Atmospheric stability refers to air that does not rise, which can lead to fog, mist or frost formation. Instability occurs when air rises, forming clouds and rain. Clouds are classified by form, height, and whether convection or fronts caused them. Convectional rainfall happens when warm land heats the air above, causing it to rise and condense. Frontal rainfall occurs at boundaries of warm and cold air masses. Orographic rainfall results when air is forced to rise over mountain barriers, cooling and condensing. Hail forms through a process of freezing and melting within cumulonimbus clouds. Dew and radiation fog form on clear nights through surface cooling and condensation. Advection fog

1. ASGEOGRAPHY
ATMOSPHEREANDWEATHER

2. STABILITYINSTABILITY
Atmospheric stability and instability are closely linked to weather
phenomena.
Stability means that air does not rise.
Stability can lead to the formation of fog, mist and frost.
Under clear skies, temperatures may drop enough to form frost.
Instability produces unstable or rising air forming clouds and rain.

3. CLOUDS
They are formed of millions of tiny water droplets held in suspension.
They are classified in a number of ways:
- Form or shape: stratiform (layered) and cumuliform (heaped)
- Height: low (less than 2000m), medium or alto (2000-7000m) and
high (7000-13000m)
The important facts to keep in mind are:
- In unstable conditions the dominant form of uplift is convection and
this may form cumulus clouds
- Where fronts are involved a variety of clouds exist
- Relief or topography causes stratiform (layered) or cumuliform
clouds, depending on the stability of air

5. CONVECTIONALRAINFALL When the land becomes very
hot it heats the air above it.
This air expands and rises.
As it rises, cooling and
condensation take place.
If it continues to rise, rain will
fall.
This is very common in tropical
areas.
In temperate areas, convectional
rain is more common in
summer.

6. FRONTALORCYCLONICRAINFALL
Frontal rain occurs when warm air meets cold air.
The warm air, being lighter and less dense, is forced to rise over the cold,
denser air.
As it rises it cools, condenses and forms rain.
It is very common in mid and high latitudes, where warm tropical air and
cold polar air converge.

8. RELIEFOROROGRAPHICRAINFALL
Air may be forced to rise over a barrier (such as a mountain).
As it rises it cools (adiabatic process), condenses and forms rain.
There is often a rain shadow effect in which the downward slope receives a
small amount of rain.
Altitude is important on a local scale.
There are increases of precipitation up to 2 km.
Above this level rainfall decreases because of the air temperature being so
low.

10. HAIL
Hail is made up of alternate shells of clear and opaque ice, formed by
raindrops being carried up and down in vertical air currents in large
cumulonimbus clouds.
Freezing and partial melting may occur several times before the pellet is
large enough to escape from the cloud.
As a raindrop is carried high up in the cloud it freezes.
As the hailstone falls, the outer layer may be melted but can freeze again
with further uplift.
The process can occur many times before the hail finally falls to the
ground, when its weight is great enough to overcome the strong portions
of air.

13. SNOW Snow is frozen precipitation.
Snow crystals form when the
temperature is below freezing
point and water vapour is
converted into a solid.
Very cold air contains a limited
amount of moisture, so the
heaviest snowfalls tend to
occur when warm moist air is
forced over very high
mountains or when warm moist
air comes into contact with very
cold air at a front.

14. DEW
Dew is the direct deposition of water droplets onto
the surface and vegetation.
It occurs in clear, calm anticyclonic conditions (stability)
where there is rapid radiation cooling by night.
The temperature reaches dew point, and further
cooling causes condensation and direct precipitation
onto the ground and vegetation.

15. FOGMIST
Fog is cloud at ground level.
Fog is a very dense cloud at ground
level in which you can see at maximum
1km.
Mist is a rarefied cloud at ground level
in which you can see in between 1 and
5 km distance.

16. RADIATIONFOG
Radiation fog is formed in low-lying areas during calm weather, especially
during spring and autumn.
The surface of the ground, cooled fast at night by radiation, cools the air
immediately above it.
This air then flows into hollows by gravity and is cooled to DEW POINT,
causing condensation.
Ideal conditions include a surface layer of moist air and clear skies to allow
maximum radiation cooling to occur quickly.
As the sun rises, radiation fog clears away. Under cold anticyclonic conditions
in late autumn and winter, fog may be thicker and more persistent, and
around large towns smog may develop under an inversion layer.

18. ADVECTIONFOG
Advection fog is formed when warm moist air flows horizontally over cooler
land or sea.

19. TIPS
Some students think that fog is common all year round. It is more
common in temperate areas in spring and autumn. In summer, the sea is
cooler than the land so air is not cooled when it blows onto the land,
while in winter there are more low pressure systems, causing higher
winds and mixing the air.
Some students state that all coastal areas have mild temperatures – it all
depends on the temperature of the ocean current.
Abbreviations are fine – for example LP for low pressure, SH for southern
hemisphere – but when you first mention the term, write it out in full and
add the abbreviation in brackets.