The document analyzes problems with short and medium span bridges in China, such as monotonous structural forms, environmental pollution, defects, and maintenance difficulties. It proposes that modern timber structures are necessary and feasible alternatives for such bridges. Timber structures offer advantages like light weight, environmental friendliness, strength, durability, and diverse forms. With developments in timber products, connections, and maintenance technology, modern timber can help address issues with China's many short and medium span bridges.
The presentation provides a summary of a state-of-the-art review of the design and construction of multiple-span suspension bridges. Based on a paper by David Collings in ICE Proceedings, Bridge Engineering, September 2016.
This presentation
Comparitive study on rcc and composite (cft) multi storeyed buildingseSAT Journals
Abstract In India reinforced concrete structures are mostly used since this is the most convenient & economic system for low-rise buildings. However, for medium to high-rise buildings this type of structure is no longer economic because of increased dead load, less stiffness, span restriction and hazardous formwork. So the structural engineers are facing the challenge of striving for the most efficient and economical design solution. Use of composite material is of particular interest, due to its significant potential in improving the overall performance through rather modest changes in manufacturing and constructional technologies. Steel-concrete composite columns are used extensively in modern buildings. Extensive researches on composite columns in which structural steel section are encased in concrete have been carried out. In-filled composite columns, however have received limited attention compared to encased columns. In this study E-Tabs nonlinear software is used for simulation of steel concrete composite (CFT) with steel reinforced concrete structures (RCC) of G+14, G+19 and G+24 stories each are considered for comparative study. Comparison of parameters like time period, storey displacement and storey drift is done. Keywords: Composite CFT columns, bracings, shear wall, time period, storey displacement and storey drift.
Long Span Bridge lecture outlining bridges currently under construction around the world.
2015 and 2016 lectures also on Slideshare so you can see the stages in construction.
This is the last lecture on the Long Span Bridges (LSB) course at Surrey University,UK. It looks at some of the LSB currently under construction around the world (Spring 2016). Compare progress with the Spring 2015 lecture. http://www.slideshare.net/DavidCollings/current-long-span-bridges
for the introductory lecture check out: http://www.slideshare.net/DavidCollings/current-long-span-bridges
The presentation provides a summary of a state-of-the-art review of the design and construction of multiple-span suspension bridges. Based on a paper by David Collings in ICE Proceedings, Bridge Engineering, September 2016.
This presentation
Comparitive study on rcc and composite (cft) multi storeyed buildingseSAT Journals
Abstract In India reinforced concrete structures are mostly used since this is the most convenient & economic system for low-rise buildings. However, for medium to high-rise buildings this type of structure is no longer economic because of increased dead load, less stiffness, span restriction and hazardous formwork. So the structural engineers are facing the challenge of striving for the most efficient and economical design solution. Use of composite material is of particular interest, due to its significant potential in improving the overall performance through rather modest changes in manufacturing and constructional technologies. Steel-concrete composite columns are used extensively in modern buildings. Extensive researches on composite columns in which structural steel section are encased in concrete have been carried out. In-filled composite columns, however have received limited attention compared to encased columns. In this study E-Tabs nonlinear software is used for simulation of steel concrete composite (CFT) with steel reinforced concrete structures (RCC) of G+14, G+19 and G+24 stories each are considered for comparative study. Comparison of parameters like time period, storey displacement and storey drift is done. Keywords: Composite CFT columns, bracings, shear wall, time period, storey displacement and storey drift.
Long Span Bridge lecture outlining bridges currently under construction around the world.
2015 and 2016 lectures also on Slideshare so you can see the stages in construction.
This is the last lecture on the Long Span Bridges (LSB) course at Surrey University,UK. It looks at some of the LSB currently under construction around the world (Spring 2016). Compare progress with the Spring 2015 lecture. http://www.slideshare.net/DavidCollings/current-long-span-bridges
for the introductory lecture check out: http://www.slideshare.net/DavidCollings/current-long-span-bridges
Important Characteristics and Behavioral Impact of Materials to Be Used in Ta...RSIS International
This paper reviews the importance of composite
structure in construction of high rise buildings. Here there is
basic comparison between the commonly used construction
materials i.e. steel and concrete. The significance of each of this
material in construction field has been briefly discussed. also,
some important characteristics of each material is explained.
