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Arabic Calligraphy in the Digital Age
Mamoun Sakkal ©12 December, 2011
Based on author’s presentation at “Inscription as Art in the World of Islam” conference, Hofstra
University, Spring 1996.
Introduction
The desktop publishing revolution of the 1980s and the digital media have forever changed the
way information and visual images are created, transmitted, and experienced. For the majority of
the countries that use Arabic script these changes are taking place slowly. If we want to assure a
continuity of cultural heritage, however, we must act. We must facilitate the adaptation of the
script to the new media and the media to the script. This effort should involve traditional
calligraphers as well as computer experts.
In this chapter some of the ways calligraphic designs are used today is presented, and the
answers sought for two questions: “Is computer an appropriate and useful tool for calligraphy?”
“What effects would the use of computer have on the art and craft of calligraphy?”
Inscription as Art
Works of art are created to invoke an aesthetic experience. Does the value of a work of art stem
from its creativity? From its technical excellence? From its social significance? Or from being a
rare and unique artifact? Works of art derive their value from all the above components with
emphasis placed on some more than others in different cultures and times.
As in other visual arts, a work of calligraphy is first and foremost a mental creation.1
However, in order for it to be experienced by others, it is produced on a substrate or writing
surface with a suitable medium such as ink, using a transfer tool such as a pen, and a suitable
application process. When we review the calligraphy of Arabs and Muslims we find people of
different lands using materials and processes available in their time to express themselves.
Computers are among the new processes and techniques available for calligraphers in our time.
They allow the calligrapher and designer to perform more efficiently. When I was asked to adapt
one of my Kufic designs originally produced for a competition to be used in a masjid in
Lynnwood, Washington, I divided the text into two panels and changed portions of one panel to
fit its triangular space. This type of design modification can be done using traditional methods,
but the computer made the process faster and easier and gave me a chance to explore possible
variations and still meet my deadline (Fig. 1). Template creation and transfer to substrate are also
two steps in a traditional calligraphy production process which can be done more efficiently and
better by using computers.
Using digital media to produce my calligraphic work opens the doors to new modes of
expression in letter form modifications and coloring. In my calligraphic design, “Allah Jameel,” I
chose a blue color for the background to reflect the relaxed spiritual condition I associate with
the phrase “God is Beautiful, and He loves beauty.”To contrast the ordered structure of the
geometric calligraphy based on the Eastern Kufic style, I suspended flowing warm colors like
waves of light in a magical sky. Computer control allowed free and accidental forms, so I could
fine tune the colors to achieve the most expressive combination (Fig. 2). New possibilities open

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to calligraphers using multiple digital layers is my work “Shahada,” where one phrase is repeated
many times in layers that range in color and transparency. The richness and depth created is not
possible to achieve in any other medium without sacrificing control over some aspects of the
work (Fig. 3).
Many calligraphers and lovers of traditional calligraphy fear that computers will have a detri-
mental effect on the calligrapher’s art because of the mechanical processes involved in creating
the calligraphic art and the resulting separation between the calligrapher and artwork. Examining
the way in which calligraphers work shows that these fears are not founded. The traditional
process of creating a major calligraphic work on paper as practiced for the last 200 years in many
Islamic countries can be summarized in the following steps: design of the calligraphic
composition,2
production of a punch template,3
transfer of the image from template to writing
surface, writing or rendering of the image, using pen or brush and ink, and final finishing of the
work.4
If we consider the design of the piece as the most important element in its creation, then it
becomes easy to replace the production steps with new pocesses without affecting the value of
the work. But if we consider the act of handwriting per se, a critical part of the process as
important a facet to its value as is the design or mental creation, then it may become harder to
accept computers as a new media or process,because the final piece of art will not have the direct
and spontaneous marks of the calligrapher’s hand. Let us keep in mind however that the marks of
the calligrapher’s hand are not always as spontaneous or direct as many may assume. The image
is produced by a pen contacting paper, so we do not see a mark of the artist’s hand as we would
sometimes in other media,such as cast sculpture. The traditional reed pen can produce a line no
wider than 8 to 10 millimeters, and larger designs are done with a special wooden pen as large as
can be controlled by the calligrapher’s hand.5
But for any calligraphic piece that requires a wider
stroke, the calligrapher must enlarge his calligraphic design. The final image is drawn by using
brushes. In this case, the image is no longer a simple single sweep of a master’s hand, but rather
a retouched and filled area resulting from a more or less mechanical process.6
Accepting computer produced work as fine art in Western Europe and North America is still a
debated question that will be settled in time.7
When it does, the verdict certainly will affect per-
ceptions and judgments in the Islamic World as well. In addition to traditional calligraphers,
many other Arab and Muslim artists today use script in their paintings and sculpture under
European influences.8
This influence will continue in the foreseeable future in the digital realm
as well.
Inscription in Applied Art
Muslims today, as they did throughout their history, experience the vast majority of calligraphic
images in applied rather than fine arts. This is where a computer’s power is clearly useful and
enabling, and where the new media could quickly gain acceptance. Pottery, wood, and ivory
boxes, glass and metal containers and instruments are all decorated with inscriptions in processes
that combine the artistic and the technical. The choice of calligraphic styles and final execution
of details usually reflect the effects of materials’ qualities and production processes. As we move
towards a more automated society, computers will help make products or objects of higher

