Ashok pandey health psychology unit 1

2/3/19 Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH) 1
Ashok Pandey
(MPH/BPH, DGH)
Associate Research Fellow
Policy Research Institute
A think tank of the Government of Nepal
Applied Health Psychology

• Psychology comes from a Greek word Psyche which means
mind, consciousness, or awareness.
• It refers to the soul which is the core, essence of a person.
• It also derive character which is attributed to man.
• Science of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology

Psychology
•What is Psychology?
•………………………
•Science of soul (Greek Period)
•Science of mind (1800’s)
•Science of Behavior (1900’s)
•Science of behavior and mental processes (Modern
period)

Why does the knowledge of Health
Psychology is necessary for BPH students?
Answer: ….

Behavioral Science
•A scientific discipline, such as sociology,
anthropology, or psychology, in which the actions
and reactions of humans and animals are studied
through observational methods and experiments.
•Psychology is an academic and applied field
involving the scientific study of mental processes
and behavior. (Feldman, 2002)

Health Psychology
Study of social, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional factors
that influence the:
• Maintenance of health
• Development of illness and disease
• Course of illness or disease
• Patient’s and family’s response to illness and disease

Health Psychology
• "Health Psychology is the aggregate of the specific
educational, scientific and professional contributions of
the discipline of psychology to the promotion and
maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of
illness, the identification of etiologic and diagnostic
correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction, and
the analysis and improvement of the health care system
and health policy formation". (Matarazzo, 1982)

Health Psychologist
Scientists who research the area
• Health promotion – intervene at the social (e.g.,
government policy, community) or individual level to
promote health and prevent illness and disease.
• Clinical health psychologist – intervene at the individual
level to treat illness, slow or prevent disease progression,
and reduce disability.

Important Contributions of Psychology to
Health
• Has provided techniques useful in changing behaviors that
affect health and illness.
• Is committed to keeping people healthy rather than waiting
to only treat them when they become ill.
• Developing reliable and valid measures for assessing
health-related factors
• Has contributed a solid foundation of scientific methods
for studying such behaviors.

Others
• To identify and manage health related behaviors
• To understand and change health hazardous belief, attitude,
cognitions
• Be able to understand needs of people for effective
community mobilization
• To gain skill to change health hazardous behavior.
• To develop skills to motivate people
• To help preventing and promoting mental and behavioral
health, etc.

The Beginnings of Psychology:
Philosophy and Physiology
Its earliest history can be traced back to the time of
the early Greeks with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
During the 17th-century, the French philosopher
Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which
asserted that the mind and body were two separate
entities that interact to form the human experience.
Its concern with Nature vs. nurture.

Wilhelm Wundt : founded Psychology as acad. discipline in
1879. established the 1st psych lab at the Uni. of Leipzig
Germany. Concern with senses like
vision, attention, emotion, memory.
G. Stanley Hall : studied with Wundt and est. the 1st psych lab
in the US in 1883 at John Hopkins University.
J. Mckeen Cattell : student of Wundt. Called as the 1st
professor in Psychology in 1888. He was known for designing
a personality test, the 16 PF.
Sir Francis Galton : individual differences in 1869 in
Germany.
Titchener : Wundt trained psychologist introduced
Structuralism in latter part of 19th century. Focused on mental
structure and consciousness. Introspection as major method.

William James : psychologist from Harvard, opposed
structuralism and advocated functionalism, how conscious
function.
Sigmund Freud : 20th century physician from Vienese
introduced the psychoanalytic theory where human
behavior is governed by the unconscious.
John Watson : founded behaviorism in 1920.
Ivan Pavlov : founded the behaviorism which focused on
classical conditioning.
Max Wertheimer : founded the Gestalt psychology in
Germany. Gestalt means Form or Configuration.

Perspective in Psychology
The Biological Perspective
The study of physiology played a major role in
the development of psychology as a separate
science. Today, this perspective is known as
biological psychology. Sometimes referred to as
biopsychology or physiological psychology, this
perspective emphasizes the physical and
biological bases of behavior.

The Behavioral Perspective
Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on
learned behaviors.
Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health
settings, where therapists and counselors use these
techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

The Cognitive Perspective
During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive
psychology began to take hold. It focuses on mental
processes. This area of psychology is concern with
memory, thinking, problem solving, language and
decision-making.
Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and
Albert Bandura, this perspective has grown tremendously
in recent decades.

The Cross-Cultural Perspective
Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that
has grown significantly in recent years. These
psychologists and researchers look at human behavior
across different cultures.

The Evolutionary Perspective
Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of how
evolution explains physiological processes. Psychologists
and researchers take the basic principles of evolution,
including natural selection, and apply them to
psychological phenomena. This perspective suggests that
these mental processes exist because they serve an
evolutionary purpose – they aid in survival and
reproduction.

The Humanistic Perspective
During the 1950s, a school of thought known as
humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by
the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role of
motivation on thought and behavior.
Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential part of
this perspective.

The Psychodynamic Perspective
The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work
of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role
of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences,
and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior
and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses.