Comparison on Repair and Strengthening Techniques for Unreinforced Masonry St...IJERA Editor
Masonry structures are estimated to include more than 70% of the residential unreinforced masonry buildings (URM) in the world. The structures are highly vulnerable to earthquake shaking which leads to unacceptably many losses, even in moderate earthquakes. Most of the losses are gave rise to by failure of masonry structures. As destruction of the masonry structures is usually not possible owing to several factors, this increases the question if the buildings had better to be retrofitted. Therefore, comparative study on repair and retrofitting methods safety of masonry structure has important advantages and drawbacks. This paper aims to investigate into repair and strengthening methods of masonry structures, advantages and disadvantages. In addition, we presented most suitable seismic retrofitting methods for unreinforced masonry structures considering efficiency and economic problems. It has been show that surface treatment methods and Re-pointing are more preferable for unreinforced masonry structures owing to their low cost as well as a no requirement for high working capacity.
Highly Deformable Energy-Dissipating Reinforced Concrete Elements in Seismic ...IJERA Editor
Incorporating scrap tyre rubber particles as partial replacement for aggregates has been found to produce concrete with improved ductility, deformability and damping which are desired characteristics of a viable material for enhancing structural response to earthquake vibrations. An analytical study using Drain-2dX was carried out to investigate the response of 4-storey, 3-bay reinforced concrete frames on innovative rubberised concrete deformable foundation models to simulated earthquake scaled to 5 different peak ground accelerations. Stress-strain properties of 3-layers aramid fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)-confinement for concrete incorporating waste rubber from scrap vehicle tyres were used to model the elements of this foundation models. With a partial decoupling of the superstructure from the direct earthquake force, the models showed up to 70% reduction in base shear, an improved overall q-factor of 7.1, and an estimated frame acceleration of 0.11g for an earthquake peak ground acceleration of 0.44g. This implies that a non-seismically designed reinforced concrete frame on the proposed rubberised concrete deformable foundation system would provide a simple, affordable and equally efficient alternative to the conventional and usually expensive earthquake resistant concrete frames. A supplementary Arrest System (SAS) was proposed to anchor the frame from the resulting soft storey at the rubberised concrete foundation. A further research is recommended for the design of concrete hinges with rubberised concrete as used in the model with the most impressive response
Waste Metal For Improving Concrete Performance And Utilisation As An Alternat...IJERA Editor
Waste material disposal is considered as a difficult issue to adopt in current world. Waste metal, which has been
recognised as a major problem in the environment and resource deficiency, could have important implications in
the concrete construction industries. Waste metal utilisation in construction of reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
works is immerging in recent time. Construction industries are looking for cost effective structural materials and
utilisation of renewable materials. Metal waste such as chips of tin, still and other metal fragments which is
abandoned and spread in the environment could be utilize as a replacement of traditional steel reinforcement bar
in the RCC. In this experiment, three different types of waste metal have been compared with commercial 40, 60
and 72 graded steel reinforcement bar. Compressive strength class of C25 concrete was used in the experiment
and mechanical properties of concrete incorporating different waste metal were investigated in the first stage.
Finally, three-point bend test on short beam was performed to compare their performances. Smaller metal
fragments has shown better performance through micro crack bridging in concrete during loading stage and
hence better than ordinary reinforcement concrete structure in some extent.
Parametric Study of Square Concrete Filled Steel Tube Columns Subjected To Co...IJERA Editor
The Concrete Filled Steel Tube (CFST) member has many advantages compared with the conventional concrete structural member. This study presents on the behaviour of concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns under axial load by changing parameters. The parameters are thickness of steel tube, Grade of concrete and length of column. The study was conducted using ANSYS 13 finite element software. All the columns are 60 X 60 mm in size. The thickness of the tube is taken as 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 mm for thickness variation. The grades of concrete infill are M25, M30, M40, M50, M60 and M70 used for grade variation. Lengths of columns are taken as 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, and 2400 mm for length variation. Buckling load is compared with Euro code 4 (1994).