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quality for lower prices and will make objects decorated with calligraphy available for more
people than was possible in the past. It is likely that at the same time, however, people will want
to acquire and use objects that are produced manually.
Inscriptions were used in Islamic buildings as early as 692 when the Dome of the Rock was
built in Jerusalem. They served religious, social, and aesthetic purposes which were often
combined in the inscriptions of one structure. The use of inscriptions in buildings in the past has
made calligraphy part of the daily experience of millions of people and developed new styles,
including the Square Kufic, which covered entire buildings—a practice unique to Islamic
architecture. I studied the Square Kufic style for many years. My work in this area became
substantially more effective and productive when I started to use a Macintosh computer in 1985.
Not only was I able to reconstruct traditional designs based on published photographs, but I was
also able to show design principles in systematic graphic ways which would have taken
substantial time using traditional drafting methods (Fig. 4). Also, I was able to produce new
designs that went beyond what had been composed with traditional methods. In “Growth,” I was
able to rotate the Square Kufic design of the Shahada in order and to vary the color, size, and
thickness of the lines to achieve precise relationships between the three superimposed layers of
script, and to create the impression of fluidity, emergence and growth (Fig. 5).
As stated, the use of computers in design practice is increasing steadily in the West9
and will
become more prevalent in Arab and Muslim countries as well.10
Inscriptions used in buildings
will be of a higher quality because computers allow the transfer of calligraphic designs from a
master’s sketch to a final architectural surface with more precision, and with less reliance on the
skills of artisans who may not have adequate calligraphic training.
An example of the nexus between computer and architectural inscription is a calligraphic
panel I designed for the facade of a building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. I mailed the digital file to a
manu-facturer in New Hampshire who transferred the design to a tile layout which was pasted in
numbered sections by computer on a mesh and transported to the job site for installation. The use
of small tiles allowed for subtle variations in color that suggested a sculptural effect. With com-
puters, we were able to produce a fine work of architectural calligraphy for substantially lower
price and higher quality than would have been possible with manual labor. Soon it will become
possible to replicate many calligraphic details of a Master’s design in materials which
traditionally were unsuitable for reproducing fine details, especially with stone and metal.11
When inscriptions are used in architecture several factors become important and may require
adjustments to the calligraphic forms. For instance, the large distance from which architectural
inscriptions will be viewed require visual adjustments in letters’ shapes and details to maintain
legibility. Another example is the need to create contrast between the inscription and its
background. Calligraphy executed on building materials usually lack the contrast that comes
naturally when ink is marked on paper. With computers, these adjustments can be made more
easily, different alternatives and results tested before the final execution of the design.
Three-dimensional calligraphy is a natural outcome when letters are carved in stone or wood,
and the form is expressed as a volume rather than a surface. I have taken traditional Square Kufic

