taken up by plants. Overall, the study assessed soil quality and pollution risks in peri-urban agricultural areas impacted by urban waste.
Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Makueni County, Kenyainventy
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Assessment of the quality of shallow groundwater for irrigation in the atankwidi sub basin of the white volta basin, ghana
1. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.4, No.15, 2014
1
Assessment of the Quality of Shallow Groundwater for Irrigation
in the Atankwidi Sub-Basin of the White Volta Basin, Ghana
Samuel Barnie1*
, Geophrey K. Anornu2
and Benony Komla Kortatsi3
1. Department of Agribusiness, Valley View University, Techiman Campus
2. Department of Civil Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
3. CSIR- Water Research Institute, Accra
*Email of the corresponding author: samuel.barnie@vvu.edu.gh
Abstract
The potential use of shallow groundwater for small-scale dry season irrigation is a key issue for irrigation
development in the arid zone of Ghana. Farmers within the Atankwidi sub-basin of the White Volta Basin are
increasingly adopting groundwater as a source of irrigation water due to the unavailability of surface water
during the dry season. However the quality of the groundwater and its suitability for irrigation is not known,
hence the need to assess the quality and its suitability in order to ensure sustainability in the application and
possible expansion of groundwater irrigation in the area. Two main water types (Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Na-Mg-Ca-
HCO3) have been determined using the Piper diagram. The relative abundance of cations in the groundwater was
found to be in the decreasing order of Na+
> Ca2+
> K+
> Mg2+
> Fe2+
. Similarly, that of anions was found to
have a decreasing order of HCO3
-
> SO4
2-
> Cl-
> PO4
2-
> NO3
-
> F-
. Groundwater in the area had low SAR and
low to medium salinity hazard. However, magnesium hazard and alkalinity problems are likely to limit its use
for irrigation.
Keywords: Shallow Groundwater, Hydrochemical facies, Irrigation Water Quality.
1. Introduction
Globally there is a strong positive relationship between higher density of irrigation and lower poverty rates, as
Lipton et al. (2003) indicates. In Africa, only 3% of cropland is irrigated and the region has experienced very
little reduction in poverty in the 1990s (World Bank, 2000). In contrast, those regions that have the greatest
proportion of cultivated area irrigated (namely East Asia, Pacific, North Africa and Middle East) have
experienced the greatest poverty reduction. That of Ghana is put at 0.02 % as at the end of 2008. Irrigation of
some of these arable lands could not materialise due to the projected capital involvement in channeling surface
water over long distances to the irrigable lands.
The use of hand-dug wells enables the utilization of shallow groundwater for irrigated production of vegetables
and cash crops during the dry season and, therefore, provides an alternative source of income for farmers and
poor households. For instance, the large scale production of shallot and other vegetables using shallow
groundwater in the Keta Strip has provided enormous income to the indigenous inhabitants (Kortatsi and
Agyekum, 2000). In most cases, Shallow Groundwater Irrigation (SGI) has developed without any government
or donor involvement.
Farmers in the White Volta Basin and the Atankwidi sub-basin to be specific where this study focuses heavily
rely on shallow groundwater as a source of irrigation water due to the unavailability of surface water in the dry
season. As this is farmer driven, little is known about the quality of water used for the production of vegetables
which crucial so far as farming is concern. This is because, besides affecting crop yield and soil physical
conditions, irrigation water quality can affect fertility needs, irrigation system performance and how the water
can be applied. Therefore, knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical to understanding what management
changes are necessary for long-term productivity. Above all, water quality analysis in general, and not limited to
irrigation water, is one of the most important issues in groundwater studies. It reveals the suitability of the water
for different purposes and also helps to understand the possible change in quality probably due to rock-water
interaction or anthropogenic effects. The main objective of this paper is therefore to assess the shallow
groundwater quality for irrigation in the study area which will inform both policy and decision makers so far as
SGI in the area is concern.