Different Fields in Psychology
Abnormal psychology
Psychology of addiction
Psychology of advertising
Psychology of altruism
Psychology of ambition
Animal psychology
Art psychology
Psychology of atheism
Psychology of attraction
Psychology of beauty
Psychology of behavior
Psychology of belief
Biological psychology
Neuropsychology
Child psychology
Cognitive psychology
Color psychology
Comparative psychology
Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology

Psychology of
communication
Criminal psychology
Developmental psychology
Psychology of dreams
Educational psychology
Forensic psychology
Health psychology
Human factors psychology
Industrial psychology
Personality psychology
Quantitative
psychology
School
psychology
Social psychology
Sports
psychology

For studying BPH

What is Motivation?
•Motivation is a desire, drive, instinct or need
(force) that speeds up our behavior towards
some goal.
•A motive is a need or a want that causes us to
act.
•Motivation involves goal-directed behavior

Meaning and defination of motivation
Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which
means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It
is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish
the goals. In the work goal context the psychological factors
stimulating the people’s behaviour can be -
• desire for money
• success
• recognition
• job-satisfaction
• team work, etc

Definition
Berelson and Steiner: “A motive is an inner state that
energizes, activates, or moves and directs or channels
behaviour goals.”
Lillis: “It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating
upon one’s will and promoting or driving it to action.”
The Encyclopedia of Management: “Motivation refers to
degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated
goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus of
the forces, including the degree of readiness.”

Dubin: “Motivation is the complex of forces starting and
keeping a person at work in an organization.”
Vance: “Motivation implies any emotion or desire which so
conditions one’s will that the individual is properly led into
action.”

Maslow’sMotivationalTheory

What is motivation?
Motivation refers to the individual, internal
process that directs, energizes and sustains a
person’s behavior.
Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH)
2/3/19 30

Maslow’stheory of motivation

Levels of the Pyramid
Self-Actualization
Esteem Needs
Communal Needs
Safety Needs
Physical Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy ofNeeds

According to human psychologist Abraham Maslow,
our actions are motivated in order to achieve certain
needs. His hierarchy suggests that people are
motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to
other, more advanced needs. People need to satisfy
their most important needs first, then when they
achieved this, they can move onto the next important
need.
Maslow first introduced his theory of hierarchy in his
1943 paper “A Theory of Human
Motivation” and his subsequent
book “Motivation and Personality”.

The first stage of the hierarchy is the physiological stage:
the stage required to sustain life. It includes breathing,
excretion and the desire for food, water, sex, sleep and
homeostasis. These are considered to be the ‘basic’ needs
of human life.
Maslow’s theory suggests that if these fundamental needs
are not satisfied the one must surely be motivated to
satisfy them.
Higher needs are not recognized until these ‘basic’ needs
have been satisfied.
The First Stage of the Hierarchy - The
Physiological Stage

Once physiological needs have been met, attention and desire
turns to safety and security, in order to be free from the
threat of psychological and physical harm. Such needs may
be fulfilled by:
•Living in a safe area
•Financial reserves
•Job security
•Good health
According to Maslow’s theory, you can not move up the
pyramid to the next stages if you feel threatened. Once the
threat
has been addressed, one can then move up the pyramid.
The Second Stage of the Hierarchy - The
Safety Stage

Once a person has met the lower physiological
and safety needs, the higher needs can be
addressed. This begins with the love/belonging
stage, which can also be
referred to as the ‘social needs stage’. These
are the needs related with interaction and can
include family, friendship and
sexual intimacy.
The Third Stage of the Hierarchy - The
Love/Belonging Stage

• Once a person feels like they belong, the
need to be important can arise.
• Esteem needs can be classified as external or
internal.
• Internal esteem needs are related to self-
esteem, such as the need to respect yourself
and achieve.
• External esteem needs are those such as
social status, reputation and recognition.
The Fourth Stage of Hierarchy - The
Esteem Stage

Self-actualisation is the summit of Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs. It can be defined as the quest of reaching your
full potential. Unlike some of the lower needs, this need
is never fully satisfied due to the fact that people can
‘grow’ and change and continue to challenge themselves.
People in this stage tend to have needs such as: morality,
creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of
prejudice, acceptance of facts, truth, justice, wisdom and
meaning.
The Fifth Stage of Hierarchy - The Self-
actualisation Stage

Mcgregors theory X and Y
 Douglas Mcgregor wrote the book “The human side
of enterprise” in 1960
 He examined individuals behaviour at work.
 From this he formulated two models of management based on
hierarchy into lower-order needs (Theory X) and higher-order
needs (Theory Y).
 These theories are based on human behaviour in management.
 It concludes dual aspects of human being.
 He suggested that management could use either set of needs to
motivate

Theory X
 Theory X assumes that employees are naturally
unmotivated and dislike working, and this encourages an
authoritarian style of management. According to this view,
management must actively intervene to get things done.
 It summaries that workers need to be constantly watched
and instructed what to do.