ENHANCED FERROCEMENT JACKETS FOR STRENGTHENING LONG REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS IAEME Publication
Strengthening slender reinforced concrete (RC) columns is a challenge because
their sensitivity to overall buckling and the combination of the bending and
compressive stresses. This paper presents experimental study for strengthening twenty
long RC columns using enhanced ferrocement jackets. The column specimens have
slenderness ratio of 17.6 and two different cross-sections (square and rectangular).
The utilized expanded metal mesh layers have different weights, lengths and numbers
for each jacket. The twenty strengthened specimens and four reference non-jacketed
specimens were tested under concentric compression loading. The results
demonstrated the effectiveness of the ferrocement jacket in improving the column
capacity, increasing the stiffness, and reducing the lateral deformation. The
significance of the jackets is more evident for long RC columns with larger crosssection area, and for jackets with larger volume fraction of metal mesh layers at the
middle-third of the column height.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Important Characteristics and Behavioral Impact of Materials to Be Used in Ta...RSIS International
This paper reviews the importance of composite
structure in construction of high rise buildings. Here there is
basic comparison between the commonly used construction
materials i.e. steel and concrete. The significance of each of this
material in construction field has been briefly discussed. also,
some important characteristics of each material is explained.
Comparison on Repair and Strengthening Techniques for Unreinforced Masonry St...IJERA Editor
Masonry structures are estimated to include more than 70% of the residential unreinforced masonry buildings (URM) in the world. The structures are highly vulnerable to earthquake shaking which leads to unacceptably many losses, even in moderate earthquakes. Most of the losses are gave rise to by failure of masonry structures. As destruction of the masonry structures is usually not possible owing to several factors, this increases the question if the buildings had better to be retrofitted. Therefore, comparative study on repair and retrofitting methods safety of masonry structure has important advantages and drawbacks. This paper aims to investigate into repair and strengthening methods of masonry structures, advantages and disadvantages. In addition, we presented most suitable seismic retrofitting methods for unreinforced masonry structures considering efficiency and economic problems. It has been show that surface treatment methods and Re-pointing are more preferable for unreinforced masonry structures owing to their low cost as well as a no requirement for high working capacity.
Highly Deformable Energy-Dissipating Reinforced Concrete Elements in Seismic ...IJERA Editor
Incorporating scrap tyre rubber particles as partial replacement for aggregates has been found to produce concrete with improved ductility, deformability and damping which are desired characteristics of a viable material for enhancing structural response to earthquake vibrations. An analytical study using Drain-2dX was carried out to investigate the response of 4-storey, 3-bay reinforced concrete frames on innovative rubberised concrete deformable foundation models to simulated earthquake scaled to 5 different peak ground accelerations. Stress-strain properties of 3-layers aramid fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)-confinement for concrete incorporating waste rubber from scrap vehicle tyres were used to model the elements of this foundation models. With a partial decoupling of the superstructure from the direct earthquake force, the models showed up to 70% reduction in base shear, an improved overall q-factor of 7.1, and an estimated frame acceleration of 0.11g for an earthquake peak ground acceleration of 0.44g. This implies that a non-seismically designed reinforced concrete frame on the proposed rubberised concrete deformable foundation system would provide a simple, affordable and equally efficient alternative to the conventional and usually expensive earthquake resistant concrete frames. A supplementary Arrest System (SAS) was proposed to anchor the frame from the resulting soft storey at the rubberised concrete foundation. A further research is recommended for the design of concrete hinges with rubberised concrete as used in the model with the most impressive response
Waste Metal For Improving Concrete Performance And Utilisation As An Alternat...IJERA Editor
Waste material disposal is considered as a difficult issue to adopt in current world. Waste metal, which has been
recognised as a major problem in the environment and resource deficiency, could have important implications in
the concrete construction industries. Waste metal utilisation in construction of reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
works is immerging in recent time. Construction industries are looking for cost effective structural materials and
utilisation of renewable materials. Metal waste such as chips of tin, still and other metal fragments which is
abandoned and spread in the environment could be utilize as a replacement of traditional steel reinforcement bar
in the RCC. In this experiment, three different types of waste metal have been compared with commercial 40, 60
and 72 graded steel reinforcement bar. Compressive strength class of C25 concrete was used in the experiment
and mechanical properties of concrete incorporating different waste metal were investigated in the first stage.
Finally, three-point bend test on short beam was performed to compare their performances. Smaller metal
fragments has shown better performance through micro crack bridging in concrete during loading stage and
hence better than ordinary reinforcement concrete structure in some extent.