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into the 3rd dimension by developing what I call “Cubic Kufic.” An example is “Steps and
Shadows,” where inscription becomes sculpture and letters on each surface of the 3 dimensions
of space meet the other 2 surfaces to form new letters. The result is an expression of unity and
continuity which recalls the puzzles of M.C. Escher and urban landscapes while continuing the
Islamic tradition of mathematical and contemplative constructions (Fig. 6). When depth is added
to calligraphy it becomes unified with architecture. In fact, it could become the architecture
itself. Visualization and composition possibilities in computer aided design and computer
modeling facilitate designing in a 3-dimensional environment and helps produce sculpture and
architecture that incorporate in-scriptions. We will be able to experience such work from
different perspectives and will be able to view the interior of the building created by the
calligraphic shapes (Fig. 7). I am not implying, of course, that calligraphers should become
sculptors or architects, but for those who already want to create 3-dimensional calligraphy,
computers will make their task more manageable and productive.
Inscription in Print
In printing, the use of movable type was invented by Gutenberg whereby the shape of letters
carved in wood and cast in metal imitated the shape of handwritten letters.12
Forms produced
using a ew technology usually imitate forms established by an older technology. For the 500
years following Gutenberg, letter forms in type evolved away from calligraphic forms. Type was
influenced in turn by wood, metal, and photography. Because type design and production was
part of a complex industrial process, it was practiced by a limited number of people. With
powerful personal computers, type design software, and precise laser printers, the Western world
is experi-encing an explosion of font designs that have a personal and calligraphic quality.13
This
trend, described by Hugh Dubberly of Apple Computer as the “democratization of type ”14
is
significant for Arabs and Muslims because it gives the ability to design and use fonts back to the
indigenous designers. In the past font design has been performed primarily by Europeans who
control the machinery and fabrication systems. The West still dominates the technology. But the
computer, unlike older typesetting systems, allows innovative Arab and Muslim designers to
design and produce their own fonts. In countries that use Arabic script, the struggle to maintain a
calligraphic quality to printed type lasted for 700 years. Attempts to simplify the shapes of letters
and to introduce isolated uniform shapes made it seem as a loosing battle at times.15
However,
the traditional characteristics of calligraphy in printing survived, and will very likely prosper
with new computer technology. Arabic calligraphy requires a large number of letter forms
because of the necessary variations when connecting the letters. This was considered a hindrance
to efficient and affordable typesetting when wood and metal type was used. Computers allow us
to incorporate a large number of letter shapes in a font without complex or awkward user
interface.
When Arabic letters were cast in metal, the number of ligatures16
had to be restricted in order
to have a manageable number of letter forms. The number of ligatures was further reduced when
Arabic alphabet was applied to a typewriter’s keyboard. When Arabic was first handled in a
computer, it was influenced by the typewriter keyboard limitations and followed a model which
was severely limited in its representation of the script. The limitations included:
1. Unsatisfactory letter forms as a result of forcing all the letters to connect from a single
location. In other words for lack of vertical kerning ( not necessary in the Roman script).