Characteristics
 intolerant
 distant and detached
 aloof and arrogant
 short temper
 issues instructions,
• directions, edicts
 issues threats to make
people follow instructions
 demands, never asks
 does not participate
 does not team-build
Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH)
2/3/19 44
 unconcerned about staff
welfare, or morale
 proud, sometimes to the
point of self-destruction
 one-way communicator
 poor listener

TheoryY
 Theory Y shows a participation style of
management that is decentralized. It assumes that
employees are happy to work, self motivated,
creative and enjoy working with greater
responsibility.
 It emphasizes that staff are self-disciplined and
would like to do the job themselves

Characteristics
 Take responsibility and are motivated to fulfill the
goals they are given.
 Consider work as a natural part of life and solve work
problems imaginatively. Assumes that people seek
fulfilment through work and are willing to work hard.
 In Y-Type organizations, people at lower levels of the
organization are involved in decision making.

Other characteristics
 self-motivated
 responsible
 always participate
 gives rewards and feedback
 promotion
 power to implement decisions
 active
 good listener
 happy
 concerned about staff welfare

Comparison

Application
 Theory X management style is widely accepted as inferior
to others, it has its place in large scale production operation
and unskilled production-line work.
 Theory Y-style management is suited to knowledge work
and professional services; even highly structure knowledge
work, such as call center operations, can benefits from.
Theory Y principles to encourage knowledge sharing and
continuous improvement.

Importance of Motivation
1. Puts human resources into action
• Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources
2. Improves level of efficiency of employees
• Increase in productivity,
• Reducing cost of operations, and
• Improving overall efficiency.
3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals
• There is best possible utilization of resources,
• There is a co-operative work environment,
• The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner,
• Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place
simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.

4. Builds friendly relationship
•Monetary and non-monetary incentives,
•Promotion opportunities for employees,
•Disincentives for inefficient employees.
5. Leads to stability of work force

Motivation and adoption
of innovation

What is Innovation???
Transformation of an idea into something useful.
There are two different kinds of innovations
1.New things
2.Development of new things.

Diffusion of Innovation
• The diffusion of innovations theory seeks to
explain how and why new ideas and practices
are adopted, with timelines potentially spread
out over long periods.
It is designed in two process:
1.Diffusion
2.Adoption

Stages in innovation
• Innovators
• Early adopters
• Early majority
• Late majority
• Laggards.

The diffusion process
The innovation Various approaches
have been taken to
define new product:
1.Firm oriented
2.Product oriented
3.Market oriented
4.Consumer oriented
The channels of
communication
The social system
Time

The innovation how quickly
innovation spread
depends on channel
on communication.
There are two
sources for
communication:
I.Impersonal
II.Interpersonal
The social system
Time

The innovation It is a physical, social or
cultural environment in
which people belong
and within which they
function:
It can be of two type :
I. Traditional social
system
II.Modern social system
The channels of
communication
Time

The innovation Backbone of diffusion
process.
it pervades the study of
diffusion in three
distinct ways :
1.The amount of
purchase time.
2.The identification of
adopter categories
3.The rate of adoption.
The channels of
communication
The social system

Characteristics that influence
diffusion
• Relative advantage
• Compatibility
• Complexity
• Trialability
• Observability
• Resistance to innovation

Stages in adoption

Adoption process
Consumer in first
expose to the product
innovation.
Lacks in information
about the product
May only know the
name of product and
its basic features.
Interest
Evaluation
Trial
Adoption or Rejection

Adoption process
Awareness Consumer is
interested in product
and search for
additional
information.
He wants to know
what is it, how it
works and what its
potentialities are.
Evaluation
Trial

Adoption process
Awareness Consumer decides
whether or not to
believe this product or
service.
Will it satisfy his
needs and
requirements.
Individual makes a
mental trial of the
idea
Interest
Trial

Adoption process
Awareness Consumer uses the
product on a limited
basis.
During this stage the
individual determines the
usefulness of the
innovation and may
search for further
information about it.
The trial stage is
characterized by small-
scale experimental use,
when it’s possible.
Interest
Evaluation

Adoption process
Awareness If trail in favorable
consumer decides to
use the product
If unfavorable the
consumer decides to
reject it.
Interest
Evaluation
Trial

Motivation Towards Utilizing
Modern Health Facilities

Introduction
Four key factors given below have been found to
strongly influence or motivating toward modern
health. They are:
1. Facilitation: making life easier;
2. Understanding: in one’s own mode of thinking
that the change is better for oneself and family;
3. Influence: persuasion and support from others
when a new practice is adopted; and
4. Autonomy: means and control to carry out the
practice.

Facilitation
•Facilitation, or making life easier, is the most
powerful reason why people utilize modern
health facilities and practices.
•If people think that the new technology helps
for their better life, they find satisfaction and
pleasure and they will be motivated to utilize it.

When educators respect for local knowledge,
practices and beliefs and use the health
concepts and reasoning of the people
themselves, people become motivated to use
new concept.
Understanding People’s Knowledge
and Acknowledging

•People tend to adopt or discard practices for
which they get the approval or disapproval
from respected people, or by which they can
make an impression on others.
Influence

•People accept new things if they could explore it
through their own interest and choice.
•Therefore, autonomous behavior also should be
explored.
Autonomy

Belief Factor of Motivation
• Belief that the product or service has quality
• Belief that modern facility makes easier life
• Belief that it increases my respect
• Belief that I will be healthy by using it or achieve
something
• Belief that nobody will disapprove me when I use it
• Belief that it is not against the social values and norms
• Belief that it is within my purchasing capability

Need Factors of Motivation
•If it increases social connection
•If it increases self-esteem
•If it makes feel secure
•If it provides pleasure

Rewarding for Motivation to Modern
Health facilities
•If rewarded is provided for using modern health
facility that helps to learn behavior or form
habit.
•Habit formation to use new product is necessary
at initial stage.
•Pre-declared award is incentive, can be used.
•Immediate rewarding, while they once used it,
can promote expected behavior.
•Rewarding consolidates the learning.