Parametric Study of Square Concrete Filled Steel Tube Columns Subjected To Co...IJERA Editor
The Concrete Filled Steel Tube (CFST) member has many advantages compared with the conventional concrete structural member. This study presents on the behaviour of concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns under axial load by changing parameters. The parameters are thickness of steel tube, Grade of concrete and length of column. The study was conducted using ANSYS 13 finite element software. All the columns are 60 X 60 mm in size. The thickness of the tube is taken as 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 mm for thickness variation. The grades of concrete infill are M25, M30, M40, M50, M60 and M70 used for grade variation. Lengths of columns are taken as 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2100, and 2400 mm for length variation. Buckling load is compared with Euro code 4 (1994).
ENHANCED FERROCEMENT JACKETS FOR STRENGTHENING LONG REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS IAEME Publication
Strengthening slender reinforced concrete (RC) columns is a challenge because
their sensitivity to overall buckling and the combination of the bending and
compressive stresses. This paper presents experimental study for strengthening twenty
long RC columns using enhanced ferrocement jackets. The column specimens have
slenderness ratio of 17.6 and two different cross-sections (square and rectangular).
The utilized expanded metal mesh layers have different weights, lengths and numbers
for each jacket. The twenty strengthened specimens and four reference non-jacketed
specimens were tested under concentric compression loading. The results
demonstrated the effectiveness of the ferrocement jacket in improving the column
capacity, increasing the stiffness, and reducing the lateral deformation. The
significance of the jackets is more evident for long RC columns with larger crosssection area, and for jackets with larger volume fraction of metal mesh layers at the
middle-third of the column height.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Analyze and design of suspension bridge using sap2000vivatechijri
Structural design requires a full understanding and knowledge of all the components comprising the structure. A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The design of modern suspension bridges allows them to cover longer distances than other types of bridges. The main element of a cable suspended bridge is the cable system. Bridges are normally designed for dead load, live load and other occasional loads. All loading and unloading conditions in analysis and design are provided as per IRC codal specifications. The whole modeling of the suspension parts of the bridge was done by using SAP2000. Suspension cable bridge having 1km span with single lane road, the intensity of road is given has 20 numbers of vehicles each loaded with 350KN (heavy loading class A-A track load) is analyzed by SAP2000. The output of the software presents results including moments, axial loads, shear force and displacements. Moreover, moments and axial load at each node and at any point within the element can be easily obtained from the software output. This thesis examines issues analysis and design calculation in over a structure will safe under all conditions.
Design and Analysis of a Girder Bridge for Highway Structures Using Sap 2000ijtsrd
In this study, a comparative study supported two differing types of bridges i.e. Deck type and Pre stressed deck type using finite element analysis in SAP 2000 is ready , considering same loading class 70 R as per I.R.C. loading. During this study well also prepare a price analysis of both the structures using S.O.R. C.P.W.D. 2014. This sort of bridges is more preferred when it involves connectivity to short distances. So, its necessary to update the analysis and style methods. Here, during this paper, theres an effort to review the comparison of maximum bending moment thanks to super load during a girder and slab bridge an equivalent bridge is analyzed as a three dimensional model in finite element software as SAP2000, apply an equivalent loading finished conventional methods and compared the results. The utmost bending moment results obtained from finite element model. Nitin Singh Raghuwanshi | Abhay Kumar Jha | Barun Kumar "Design and Analysis of a Girder Bridge for Highway Structures Using Sap 2000" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47575.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/47575/design-and-analysis-of-a-girder-bridge-for-highway-structures-using-sap-2000/nitin-singh-raghuwanshi
Comparative Analysis and Design of Voided Slab and RCC I Girder with Solid Sl...ijtsrd
This thesis is basically based on the comparison of the use of voided slab, RCC Solid slab and RCC Girder. In this study analysis and cost comparison of RCC Solid slab deck, RCC Voided slab deck and RCC Girder is done for superstructure spanning 20 m length. Solid slabs having greater span are uneconomical due to heavy dead load of concrete. To make it economical longitudinal beams are provided for spans greater than 10.0 m. Reinforced Concrete Girder is generally adopted for a fly over or road bridge, but in case of a river bridge with submersible superstructure, the longitudinal beams creates obstruction to the flow of water and results in additional stresses in cross direction on beams. To reduce the self weight of concrete without sacrificing its flexural strength, in solid slab voids are incorporated in concrete section. This technic offers many advantages over