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2. A fixed location for diacritical marks that hindered legibility because the marks did not relate
well to the letters they were attached to.
3. Inability to typeset styles where vertical kerning is an essential part of the script (for example
Ruqa’a and Thuluth).
Several recent attempts to typeset traditional Arabic calligraphy are promising,17
and
continuing developments of digital type will make it possible to achieve more calligraphic
typesetting in the next few years.18
New typefaces reflecting new aesthetics have been designed
for use with com-puters. An example is a typeface family which I designed with diagonal strokes
that reflect the shapes of Eastern Kufic. In addition to the original appearance of the letters, this
typeface is useful for compositions that incorporate rotation in the design of a graphic work (Fig.
8).
Digital typesetting also makes bilingual or multilingual publications more feasible.19
Such
publications raise the issue of visual compatibility between different scripts.20
For publications or
graphic pieces that require a modern Arabic typeface to coordinate with Roman script, I designed
the Sakkal Shilia script based on Kufic (Fig. 9). I have also developed a system to allow the
creation of Arabic fonts or calligraphic designs to match some existing English designs. Such
compatible designs use the digital representation of the English forms to create the Arabic
equivalents assuring maximum fidelity to the original, a quality crucial when the design involves
a company’s or a product’s established logo (Fig. 10).
In addition, software companies are concerned with making their products accessible to
customers in many parts of the world which do not use the Roman alphabet. This in turn
demands solutions to language translation and representation problems which will enhance the
way different scripts are handled in a digital environment.21
Part of the challenge is to
communicate effectively via the Internet across language and script boundaries. As the printing
industry, including design and prepress operations become dependent more on digital media, I
find it easier to incorporate calli-graphy into printed work. When calligraphy is in digital form, I
can treat it like other visual images and combine it with illustrations or photographs or use it on
its own. Examples of printed designs that incorporate Arabic calligraphy are shown in Figure 11,
some would not be possible to produce without the use of a computer. Rather than making
printing obsolete, computers are making printed output easier and more sophisticated.
In 1991, I observed an inferior reproduction of one of my calligraphic pieces in a brochure
produced by a Muslim organization in North America. Apparently, it was copied several times
before it was published in a degraded state. I then decided to make available calligraphic artwork
which can be used and reused by the public without any loss in quality.22
High quality
calligraphic images can be used in the form of digital clip art. Predrawn images can be imported
by the user into a document, manipulated, and output without a knowledge or experience of
calligraphy. Complex calligraphic designs can be replicated as clip art and used to enhance
publications. Such designs can be modified to fit specific needs, or used as starting points to
derive new and more personal designs. This process is not new. Computers make it easier and
the end product is of better quality.

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Practical Issues
There is a substantial difference in the cost incurred to produce calligraphy using computers
instead of traditional media. Traditional tools may cost tens to hundreds of dollars, but computers
cost several thousands. Printers, hard drives, scanners, CD drives, and removable media also cost
several thousand dollars. Software costs several hundred dollars to purchase, and hundreds to
upgrade almost on an annual basis. This is certainly a heavy financial burden which is not easily
recovered through the speed and control gained over the production process, nor through higher
fees for work produced with computers. How could an Egyptian, a Pakistani, or a Turkish
calligrapher afford this new technology when start up costs exceed his or her total income for
several years?23
It is certain that these prices will continue to drop, but only when computer
hardware and software are designed and manufactured in Muslim countries they will become a
viable tool to do calligraphy.
Computer calligraphy is produced by trade shops equipped with printers that cost tens or
hundreds of thousands of dollars, and many that use film, paper, chemicals, and supplies
produced through highly technical and resource intensive processes. Its use is dependent on
electricity, a commodity which is not in regular supply in many Muslim countries. The
calligrapher must learn to use the technology and must reserve time and resources for retraining
every time there is a software upgrade.
Assuming that the calligrapher has established his digital studio, he still does not have
complete control over the finished product due to the limitations of the processes used and the
specifications of appropriate paper, ink, or toner.The calligrapher needs to learn about these
limitations and capabilities in order to use them to his advantage and achieve the desired results.
Recently, the printing shop that produced my calligraphic prints had to change the inks used in
the printer, which slightly changed the colors of my prints. I had to spend several months doing
tests in order to find another shop to do the prints the way I envisioned them. This would have
been impractical in many non-industrialized countries.
Turning from issues of production to those of learning, we find that computers open new
realms of teaching. With interactive media we can produce teaching material to help interested
people learn the art and craft from the best masters, with no personal supervision. This would be
a valuable aid for the casual user who wants to improve his writing for personal enjoyment, and
for the serious user who wants to learn the fine details of the craft from a reliable source. Books
have been the main tool of learning calligraphy for those who can not apprentice directly under a
master calligrapher. But books had limitations. The static reproductions showed only a finished
form without adequately conveying the correct movements needed to produced these forms. The
quality of reproductions in most calligraphy manuals left a lot to be desired. With interactive
computer instruction, it will be possible for the student to observe the acts of a master, imitate
these acts, and compare his writing to the ideal. Several layers of technical and artistic
information can be accessed by the student based on expertise and areas of interest. We can
produce the above training material using existing technology, except for a digital calligraphic
pen that allows for rotation of the pen angle in one stroke. Present pens or stylus can provide
variable width and texture that imitate many traditional drawing or writing implements but have