Meaning and definition of attention
perception and sensation
Role of perception
Perception of health belief and practices

Perception

“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE
ARE.”2/3/19 Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH) 81

Meaningof perception
 The process by which people select, organize,
interpret, retrieve, and respond to information.
 Perceptions differ from person to person.
 Each individual perceives the same situation
differently.
 Individuals organize and interpret things based on their
past experiences and the important values they
consider important.
 Employees tend to behave and act on certain things on
the basis of their perception.

Definitions
 Stephen Robbins: “ Perception is a process by
which individual’s organize and interpret the sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.”
 Fred Luthans: “Perception is an important
mediating cognitive process through which persons
make interpretations of the stimulus or situation they
are forced with.”
In general, it can be defined as “ a process that
involves seeing, receiving, selecting, organizing,
interpreting and giving meaning to the environment”.

NATURE OF PERCEPTION
1. Perception is the process by which an individual gives
meaning to the environment.
2. It is a cognitive and psychological process.
3. People’s action, emotions, thoughts and feelings are
triggered by their perceptions.
4. Since perception refers to the acquisition of specific
knowledge about objects or events at any particular
moment, it occurs whenever stimuli activate the sense
organs.
5. Though perception has been defined in a variety of ways, it
basically refers to the manner in which a person experiences
the world.

6. Perception is an almost automatic process and works in
much the same way within each individual, yet typically yields
different perceptions.
7. A stimulus that is not perceived has no effect on behavior.
8. Perception is a process that operates constantly between us
and reality.
9.Since perception is subjective process, different people may
perceive the same environment differently. So perception is
like beauty, that lies in the eyes of the beholder.
10.Perception is a unique interpretation of the situation, not an
exact recording of the situation.
11.Perception is more complex and much broader than
sensation.

Summarize
• Dipen
• Ramesh
• Sudipa
• Mausam

Factors influencing perception
Factors in the perceiver
 Attitudes
 Motives
 Interests
 Experience
 Expectations
Perception
Factors in the perceived
 Motion
 Sounds
 Size
 Background
 Proximity
 Similarity
Factors in the situation
 Time
 Work Setting
 Social Setting

Sensation: Meaning
2/3/19 Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH)
88
⦿ Any experience that takes place through a sense
organ is called Sensation.
⦿ Sensation is also called as the gate ways of
knowledge, because all our knowledge is based
upon the functioning of sense organs.
⦿ Sensation is the simple and most elementary
process, which creates the desire to work for
something and how to know something based on
previous experiences.
⦿ It is purely sensory knowledge, which does not
have any relationship with any knowledge or
awareness.

Definitions
2/3/19 Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH)
89
in the way of
The impressions received through the sense organs are
called sensations
- Mathur.
A sensation is an elementary cognitive experience
- Dr. Jalota.
Sensations are first things consciousness - James.
Sensation is defined as the simplest of all conscious
experience
- Duglas and Halland.

Types of Sensation:
2/3/19
Ashok Pandey (MPH/BPH, DGH) 90
We can divide easily the sensation process
into five categories on the basis of sense
organs.
⚫ 1.Visual Sensation
⚫ 2. Auditory Sensation
⚫ 3. Olfactory Sensation
⚫ 4. Taste Sensation
⚫ 5. Tactual Sensation

Organs involved in Sensation:
2/3/19
⦿ Eye
⦿ Ear
⦿ Nose
⦿ Tongue
⦿ Skin

SN
Type of Sensation
Sense
Organ
Senses
Knowledge
gaining
1. Visual Sensation Eye Sight 83%
2. Auditory Sensation Ear Hear 11%
3.
Olfactory
Sensation
Nose Smell 3.5%
4. Taste Sensation Tongue Taste 1.0%
5. Tactual Sensation Skin Touch 1.5%
2/3/19

Roleof perception
 Perception plays a very important role in shaping the
personality of an individual.
 Perception is central in interpreting the world around us.
 Perception affects the outcome of our behavior because we
act on the basis of what we see.
 Managers should be able to distinguish between a perceived
world and the reality.
 An understanding of perception is important to understand
and control the human behavior .

Perception of health belief and practices
- Various norms Values, Culture, Needs and Beliefs are the
strong determinants of perception and these are direct
influence in forming health beliefs and practice.
- The perception directly influence towards the believes of
health, disease and I.
- Formation of health beliefs and practices might direct
towards modern health facilities may direct towards the
perception.
- For e.g. If somebody falls in ill condition, the cause of
disease, disease pattern etc. is still perceived as due to evil
eyes, cause of supernatural power, misdeeds in previous life,
so they adopt traditional practices while utilizing health
services vs treatment practice.