a conventional solid concrete slab like reduced material use, lower total cost of construction, and increased structural efficiency. This report also shows that the dead load of bridge superstructure can be reduced by providing voids in concrete where it is unnecessarily provided. Presence of voids within the concrete structure makes analysis of structure very complicated. The analysis of RCC Solid slab, RCC Girder and RCC voided slab deck for various loads as specified in IRC is done using staad pro software for span length of 20 m and width of 15.10 m. The analysis illustrates the behavior of bending moments, Shear Force, displacements, reactions for various load conditions. It is concluded that use of voided slab is more feasible for 20 m length and 15.10 m width. It is also economical as compared to solid slab and Reinforced concrete Girder. Kunal Songra | M. C. Paliwal "Comparative Analysis and Design of Voided Slab and RCC I Girder with Solid Slab in Bridge Structure" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47679.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/47679/comparative-analysis-and-design-of-voided-slab-and-rcc-i-girder-with-solid-slab-in-bridge-structure/kunal-songra
Chinese arch bridges, timber, stone, concrete, steel.David Collings
For Chinese New year, this months summary presentation is on Chinese Arch Bridges; rainbow bridges. Looking at wood and stone traditional structures, it then looks at modern world record long span structures in concrete steel and CFST.
Sustainable Solution for Shoring Method of Cross-Creek Bridge in Ankeng MRT S...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
In the Ankeng Light Rail MRT system (ALRMS) project, the U7 box girder passes crossing the Erbads creek and needs a temporary supporting system for the construction work. In this study, three temporary shoring system options were proposed to be the construction method. The D-B Contractor, New Asia construction and Development Corporation, evaluated and selected the optimal choice, The Steel truss frame with supporting beams, to serve as the temporary supporting system. Compare the deflection of Δmax and Δactual, which are 1.609 cm and 1.59 cm, respectively. This result presented that the shoring system composed of the H912*302*18*37 supporting beams and steel truss frame had achieved outstanding performance and work to construct the U7 box girder. This paper presents how the three options are evaluated and the detailed construction processes along with the survey verification for the method.
Cable stay bridges, summary of a lecture delivered at Uni of Surrey, UKDavid Collings
Cable stay bridges, summary of a lecture delivered as part of MSc course at University of Surrey UK. Outlines key issues for sizing major bridges. The work draws on Manual of bridge Enginnering, the authors book Steel Concrete composite bridges - which has a chapter on cable stay bridges, and recent research on cable stay and extradosed bridges.
Analysis of Construction Criteria on Suspension Bridge A Perspective Viewijtsrd
A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Nowadays suspension bridges are the pioneers in bridge technology. Of all the bridge types in use today, the suspension bridge allows for the longest span ranging from 2,000 to 7,000 feet. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers and the cables support vertical suspender cables that carry the weight of the deck below. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. They are ideal for covering busy waterways. In this paper limitation, assumption analysis, how it can be constructing and loads acting on the bridge is described. Shantnu "Analysis of Construction Criteria on Suspension Bridge: A Perspective View" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-3 , April 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30517.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/30517/analysis-of-construction-criteria-on-suspension-bridge-a-perspective-view/shantnu
Reduction of Ultimate Strength due to Corrosion - A Finite Element Computatio...CSCJournals
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application of modern timber structure in short and medium span
1. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering(English Edition)
2014,1 (1) : 72-80
Application of modern timber structure in short and
medium span bridges in China
Meizhen Fu', Yongjian Liu1
• * , Na Li', Zhiwei Zhang' , Enzo Siviero2
I School of Highway, Chang'an University, Xi 'an , Shaanxi, China
2 Department of Architectural Construction, IUAV University of Venice, Venice, Italy
Abstract: A series of problems about Chinese bridges with short and medium span recent years
were analyzed in this paper. The necessity and feasibility of modern timber structure applied in
short and medium span bridges in China were also put forward. The results showed that the
short and medium span bridges had many problems, such as monotonous structural forms, seri-
ous environmental pollution, multiple bridge defects and difficulty in maintenance. With the
development of connection and maintenance technology of modern timber structure and its ad-
vantages of light self-weight, environmental coordination, high carrying capacity, excellent
durability and abundant structural forms, it was necessary and feasible to apply modern timber
structure in short and medium span bridges in China. More emphasis on the construction of
modern timber structure should be conducted to expand its application scopes and improve the
construction proportion of short and medium span timber bridges.