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a fixed angel. This is another area where Arabs and Muslims should take the lead in designing
and producing tools that serve their specific needs.
Conclusion
The computer is a useful tool in producing my calligraphic work. It allows me to create, modify,
reuse, and experiment with designs easily. It provides more control over calligraphic details and
production in different materials and new media. The computer also gives us the tools to create
more Arabic typefaces and effective teaching materials. Computers, however, are expensive and
require resources that are not readily available in many parts of the world. Their efficiency has
little in common with local craft traditions in Islamic countries which are based on manual labor.
Although computers may limit spontaneity in the short run, in the long run they are the key to the
survival and growth of Arabic calligraphy. We must encourage traditional calligraphers to use
digital media if we want the new technology to serve the needs of Muslim societies, and digital
media, in turn, need to build on the experience of Muslim calligraphers.24
Only then will the rich
tradition be enhanced and carried forward in a global environment which is increasingly
dominated by computers.
NOTES
The author is grateful to Jere Bacharach and Scott Davis for reading and commenting on this
chapter.
1. This is indicated by the 11th century scholar Abu Hayyan Al Tawhidi in his treatise I'lm Al
Kitaba (The science of writing). “Calligraphy is a spiritual June 14, 2000 design made by a
material instrument” Bahnasi, Afif. Al Khatt Al Arabi (Arabic Calligraphy). Damascus: Dar Al
Fikr (1984): 76. The legendary Ibn Muqlah (d. 940) devised a system to check the correct shape
of letters based on the dot, the Alef, and the circle inscribed around the Alef. However, in Risalat
I'lm Al Khatt Wal Qalam (Treatise of Writing and Pen Science), he advised the calligrapher to
judge the letters’ shape by proportions measured in the mind (Nisbaten muqqadaraten fil fikr).
Zain Al Din, Naji. Bada'i Al Khat Al Arabi (The Beauties of Arabic Calligraphy). Baghdad:
Ministry of Information (1971): 114 and 457.
2. See A. R. Yusuff ’s work in my article “Muslim Calligraphers in America.” Iqra (May/June
1994): 19.
3. Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin, ed., Arabic translation Saleh Saadawi Fan Al Khatt (The Art of
Calligraphy). Istanbul: IRCICA 1990. Figures 2, 109, and 170.
4. Kesting, Piney. “The World of Mohamed Zakariya.” Aramco World (Jan/Feb 1992): 10-17.
5. Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin, ed., Arabic translation Saleh Saadawi Fan Al Khatt (The Art of
Calligraphy). Istanbul: IRCICA 1990, 32.
6. The large calligraphic medallions in the mosque of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul are examples.
See Safadi, Y. H. Islamic Calligraphy. Boulder: Shambhala, 1979, 124.
7. Computer Artist, a Pennwell Publication, lists several digital art exhibits taking place in the
United States every month in addition to digital artists featured in the magazine itself.
8. Ali. Wijdan. Contemporary Art from the Islamic World. London: Scorpion Publishing Ltd,
1989. In this book alone we find at least 46 painters incorporating Arabic script in their
paintings. The styles range from abstract using traditional (p.77) and European (p.130) forms to
representational using script only (p. 173) or script with other elements (p. 79) as well as
sculpture (p. 158) and ceramics (p. 194).