- Perception of food taboos as concept of hot and cold
foods and their used condition.
- Accurate perception helps good observation that
plays an effective role to provide good medical as
well as need based nursing care in win – win
situation.
- Perception has great role to use modern tools and
other processes.
- Perception is useful in mental illness.
- Villagers and urban people have different types of
perception about the health, disease, illness and
sickness, which helps to care the disease.

Factors impacting on health belief and
practices
 Language barriers and accents
 Communication
 Universal cultural patterns /norms
 Contextual factors eg. housing, educational
level, socio-economic status
 Health beliefs
 Acculturation continuum factors or level of
cultural adaptation
 Alternate treatments

Factors impacting on health belief and
practices
Religious and spiritual
Dietary and food requirements
Medication requirements
Birthing /end of life and death rituals
Access to and knowledge of services
Client support knowledge
Staff knowledge / competence/ support

Emotion
•Meaning, Characteristics
•Theories of emotion
•State of emotions: Positive emotions (Love,
Laughter, Hope, optimistic, Self confidence and
Negative emotions (Anger, fear, Sadness, Boredom,
Guilt)

WHATARE EMOTIONS?

Imagine life without
• Happiness
• Fear
• Sadness
• Surprise
• Disgust

Definition of emotion
• Emotion is a complex psychological
phenomenon which occurs as animals or
people live their lives.
• It is Intense feeling that are directed at
someone or something

Emotions include three things
• conscious experience (feelings)
• expressions which can be seen by others
• actions of the body (physiological arousal)

Emotion is associated with
• Mood
• Temperament
• Personality
• Disposition
• Motivation

Categories of emotion
• Emotions are divided into two categories
• Primary emotions
• Secondary emotions

Primary emotion
• A primary human emotion types are the one
triggered in response to an event

Primary emotions
• Love
• Joy
• Anger
• Sadness
• Surprise
• Fear

Secondary emotion
• If we experience fear, the secondary
emotions would be : feel threatened or feel
anger, depending on the situation we are
experiencing.

Secondary emotions
• Passion
• Optimism
• Irritation
• Disgust
• Shame
• Nervousness

Variety of emotions

Human emotion
• Human emotion is innate in all of us; it’s
something we’re born with and something we
die with.
• Happiness, sadness, love, hatred, worries, and
indifference – these are things that constantly
occur in our daily lives.

Positive emotion
• Positive emotions that lead one to feel good
about one’s self will lead to an emotionally
happy and satisfied result.
Some of the positive emotions are
• Hopeful
• Confident
• Peaceful

Negative emotion
• Negative emotions sap your energy and
undermine your effectiveness. In the negative
emotional state, you find the lack of desire to
do anything.
Some of the negative emotions are
• Exhausted
• Panic
• Obnoxious

Factors affecting emotions
1. Personality
2. Culture
3. Weather
4. Stress
5. Age
6. Gender
7. Environment

How we perceive emotion
Body posture
•The way we hold
our bodies when
we walk, stand
and sit gives cues
to others about
our emotional
state.
Speech Patterns
•We may choose our
words carefully when
we're angry or expressing
happiness.
•Our emotions cause us
not only to feel
differently, but also to
speak differently

Gestures
•Gestures take on
different meanings in
different cultures.
•gesturing in general is
one way humans
communicate emotion to
each other nonverbally.
Facial expressions
Our facial muscles -- there are 44
of them -- are able to
communicate important nonverbal
messages in a split second, anger,
contempt, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness and surprise seem to be
seven universal facial expressions
that all humans unconsciously
recognize and interpret

Physiological Cues
• our emotions are accompanied by subtle
physiological change
• A subtle flush of the face or increase in heart
rate or body temperature could be a clue to
the emotional state of the person you're
talking to.

Theories of emotions

Cannon-bard theory of emotion
It states that
•we react to a stimulus and experience the
associated emotion at the same time.
•we feel emotions and experience physiological
reactions such as sweating, trembling and
muscle tension simultaneously.

For example:
I see a snake
I am afraid
I begin to tremble.

James-lange theory of emotion
It states that
•emotions occur as a result of physiological
reactions to events.
•proposes that you will interpret your physical
reactions and conclude that you are frightened.

• For example I am trembling, therefore I am
afraid.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence
• Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the
ability to perceive, control and evaluate
emotions.

Four branches
• Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that
identified four different factors of emotional
intelligence

• Perceiving Emotions: The first step in
understanding emotions is to accurately
perceive them. In many cases, this might
involve understanding nonverbal signals such
as body language and facial expressions.

• Reasoning With Emotions: The next step
involves using emotions to promote thinking
and cognitive activity. Emotions help
prioritize what we pay attention and react to;
we respond emotionally to things that garner
our attention.

• Understanding Emotions: The emotions
that we perceive can carry a wide variety of
meanings. If someone is expressing angry
emotions, the observer must interpret the
cause of their anger and what it might mean.

• Managing Emotions: The ability to manage
emotions effectively is a key part of emotional
intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding
appropriately and responding to the emotions
of others are all important aspect of emotional
management.