Key words: short and medium span bridges; timber structure; modern timber bridge; applica-
tion scope
1 Introduction
At present, the highway bridge construction in
China is in a rapid development period. At the
end of 2012, the quantity of Chinese highway
bridges reaches 713400, including 649000 short
and medium span bridges, which account for 90.
97% of the total bridges.
Timber bridge has a long construction history in
* Corresponding author: Yongjian Liu. PhD. Professor.
E-mail: steellyj@126.com.
China and plays an important role in Chinese de-
velopment (Zhou et al. 2011). Timber structure
has many advantages: light self-weight, environ-
mental coordination, high carrying capacity, ex-
cellent durability and abundant structural forms.
In addition, it has wide applications in many
countries (Liu et al. 2012; 2013). Therefore,
making timber structure applied in Chinese short
and medium span bridges will bring great techni-
?1994-2014 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. http://www.cnki.net
2. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering(English Edition)
cal. economic and environmental benefits.
[n order to enrich structural forms of Chinese
!:!'C'r! and medium span bridges. avoid the materi-
al over-reliance on cement and steel. and reduce
lllulliplc bridge defects. this paper analyzed these
problems ilnd put forward the necessity and feasi-
bility of the application of modern timber struc-
ture in short and medium span bridges in China.
It is hoped that more emphasis should be conduc-
ted on the construction of modern timber struc-
ture to expand its applic<uion scopes and the con-
struction proportion of shorl and medium span
timber bridges should be improved.
2 Existing problems of short and medium
span bridges in China
The quantity of shorl and medium span bridges in
China presents a growing trend year after year. as
shown in Fig. 1. They face a serics of problems.
such as monotonous structural forms. serious en-
vironmental pollution. multiple bridge defects
and difficulty in maintenance (Li and Sun 2003,
Lil()05, Ma20m, Li2olO, You el a!. 2011).
n Total bridges
___ Shorl and medium span bridges
b 1>6
-.~
,,
0"
"LI__~~__~__~__~
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
Fig.l Quanllty of Chinese h,ghwa} bridges
2.1 rvbnotonous structural forms
Most of bridges in China arc short and medium
span bridges. which arc usually designed with mo-
notonous forms causing visual fatigue and increas-
ing [he probability of traffic accidents. A[ pres-
ent. :he main structural forms of Chinese shorl
and me~lium span bridges arc plate and beam
bridges. such as assembly-type hollow plate assem-
bly-type T girder bridge. assembly-type small box
girder bridge and cast-in-place continuous beam
73
bridge. without sufficicnt bridge. aesthetics.
2.2 Serious environmental pollution
Nowadays. thc materials of short <lnd medium
span bridges ilfC mainly COllcreh; and steel in
China. They consume non-renewable mineral re-
sources and release COl as well as dust in produc-
tion process. Previous researches show that U. 8
tons CO: will be released during per Ion cement
produced. which is half of steel production. More
than 60% of the world's cement is produced in
China and the ccmcnt consumption per capita per
yc;H in China is about 152') kg. morc than four
times of the world's average (265 kg) as shown in
Fig.2 (Zhu 2(12). In addition. a large numbcr of
solid wastes will be produced when the concrete
bridges arc out of service. With the high-speed
construction of short and medium span bridges in
China. it is urgent to make full usc of environmental
matcrials. Timber is an environmental material for it
is not only a renewable materi'll. but ulso can release
O2 and assimilate CO) .
1600
1200
~
~
, .oo0
,<
'"
eoumr;e$
Fig.l Ccmem consumption amount per pcrwn
2.3 M.Jltiple bridges defects
In recent years. the de~truction and collapse fre-
quently occur in the existing highway bridges.
Among these bridges. the proportion of short and
medium span bridges is more than lJO%. The
common problems III present arc crack. coXcessive
deflection. steel bar corrosion. the uncven settle-
ment and so on.