2. Study Area
2.1 Location and Size
The Atankwidi sub-basin is located between latitudes 10o
49’47 N and 10o
55’35 N and longitudinal 0o
55’27 W
and 0o
59’27 W, a tributary of the White Volta located in the Upper East Region of Ghana between Navrongo
and Bolgatanga (Kassena Nankana District) with its upper reach in Burkina Faso as shown in Figure 1. The sub-
basin is located in one of the areas with the highest groundwater use per km² in the Volta River basin (Martin
2006). The sub-basin covers an area of about 275 km2
of the White Volta basin.
2. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.4, No.15, 2014
2
Figure 1. Map of the Atankwidi sub-basin
2.2 Climate and Vegetation
The study area falls within the Sudan-Savanna climate zone, which is characterised by high temperatures and a
uni-modal rainfall distribution with a distinct rainy season lasting approximately from May to September. The
mean annual rainfall in Navrongo is approximately 980mm. The spatio-temporal distributions of precipitation
and evaporation have a large impact on the water regime including the groundwater variability. In the rainy
season daily rainfall may exceed 50 mm, this falls in less than one hour. Monthly rainfall only exceeds potential
evaporation in the three wettest months, July, August and September. The total potential evaporation is 2050 mm,
which is twice the annual rainfall. The average annual temperature is 29 o
C. The mean daily minimum
temperature is 25 o
C, coinciding with the peak of the rainy season, and rises to a maximum of 34 o
C in April.
Relative humidity is highest during the rainy season with 65 %. It drops quickly after the end of the rainy season
in October, reaching a low of less than 10 % during the harmattan period in December and January (Martin,
2006).
2.3 Land Use
Open tree-savanna forms the natural vegetation in the Upper East Region. Trees show a large spacing and the
area is largely covered with grass and shrubs. The most common economic trees are the sheanut, dawadawa,
boabab and acacia. Common grasses include Andropogen gayyanus in the less eroded areas and Hyperrhenia
spp., Aristida spp. and Heteropogen spp. in the severely eroded areas. Most of the area is used for small-scale
agriculture. During the rainy season, almost 70 % of the area is covered with small plots of rainfed agriculture
(Martin, 2006). Other parts of the area are used for livestock grazing and drinking. In the dry season, the amount
of agriculture is substantially lower, approximately 1 % of the area (Unofficial report, GVP, 2007). The other
parts of agricultural land remain as bare soil until the next rainy season starts. Land not used for agriculture is
either sparse vegetation on shallow soils in stony areas or land used for the grazing of livestock, which is
covered by grass, shrubs and trees.
2.4 Relief and Drainage
The relief of the sub-basin is generally flat, gently undulating with slopes ranging from 1% to 5% except in a few
uplands where slopes are about 10%. According to Adu (1969), the relief of the UER is related to the geology,
where a range of Birimian greenstone hills rising up to 457m above sea level dominate north of Bawku and
Zebilla along the border with Burkina Faso and in the southwest along the White Volta River (WVR). The
granite areas are generally of low, gently rolling relief ranging from 122 m to 260 m above sea level. The relief
3. Journal of Natural Sciences Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.4, No.15, 2014
3
under Voltain rocks has similar characteristics to granites, with few escarpments rising above 518 m near the
border with Togo in the east. The mean elevation for the area is 197 m above sea level (Liebe, 2002).
2.5 Geological setting
Three formations of the Birimian domain can be distinguished in the study area (Figure 2) from the geological
map 1:125,000, sheets Navrongo (Van den Berg et al., 1963) and Zuarungo (Murray and Mitchell, 1960). These
are: Birimian metasediments; Granitoids (granodiorites, granite and gneiss) associated with the Birimian;
Intrusive Bongo granite. Paleoproterozoic granitoids consisting of hornblende - biotite granodiorite, biotite
granite and biotite gneiss make up the largest part of the study area and form the slightly undulating south-
western part of the Atankwidi sub-basin. Birimian metasediments made up of phyllite, schist and quartzite are
found in small patches among the granitoids.
Figure 2. Geological and drainage map of the study area.