Psychological relation
Terminology and concept useful in studying health problem
Body mind relationship
Level of consciousness
Dynamic system of personality
Drivers and motives

Terminology and concept
useful in studying health
problem

The Need to Belong
(Affiliation)
Desire to form & maintain close, lasting
relationships with other individuals.
13

The need to belong
Homo sapiens:
Appear to need contact with other
members of their species.
Experience a powerful drive to
form & maintain close lasting
relationships.
Usually form relationships easily.
Are reluctant to end relationships.
Seek an optimal balance between
social contacts & solitude.
13

Marriage
 People who marry live longer,
healthier lives
 People who stay married live
longer and better than those who
divorce
 Happy marriage is an important
consideration
13

Forces which draw
2 or more people
together.
Interpersonal
AttractionRepulsion
Forces which drive
2 or more people
apart.
13

Similarity
 Common, significant cause of attraction
 Tend to like others who are similar to us
 Otherwise we experience cognitive
dissonance.
13

Matching Hypothesis
People are attracted to & form relationships
with others who are similar to them in
physical attractiveness.
13

Interpersonal rewards
13
Do favors for someone
Praise someone

Attraction
14
Availability
–interaction is easy & low cost
Expectation of continued
interaction

Neighbors make friends and enemies
14
 Festinger et al. (1950)
– Strongest predictor of friendships was
propinquity
 Ebbesen et al. (1976)
– Strongest predictor of enemies was
propinquity
 Regular contact amplifies or multiplies
power of other factors

Rate this woman’s:
14



Intelligence
Happiness
Success
1 = Well below average
2 = Below average
3 = Average
4 = Above average
5 = Well above average

Attractiveness
14
 Most people show preference for attractive over unattractive
 “What is beautiful is good” effect
– Attractiveness = superiority on other traits
 Attractive children are more popular with peers and teachers
 Babies prefer attractive faces
 For men, clothing represent wealth and status
–High wealth & status men are more attractive
 Body shape influences attractiveness
–Cultural variation in ideal body weight

Beauty
14
 People agree who is beautiful but not why
 Evolutionary psychology
– beauty in women ~ Health, youth, fertility
– Average or composite faces are more attractive than individual
faces
Some cultural & historical differences in perception of beauty
 In reality, beauty not related to intelligence, personality adjustment
or SES
 Costs of beauty
– hard to interpret positive feedback
– pressure to maintain appearance
– little relationship between beauty in youth &
satisfaction/adjustment in middle-age (Berscheid et al., 1972)

Evolutionary Perspectives on
Attraction / Mate Selection
14
 Gender differences in mate selection & sexual
behaviour
 Males tend to have
– more sexual partners &
– partners that are young & attractive (more
fertile).
 Women tend to have
– fewer sexual partners &
– partners who are older & financially secure
(better providers for offspring).

Acceptance
People like you &
include you in
their groups.
Social
People exclude
you from their
groups.
Rejection
(Social
Exclusion;
Ostracism)
14

Loneliness
 Desired > actual social contact
 Painful feeling of wanting more human contact
 Lacking in quantity and/or quality of relationships
 Occurs during times of transition & disruption (e.g.,
moving, divorce)
 18-30 year olds - loneliest group
 Little difference between lonely & unlonely
– Lonely have more difficulty understanding emotional
states of others
 Loneliness tends to be bad for physical health
14

Romantic rejection &
unrequited love
14
Attribution theory & women
refusing dates
 Privately held reasons were internal to
the man, stable, & global
 Reasons told the man were external,
unstable, and specific
– These reasons encourage asking again

Love relationships
14
Liking versus loving
Passionate love
– intense, involves physiological arousal
Companionate love - caring & affection
– Characterised by high levels of self-
disclosure

What is love?
“I love my grandmother”
“I’m in love with my boyfriend”
“I love psychology”
15

Two types of love
Passionate
Strong, intense feelings of
– Longing
– Desire
– Excitement
toward another person.
Companionate
- Mutual understanding
- Caring
- Commitment
- Calm, serene emotions
15

Passionate love as a social
construction
 Romantic love is
found in most
cultures
 Forms & expression
vary by culture
 Attitude varies by
culture & era
15

Attachment & Sex
15
 Secure
– Generally have good sex lives
 Preoccupied
– May use sex to pull others close to them
 Avoidant
– Have a desire for connection
– May avoid sex, or use it to resist intimacy

Self-esteem & love
15
 Popular belief that you need to love
yourself before you can love others
– Not demonstrated in theory or facts
 Self-esteem
– Low self-esteem – may feel unlovable
– High self-esteem – may feel more
worthy than present partner

Self-love & loving others
15
 Self-acceptance is good for getting along
with others
 Excessive self-love (e.g. narcissism) can
be detrimental to close relationships
 Self-acceptance
– More minimal form of self-love
– Linked to positive interactions

Sexuality
15
 Humans form relationships based on
two separate systems
– Attachment system
 Gender neutral
– Sex drive
 Focus on opposite sex (procreation)
 Love comes from attachment drive;
independent of gender

Sex & gender
15
 Men > women sex drive
 Coolidge effect
– sexually arousing power of a new partner
(greater than the appeal of a familiar partner)
 Separating sex & love
– Men : likely to seek & enjoy sex without
love
– Women : likely to enjoy love without sex

A woman pays a
higher biological
price than a man for
making a poor choice
of sex partners, and
so it behooves
women to be more
cautious than men
about sex.
15