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9. Interior Design Magazine started to survey North American firms for their use of CADD
(Computer Aided Design and Drafting) in 1983 and found that one third of the top 100 firms use
CADD systems. By 1988 the magazine reported 84% using CADD systems, and in 1992 they
stated that CADD systems are universally used. Interior Design, Jan. 1993, 193, Jan. 1998, 150,
and Jan. 1992, 67.
1 0. My colleague Rafik Mavrakis returned to Tripoli, Lybia in 1992 to establish his practice
and incorporated a CADD system. In several of the poorer countries inexpensive CADD
software is available from Taiwan.
11. The Taj Mahal is an example of this type of application, where calligraphy was cut and inset
in black and white marble, but it was achieved at great expense and remains as an exception.
12. For Gutenberg’s contributions to the invention of printing and samples of his work see
Haley, Allan. “Johann Gutenberg.” Upper and Lower Case (Summer 1989): 12-15.
13. Between mid-1994 and mid-1995, Agfa, the second-largest typeface supplier after Adobe,
added 500 new typefaces to its library, almost a 50% increase in one year. During the same
period, Monotype Typography, number three, added nearly 1000 typefaces. Margulis, Dan.
“Typographic Fashion for Our Time.” Computer Artist (Dec/Jan 1996): 13-16.
14. “Can Fine Typography Exist in the 1990s?” Upper and Lower Case (Summer 1990): 14-
15. Similar ideas are repeated by others in the same article as well.
15. One example of a script that uses the same shape for all letter regardless of their position in
the word dates back to 1938. Akkawi, Elias. Alephba Farouq (Farouq Alphbet, the New letters).
Cairo: Al Maaref Press, 1943 (in Arabic). Another is Nasri Khattar’s Unified Alphabet which
received a Ford Foundation grant to support his work. Zain Al Din, Naji. Bada'i Al Khat Al Arabi
(The Beauties of Arabic Calligraphy). Baghdad: Ministry of Information (1971): 419. Tarabieh,
Rawad. “Islah Al Lughah Al Arabiya (Fixing Arabic).” Al Mustaqbal 28 (Sept. 3, 1977): 44-47.
A recent example is “Al Khatt Al Arabi Al Mubassat. Apple Magazine (Nov. 1993), 8.
16. A ligature is one character that is made up of two or more letters which are joined together
and set as one unit. The new character usually contains modified letters as a result of their
connection. Haley, Allan. “Ligatures & Diphthongs.” X height 2 No.1 (1993): 9.
17. Thomas Milo of DecoType, an Amesterdam, Netherlands company, developed a software
engine that allows for vertical kerning of letters. It makes it possible to typeset traditional Arabic
calligraphy using fonts that have the necessary letter shape variations. A version of this engine is
underdevelopment for use with Windows operating system. DecoType e-mail
76414.727@CompuServe.com.
18. Apple computer’s font technology named Quickdraw GX makes it possible to attach some
attributes to the characters of a font which would take its context into account, and conceivably
sdetermine an appropriate shape or location for a letter or a diacritical mark from a large number
of letter shapes and variations. There are no GX Arabic fonts on the market that I know of at this
time, but the potential for improving the fidelity and richness of typesetting is clear. McConnell,
John. 1995. Unicode and International Support in Copland and System 7. In Proceedings of
Seventh International Unicode Conference, San Jose, Calif. Part 2. For a general introduction to
GX technology see Ores, Pauline. “Smart Fonts of the Future.” Upper and Lower Case (Fall
1992): 37.
19. Language Kits recently introduced by Apple Computers allow users to handle several
languages from one operating system. Uren, Emmanuel.“Worldwide Languages and the
Macintosh.” Multilingual Communications and Computing #10: 21-22. Windows 95