3. Materials and Methods
Groundwater samples were collected from 40 wells in March 2009 for major and minor ions analyses. Sampling
protocols according to Wood (1981), Claasen (1982), and Barcelona et al (1985) were followed. The map of
groundwater sampling points is shown in Figure 3. Water samples according to standards were collected after
pumping the well for about 5 minutes in order to purge the well of stagnant water. The purging was done to
stabilized temperature, pH and electrical conductivity readings.For metal analysis, samples were filtered through
0.45µm filters and preserved with 5ml 6 N HNO3 in laboratory treated 100ml high density linear polyethylene
bottles. However, samples for anion analyses were without preservation. The Universal Conductivity Meter
Multiline P4 set that had an in-built temperature compensation probe was used to measure electrical conductivity
and temperature simultaneously. For the determination of total alkalinity (as HCO3
-
), field titration with 1.6 N
H2SO4 to pH ~4.5 using HACH Digital Multi Sampler Model 1690 was done.
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4
Figure 3. Map of Groundwater sampling locations
Chemical analyses for all major ions (Na+
, Ca2
, Mg2+
, HCO3
-
, Cl-
, SO4
2-
) as well as some minor ions (K+
, NO3
-
,
F-
, PO4
2-
) were carried out with the Dionex DX-120 ion chromatograph at the Environmental Chemistry
Laboratory at the Water Research Institute of Ghana. Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe) were also determined with
mass spectrometer UNICAM 386 in the same laboratory. In accordance with international standards, results with
ionic balance more than 5% were rejected.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1Physico-chemical Analysis of Water samples
The results of physico-chemical analysis of groundwater samples from the Atankwidi sub-basin are summarised
in Table 1
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5
Table 1: Summary of physico-chemical water quality parameters in the Atankwidi sub-basin
Parameter Minimum Maximum Mean Median STD
Temp
pH
EC
TDS
TSS
Turb
Br2
Ca
Cl
NO2
NO3
PO4
SO4
Na
K
F
HCO3
CaH
MgH
Mg
Mn
Fe
Zn
26.40
6.73
100.00
55.00
1.00
1.75
0.00
5.60
3.00
0.001
0.001
0.01
4.00
7.80
1.4
0.03
12.20
14.00
3.9
0.90
0.005
0.02
0.005
34.00
7.93
484.00
266.20
294.00
316
1.98
40.9
44.00
0.12
10.10
14.30
84.00
70.90
25.30
0.65
258.64
102.00
77.8
18.90
0.65
13.1
0.06
29.94
7.24
236.25
129.94
55.19
69.23
0.47
15.27
15.54
0.02
1.06
3.52
23.42
24.79
9.76
0.33
117.97
37.56
26.99
6.57
0.12
2.25
0.02
29.90
7.21
217.5
119.63
31.50
36.25
0.34
13.2
12.90
0.02
0.43
2.95
20.00
20.15
10.65
0.35
117.12
33.10
25.85
6.25
0.04
0.99
0.01
1.92
0.33
99.88
54.93
69.79
81.53
0.47
8.36
9.28
0.03
1.89
2.42
16.95
16.16
5.12
0.18
62.98
20.51
14.65
3.36
0.18
3.00
0.01
All concentrations are measured in mg/l, pH in pH unit, Turbidity in NTU, electrical conductivity in µS/cm and
temperature in o
C.
Generally, the chemical constituents of the groundwater samples are low as shown in Figure 4, with HCO3
-
as
the predominant anion which is known to be very consistent with the chemistry of most natural waters in granitic
formations (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). NO3
-
and F-
occur in minor concentrations compared with the other
anions. The decreasing order of cations in the groundwater samples is in order of Na+
> Ca2+
> K+
> Mg2+
> Fe2+
and that of anions is HCO3
-
> SO4
2-
> Cl-
> PO4
2-
> NO3
-
> F-
.
Figure 4. Median concentration of chemical constituents in the Atankwidi sub-basin
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6
4.2 Hydrochemical facies of groundwater samples
Hydrochemical facies are distinct zones that possess cation and anion concentration categories (Sadashivaiah et
al., 2008). The chemical analysis results of the groundwater samples in the Atankwidi sub-basin has been
presented by plotting them on a Piper tri-linear diagram (Piper, 1944) in Figure 5 which reveals the analogies,
dissimilarities and different types of waters in the sub-basin.