Ending relationships:
4 factors (Levinger, 1980)
1.A new life seems the only
alternative
2.Alternative partners
available
3.Expectation that
relationship will fail
4.Lack of commitment
15

Jealousy & possessiveness
16
Cultural theory
–Product of social roles & expectations
Biological theory
–Sexual jealousy in every culture
–Forms, expressions, & rules may vary
Society can modify but not eliminate
jealousy

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• The autonomic nervous system plays an important role in
our reaction to an emergency-say we feel danger situation
(feared). (Sympathetic and Parasympathetic System)
• Sympathetic nervous system reacts to your emergency, the
hypothalamus immediately sends a hormone called Cortico-
tropin-releasing factor to the pituitary gland. This causes
the pituitary to release ACTH.
• ACTH then travels throughout the body and stimulates the
release of a variety of hormones especially those of the
adrenal glands.
• Hormones are is also controlled by our brain- i.e. through
hypothalamus.

Sympathetic Nervous System
•This part of ANS arouses us for defensive action….
fight or flight.
•If something alarms, endangers, excites, or enrages
a person, the sympathetic nervous system
accelerates heart beat, slows digestion, raises the
sugar level in blood, dilates the arteries and cools
the body through perspiration; makes one alert and
ready for action.

Endocrine System and Behavior
• The nervous system is linked to the endocrine system by
connections between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
• The hypothalamus sends chemical messages directly to the
pituitary gland, causing it to release pituitary hormones into the
blood.
• Pituitary gland controls the secretion of other endocrine glands, it
is called the “master gland”.
• Hormones, such as estrogen and androgen, are especially important
in the development and functioning of female and male
reproductive systems responsible for sex related behavior.
• Other hormones affect blood pressure, general body growth, and
the balance of various chemicals, such as calcium, etc….in the
body.
• Still other hormones help us react to specific situations we
encounter in our lives: eating, drinking,….

Level of consciousness

Level of Consciousness
Consciousness:-
• William James (1890):
• Consciousness is a constantly moving stream of thoughts,
feelings, and emotions
• Consciousness can be viewed as our subjective awareness of
mental events
• Functions of consciousness:
• Monitoring mental events
• Control: consciousness allows us to formulate and reach
goals
• Consciousness may have evolved to direct or control
behavior in adaptive ways

Brain and Consciousness
•Hindbrain and midbrain
are important for arousal
and for sleep
•Damage to the reticular
formation can lead to
coma
•Prefrontal cortex is key
for conscious control of
information processing

Rapid eye movement (REM) Sleep
•Characteristics of REM sleep
•Presence of rapid-eye-movements
•Presence of dreaming
•Increased autonomic nervous system
activity
•EEG resembles that of awake state
(beta wave)

Attention-Alert Stage
•Our conscious awareness is limited in
capacity and we are aware of only a small
amount of the stimuli around us at any one
time
•Attention refers to the process by which we
focus our awareness
•Three functions of attention processes:
•Orienting function toward the environment
•Control of the content of consciousness
•Maintaining alertness

Psychodynamic View of
Consciousness
• Freud argued that three mental
systems form consciousness
• Conscious: mental events that you
are aware of
• Preconscious: Mental events that
can be brought into awareness
• Unconscious: Mental events that
are inaccessible to awareness;
events are actively kept out of
awareness

Dreaming
•Psychoanalytic view: Dreams represent a
window into the unconscious mind materials
•Cognitive view: Dreams are constructed from
the daily issues of the dreamer
•Biological view: Dreams represent the
attempt of the cortex to interpret the random
neural firing of the brain during sleep

Altered States of Consciousness
Changes in consciousness can be brought on by
(A) Meditation
(B) Hypnosis: Hypnosis is a state of consciousness
characterized by
• Deep relaxation
• Suggestibility
(C) Drug ingestion
• Depressants (including alcohol)
• Stimulants (amphetamine, cocaine)
• Hallucinogens (LSD)
• Marijuana etc.

Dynamics System of Personality
•Personality is a dynamic organization of
psychophysical systems that create a
person’s characteristic patterns of
behavior, thoughts, and feelings.”
•"Those characteristics that account for
consistent patterns of behavior.“

Content of Personality
• Peripheral components: limited and
subject to change; dressing, outlook,
need based
• Central components: core identity,
more enduring characteristic

Personality Traits
•Consistently found dimensions of
thinking, behavior and feeling
•Allow individuals to be placed in a
continuum with respect to different traits
(e.g, introversion-extraversion,
Intelligent-less intelligent
•A trait is a temporally stable pattern

Example of Trait:
Extraversion-Introversion
Extrovert: Energy, positive emotions, the
tendency to seek simulation and the
company of others, sociable, more
speaking, want to stay in group, helping,
relaxed
Introvert: Opposite of above

Personality Type Approach-Example
Type A:
• hard workers
• often preoccupied with schedules and the speed of their performance
• always busy
• somewhat impatient
• they are always "looking for a better way"
• Risk of heart disease is greater
Type B:
• are laid back
• easy going
• more creative, imaginative,
• are better at relaxing without feeling guilty and working without becoming anxious or
agitated.
• being more relaxed about time (they don't get overly stressed about being late),and are
not easily angered.