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incorporates generic designs in its core code that benefit many languages including Arabic.
Kano, Nadin. “Arabic and Hebrew Text Layout in Windows 95.” Multilingual Communications
and Computing #10: 50-53.
20. Michael Everson has designed a font, Everson Mono, for all the scripts supported in the
Unicode standard including Arabic. It contains more than 6000 characters and will allow for
typesetting many languages from one font to assure maximum visual compatibility. For
information on the Internet http:// www. internet- eireann. ie/ egt. For a brief discussion about
computability between Arabic and English letters in a graphic design context see Sakkal,
Mamoun. “An Islamic Image.” Iqra (San Jose, Calif. Aug./Sep. 1993): 12-13.
21. Freytag, Asmus. “Unicode and Global Markets.” In Proceedings of Seventh International
Unicode Conference, San Jose, Calif. Part 2.
22. IslamiClip Calligraphic Designs #1, a software package of images in EPS format for
Windows and Macintosh computers. From Sakkal Design 1523 175th Place SE, Bothell, WA
98012, www.sakkal.com.
23. The gross national income per capita is $370 in Pakistan, $700 in Egypt, and $1,760 in
Turkey compared with $19,940 in the United States. World Tables. Published for the World
Bank by Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore and London (1995): 6.
24. Early samples of printed Arabic books suffered from poor typography because of the
reluctance of calligraphers to contribute and take command of the new technology. Compare
early examples in Mahdi, Muhsin. “From the Manuscript Age to the Age of Printed Books” and
later examples in Roper, Geoffrey. “Faris al-Shidyaq and the Transition from Scribal to Print
Culture in the Middle East.” Both chapters in The Book in the Islamic World, edited by G. N.
Atiyeh. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
REFERENCES
Akkawi, Elias. “Alephba Farouq (Farouq Alphbet, the New Letters),” Cairo: Al Maaref Press,
1943 (in Arabic).
Ali Wijdan. Contemporary Art from the Islamic World. London: Scorpion Publishing Ltd., 1989.
Abu Hayyan Al Tawhidi. I’lm Al Kitaba (The science of writing).
Bahnasi, Afif. Al Khatt Al Arabi (Arabic Calligraphy). Damascus: Dar Al Fikr (1984).
“Can Fine Typography Exist in the 1990s?” Upper and Lower Case (Summer 1990).
Freytag, Asmus. “Unicode and Global Markets,” In Proceedings of Seventh International
Unicode Conference, San Jose, Calif. Part 2.
Haley, Allan. “Johann Gutenberg,” Upper and Lower Case (Summer 1989).
Haley, Allan. “Ligatures & Diphthongs.” X height 2 No. 1 (1993).
Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin. Ed., Arabic translation Saleh Saadawi Fan Al Khatt (The Art of
Calligraphy). Istanbul: IRCICA (1990).
Interior Design Magazine, January 1993, 193, January 1998, 150, and January 1992.
Kano, Nadin. “Arabic and Hebrew Text Layout in Windows 95,” Multilingual Communications
and Computing World # 10 (Jan/Feb 1992).
Kesting, Piney. “The World of Mohamed Zakariya.” Aramco World (Jan/Feb 1992).
Al Khatt Al Arabi Al Mubassat,” Apple Magazine (November 1993).
Margulis, Dan. “Typographic Fashion for Our Time,” Computer Artist (Dec/Jan 1996).
McConnell, John. 1995. “Unicode and International Support in Copland and System 7,” In
Proceedings of Seventh International Unicode Conference, San Jose, Calif., Part 2.