Figure 5. Piper diagram of groundwater samples from the Atankwidi sub-basin
In the cation plot field (triangle on the left) of the Piper tri-linear diagram, 50% of the groundwater samples plot
mainly in the middle which suggests mixed cations with no dominant cation type whiles the other 50% of the
samples depicts Na-K as the predominant cation type. However, in the anion plot field (triangle on the right),
almost all the samples plotted are towards the HCO3
-
corner which again suggests HCO3
-
as the predominant
anion.
The groundwater samples plotted in the Ca-Mg-HCO3 dominant of the diamond field (section A) suggests active
recharge, short residence time and temporary hardness (Kortatsi et al., 2008). This type of waters usually has
chemical properties which are dominated by alkaline earths and weak acids (Karanth, 1994), and apparently not
associated with a particular geological formation (Kortatsi et al., 2008) but may have emanated from either
dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2) or calcite (CaCO3) in rock matrix. Some (35 %) of the groundwater samples (section B)
also showed mixed type of water with no cation-anion exceeding 50 %. This water specifically is more of the
Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3 mixed type of water.
4.3 Irrigation Water Quality
The evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation in this study was based on the following factors:
i. Salinity (total amount of dissolved salts in water),
ii. Sodium hazard (the amount of sodium in the water compared to calcium plus magnesium),
iii. Magnesium hazard (MH), and
iv. pH and total alkalinity.
4.3.1 Salinity Hazard
The most influential water quality guideline on crop productivity is the water salinity hazard as measured by
electrical conductance (Bauder et al., 2007). High concentration of salinity (electrical conductivity) in irrigation
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7
water affect crop yield through the inability of the plant to compete with ions in the soil solution for water
(osmotic effect or physiological drought). The severity of the osmotic effect may vary with the plants growth
stage and in some cases may go unnoticed because of a uniform yield decline over the whole crop (George,
1979). Table 2 shows the classification of groundwater samples for irrigation water use based upon electrical
conductivity.
Table 2: Classification of groundwater samples in Atankwidi sub-basin for Irrigation water use based on
electrical conductivity (Bauder et al, 2007)
Number of
samples
Percentage Electrical Conductivity
(µS/cm)
Classes of Water
26
14
0
0
0
65
35
0
0
0
≤250
250 – 750
750 – 2000
2000 – 3000
≥3000
Class 1: Excellent
Class 2: Good
Class 3: Permissible
Class 4: Doubtful
Class 5: Unsuitable
4.3.2 Sodium Hazard
According to Karanth (1994), excessive Na+
content of irrigation water renders it unsuitable for soils containing
exchangeable Ca2+
and Mg2+
ions as the soil take up Na+
in exchange for Ca2+
and Mg2+
causing deflocculation
(dispersion) and impairment of the tilth and permeability of soils. The sodium hazard is typically expressed as
the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). The general classifications of groundwater samples in the study area for
irrigation based on SAR values according to Bauder et al, (2007) generally showed low SAR.
4.3.3 Classification of Irrigation Water Quality
When the salinity and sodium absorption ratio (SAR) of water are known, the classification of irrigation waters
can be determined by graphically plotting these values on the Wilcox diagram (Wilcox and Durum, 1967). The
diagram expresses the relationship between sodium (SAR) and salinity (EC) hazards, in other words, it expresses
the integrated effect of both sodium and salinity hazards of irrigation waters. That for the Atankwidi sub-basin
was therefore plotted as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Classification of irrigation waters in the Atankwidi sub-basin
4.3.4 Magnesium Hazard
Magnesium is believed to be injurious to plants, but the harmful effect is greatly reduced by the presence of
calcium. The magnesium hazard (MH) is defined as 100Mg (Ca + Mg)-1
with the chemical constituents
expressed as meq/l. The classification of groundwater samples according to Szabolcs and Darab (1964) based on
magnesium hazard is shown in Table 3
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Table 3: Classification of groundwater samples in Atankwidi sub-basin based on Magnesium hazard (Szabolcs
and Darab, 1964).