Interactionism Approach
Behavior = personality x interpretation of the
situation
•Traits may only emerge in some situations
•Personality is a strong predictor of behavior across
all situations, but is not a strong predictor at a
specific time, situation
•People display their traits by all that they do,
including choice of situations. Need-Motive-
Situation Interaction determines it.

Psychoanalytic Approach-
Structure of Personality
Id, Ego, and Superego have role to manifest
behavioral dynamics
Id: At birth, the entire mind consists of only id. It
consists of pure, unadulterated, instinctual energy and
exists entirely on the unconscious level. It is the source
of basic drives; operates under the ‘pleasure principle’
i.e., it wants immediate gratification of needs. The id
has two means of satisfying bodily needs, reflex action
and wish fulfillment. (Want to eat anything to reduce
hunger)

Cont..
Super Ego: It is governed by the moral constraints.
It develops from the internalized patterns of reward
and punishment that the young child experiences
i.e. Depending on the values of the parents, certain
things the child does or says are rewarded and
encouraged and others not liked are punished or
discouraged. Opposes the id, it represents the moral
demands of the family and society; it is the ‘moral
self’ or the ‘conscience’ of the person. (I never eat
cow meat even too much hungry)

Cont…
Ego: Mediates the link of the self with the outside world,
“Real World”, as well as between the id and superego. It
operates under the demands of the environment. It operates
under the reality principle.
In other words, the ego comes into existence in order to bring
the person into contact with experiences that will truly
satisfy his/ her needs.
When the person is hungry, the ego finds food; when the
person is sexually aroused, the persons finds an appropriate
sex object; and when the person is thirsty, the ego finds
liquid.
The ego goes through reality testing to find appropriate
objects and to avoid inappropriate one. (Mind
modification to eat cow meat-if too much hungry, you
are in Muslim country and no one see it)

Drivers and motives

Drives are believed to originate within a person and may not
require external stimuli to encourage behavior.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation
comes from within the individual and results in a sense of
autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Extrinsic motivation such as
punishments, rewards, and other types of compensation, come
from outside the individual.

Drives

Motives
I. Primary/ Unlearnt/
Physiological/ Biological
motives
• These are concerned with
all the biological/
physiological needs of the
body.
• They are also known as
unlearnt motives because
they entirely include the
basic drives such as hunger,
thirst, need for sleep, air,
excretion etc. that do not
need any sort of learning.
II. Secondary/ Learnt/
Psychological motives
Also known as the psycho-social
motives because they involve
people’s appreciation or
appraisal in order to live
successfully in any society.
Also important in the sense that
they are the means of satisfying
the primary motives e.g., work,
and getting salary that uses for
food.

Classification of Motives
a. Physiological Motives: Body biology related; hunger,
thirst, sex, etc.
b. Psychological Motives: Related to choice, expectation,
social expectation, personal preference, avoid failure,
freedom, achievement, affiliation, power, approval, respect,
identity etc.

Hunger
•The most urgent and desirable need in all organisms
including human and animals.
•Eating is related to the homeostatic mechanism of
the body.
•Psychologists have done research on animals to
observe the level of motivation, which showed that
internal system, not only regulates the quantity of
food intake but also the kind of food that has been
taken.
•Chemicals/ hormones secreted by the endocrine
gland also play a crucial role in the hunger drive.

Thirst
• The thirst drive is largely internal and includes three basic
mechanisms: when salt concentration in our body
becomes high, and then it triggers hypothalamus to act,
resulting in thirst drive.
• Secondly, when fluid volume decreases in the circulatory
process, then this drive is stimulated.
• Another important factor is the increase in the body
temperature.

Sleep
• Rest and proper sleep is very important for the
effective functioning of species.
• After the hard work of the day, person becomes
fatigued and needs adequate amount of rest in order to
be fresh again next day.
• Sleep helps to recharge neurons.
• Partly, sleep is also related with the chemical activity
in the body in which the brain, nerves, and muscles
are all involved.

Sex
•In males, gland is a testis; androgens and other
hormones of pituitary are responsible for sexual
expression.
•In females, organ is an ovary; estrogens (arousal)
and progesterone (pregnancy) are important and
vital glands for its expression.

Drives and Motives
•Motivations are commonly separated into drives and
motives.
•Drives are primarily biological, like thirst, hunger,
sleepiness, and the need to reproduce - all of which
lead us to seek out and take part in certain activities.
•Drives are believed to originate within a person and
may not require external stimuli to encourage
behavior.
•Motives, on the other hand, are primarily driven by
social and psychological mechanisms, such as work,
family, and relationships. They include factors like
praise and approval.

Drives and Motives
Both drives and motives can be manipulated by
stimulation and deprivation.
Motivation can be stimulated by uncomfortable or
aversive conditions or events (shocks, loud noise, or
excessive heat or cold can motivate us to seek better
conditions) or by attractions to positive or pleasurable
conditions or events (such as food or sex).
We also become motivated when we’re deprived of
something that we want or need, like adequate
nutrition or social contact.

Thank you
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ashok-Pandey-17

Ashok pandey health psychology unit 1

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