10. 10
Thomas Milo of Deco Type: e-mail 76414.727@CompuServe.com.
Muqlah, Ibn. Risalat I'lm Al Khatt Wal Qalam (Treatise of Writing and Pen Science).
Ores, Pauline. “Smart Fonts of the Future,” Upper and Lower Case (Fall 1992).
Safadi, Y. H. Islamic Calligraphy. Boulder: Shambhala, 1979.
Sakkal, Mamoun. “Muslim Calligraphers in America,” Iqra (May/June 1994).
Sakkal, Mamoun. “An Islamic Image,” Iqra (San Jose, Calif. Aug./Sept. 1993.
Sakkal Design. 1523 175th Place, S. E. Bothell, WA., 98012. www.sakkal.com
Tarabieh, Rawad. “Islah Al Lughan Al Arabiya (Fixing Arabic),” Al Mustaqbal 28 (September
3, 1977).
Uren, Emmanuel. “Worldwide Languages and the MacIntosh,” Multilingual Communications
and Computing # 10.
G. N. Atiyeh. Edited by (The Book in the Islamic World), Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1995.
Mahdi, Muhsin. “From the Manuscript Age to the Age of Printed Books” (The Book in the
Islamic World), Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
Roper, Geoffrey. “Faris al-Shidyaq and the Transition from Scribal to Print Culture in the Middle
East, (The Book in the Islamic World), Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.
World Tables. Published for the World Bank by Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London (1995).
Zain Al Din, Naji. Bada’i Al Khat Al Arabi (The Beauties of Arabic Calligraphy). Baghdad:
Ministry of Information (1971).

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LIST OF FIGURES:
1. “Fawalli Wajhak (Turn Your Face).” Mamoun Sakkal, original design 1993 for Third
International Calligraphy Competition, Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture,
Istanbul, First Award in Kufi style. Computer rendering 1994. Adaptation for Masjid in
Lynnwood, Washington 1995.

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2. “Allah Jameel (God is Beautiful and He Loves Beauty).” Modern style based on
Eastern Kufic. Mamoun Sakkal, original design 1979, computer rendering 1992.

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3. “Shahada (There is no Deity but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger).” Jali
Thuluth style. Mamoun Sakkal, original design on computer 1994.

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4. “Al Kursi (The Throne).” Mamoun Sakkal 1986. Progressive steps in the design of a
Square Kufic panel.

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5. “Growth (There is no Deity but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger).” Square
Kufic. Mamoun Sakkal, original design on computer 1988, color version 1993.

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6. “Steps and Shadows (There is no Deity but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger).”
Cubic Kufic style. Mamoun Sakkal, original design 1980, used on MESA Bulletin cover Dec.
1989, computer rendering 1994.

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7. “Unknown Soldier Museum.” Damascus, Syria. Mamoun Sakkal 1974.

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8. Modern typefaces “Sakkal Seta” top, and “Sakkal Maya” bottom. Mamoun Sakkal,
original design 1987, computer font 1994.
9. “Sakkal Shilia.” Mamoun Sakkal, concept 1974, original design 1979, computer font
1989. Shown with Helvetica Bold.

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10. Compatible Arabic and English logotypes. Arabic versions by Mamoun Sakkal, 1989-
1990. English versions are trademarks of their respective companies and shown here for
comparison purposes only.

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11. Calligraphy used in print:
a. Calligraphy in modern Eastern Kufic style for a cover, Mamoun Sakkal 1995.
b. Calligraphy in Braided Kufic style for a poster, Mamoun Sakkal 1994.
c. Calligraphy in Jali Thuluth style for a logo, Mamoun Sakkal 1992.
d. Calligraphy in Square Kufic and modern kufic for a greeting card, Mamoun Sakkal,
original design 1985, redesign using computer 1992.

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Biography
Mamoun Sakkal studied painting, print-making, and sculpting in the Plastic Arts Institute,
Aleppo, Syria between 1960 and 1969. During this time he studied calligraphy briefly with
master Rifa'i. He received degrees in architecture from the University of Aleppo, and the
University of Washington in Seattle, and is currently preparing for a Ph.D. degree that explores
the role of new computer technology in the study of Islamic art and architecture. Mr. Sakkal
lectures on Arabic and Islamic art, architecture, and calligraphy at the University of Washington.
Mr. Sakkal practices architecture, interior design, graphic design, and calligraphy from his studio
in Bothell, Washington. He participated in art exhibitions in the Middle East and North America,
and received many awards including First Award in Kufi style at the Third International
Calligraphy Competition organized by the Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture
in Istanbul, Turkey in 1993. He maintains a web site dedicated to Arabic and Islamic calligraphy
at www.sakkal.com.