Number of wells Percentage Magnesium hazard
[100Mg(Ca + Mg)-1
]
Water classification
29
11
72.5
27.5
<50
>50
Desirable
Undesirable (deleterious to
most crops)
The groundwater sampled had 27.5% of them with MH above 50 implying that, magnesium hazard is a potential
problem associated with the groundwater in the study area should it be used for irrigation.
4.3.5 pH and Alkalinity
Alkalinity is related to pH, because water with high alkalinity has a high “buffering capacity” or capacity for
neutralising added acids. The major chemicals responsible for alkalinity in water are the dissolved carbonates
and bicarbonates from the geologic materials of the aquifer from which the water is drawn. The dissolved
carbonates and bicarbonates increase the media pH over time by neutralising H+
ions in the media solution.
Although there are no established optimum or toxic levels for alkalinity, typical recommendations range from
37.5 – 130 mg/l CaCO3 (Will and Faust, 1999). The concentration of alkalinity varied from 10 – 216 mg/l with
the mean, median and standard deviation of 96.7, 96 and 51.62 mg/l respectively. 22.5% of the total groundwater
samples had their concentrations above this desirable range probably due to the relatively high concentrations of
bicarbonate (HCO3
-
) in the samples. Nonetheless, 5 % of the groundwater samples had low alkalinity
concentrations. Low alkalinity of irrigation water provides no buffering capacity against pH changes which leads
to the decline of media solution pH when acid-residue fertilisers are used (Will and Faust, 1999).
4.3.6 Assessment of Irrigation water quality based MH and Total Alkalinity
The irrigation water quality was assessed based on all the criteria used (SAR, salinity hazard, magnesium hazard
and alkalinity) to know the percentage of groundwater samples that fell within the recommended ranges.
Figure 7. Assessment of irrigation water quality based on MH and alkalinity
Figure 7 shows the assessment of groundwater samples based on both magnesium hazard and total alkalinity.
Since all the groundwater samples fell within the recommended ranges of both sodium (SAR) and salinity
hazards at the same time, the only limitations will be from magnesium hazard and alkalinity. Therefore the
percentages of samples that fall within the desirable ranges of both magnesium hazard and alkalinity at the same
time are considered to be the percentage of samples with absolutely no limitation. With this assumption, the
percentage of samples that fall within the recommended region of the Figure above is 52.5 % with 25 % and
22.5 % of the samples with magnesium hazard and alkalinity problems respectively.
It is however worth mentioning that the potential problems identified were not area specific so far as the study
area is concern which literature suggests that, it may due to the different recharge patterns of the aquifer system.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225
MagnesiumHazard
Concentration of total Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3) Water samples
No buffering
capacity
Desirable
range
Doubtful
Desirable
Undesirable
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9
5. Conclusion
Two main water types (Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3) have been delineated using the Piper diagram.
Furthermore, the relative abundance of cations in the groundwater is in the order of Na+
> Ca2+
> K+
> Mg2+
>
Fe2+
. HCO3
-
was however the predominant anion which also had a decreasing order of HCO3
-
> SO4
2-
> Cl-
>
PO4
2-
> NO3
-
> F-
. The suitability of groundwater for irrigation evaluated based on sodium (SAR), salinity and
magnesium hazards, pH and alkalinity showed low SAR and low to medium salinity hazard and is therefore
good for irrigation but with some potential magnesium hazard and alkalinity problems which partially limits its
use for irrigation by developing sodic soil conditions with continuous use. Due to the magnesium hazard
problems that were recorded in some of the areas which also actually increase slightly the potential effect of
sodium on soils, soil conditions should also be monitored with time to ascertain any problem of sodicity and if
necessary leach the soil. Groundwater quality in the sub-basin should also be monitored regularly to ensure early
detection and intervention of any pollution or contamination that may occur due to the susceptibility of the
regional aquifer system to pollution (weedicides, pesticides etc.).
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