Taking hollow slab structure for e.xamplc. the
common problems arc binge joillls cracking be-
twcen precast hollow slab. longitudinal and trallS-
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3. 74 Meizhen Fu et al
Fig.3 llianshui Rainbow llridge
2.4 Difficulty in maintenance
It is important to prolong the service life of the
short and medium span bridges by taking some
maintelHlnce measures. However. considering the
resources. the long construction period. and traf-
fic. there arc a lot of problems in the mainte·
nance of concrete and steel bridges.
verse cracks at bottom of hollow slab. concrete
spall. pavement crack and bearing disengaging
and soon.
3 Necessity research
3.1 Question put forward
Timber bridge has il long construction history in
China and plays an important I'ole in transporta-
tion dating back to ancicnt. Duc to the limitation
of materials. timber bridge is the main form of
bridge at that time (Mao 1(86). par example. the
Weihe floating bridge built in 1135 BC. the por-
ous timber girder bridge over lhe Weihe built in
307 BC. and the gallery road bridge built in 316
BC (Liu et OIl. 2012). The pcnetration timber
arch bridge. firstly appeared in the Northern
Song Dynasty. was not only Chinese unique tim-
ber arch bridge. but also Chinese traditional tim~
ber bridge form with the highest lechnology
(T.lng 2(10). The Bi,lIlshui Rainbow Bridge
(Fig. 3). which was painted in the picture of Riv-
erside Scene at Qingming Festival by Zeduan
Zhang in the Northern Song Dynasty. The bridge
contained 21 groups of arch rib about -1-0 cm in di-
ameter within the width of the bridge. There
were twO systems. The first syStem contained the
outside arch ribs with two long and two short
mcmber bars and the second system contained the
inside arch ribs with three member bars with
equal length.
The first modern timber bl'idge in China is the
glued laminated timber arch bridge loc.tled in
Sheshan golf course in Shanghai. which is a three·
pin through glucd laminatcd timber arch bridge
with a span of 33 m. Whal is more. there are
some covercd timber bridges built at the historical
sites in China 10 reproduce the historical charm
recent years. For example. lhe Qianjiang Zhu-
oshui Wind and Rain Covcred Bridge in
Chongqing. as shown in pig. -I. was finished III
201(). whose length was 303 m and width was
5 m. 11 was the longest covered bridge in Asian.
But what is regretful is that it was destroyed on
fire in November 2013. Fig.·Hb) is the scene of it
afler fire.
<a) Panonlmie ,';0,,"
(b) Seene afler fire
l'ig.4 Oianjiang Zhuoshui Wind and Rain Covered
Bridges in Chong4ing
Although China has long construction history of
timber bridge. lhe application of modern timber
structure in bridge is relative lag. So it is urgent to
catch the atlention of relevant departments to im-
71994-2014 China Academic Joumal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. http://www.cnki.net
4. Journal of Traffic and Transpor1ation Engineenng(English Edilion) 75
prove Ihe appliC<ltion of modern timber structure
in bridges. especially in the short and medium
span bridges.
3~ m. The Nil'ringa Bridge. as shown ill Fig,6. is
a highway bridge with T-bealll deck over river in
Trysil.
Fig. 5 Bla~k Dog 11~lh Ilridgc
Fig.l, i":crlng" Bridce
4.1 Technical conditions
-----IIiI
4 Feasibility research
Modern timber bridge construction in China is
developing graduidly, We take part in the design
of a steel-timber composite bridge. This bridge is
built in 2(JII in Tongchuan. Shaanxi. as shown in
Fig. 7. The t01<l1 length of it i~ 1(16 III and the span
of it is ((,X 12)+ 10+ (}+ II) m. The advanced
stcd-timber connections and CLT <.Ieck ,Ire used in
this bridge,
4.1,1 Development of timber products
Modern timber processing technology has been
successfully applied in timber products processing
industry. providing a good opportunity for tllnber
structure used in the ficl<.l of engineering in China.
Nowadays, according to the Technical code for
prefabricilted timber deck (DB61 T ()I)11-21) U ) .
the main timber product~ that can be u~ed in short
and medium bridge~ include glued laminated tim-
ber (GLT). cros~ laminated tirnbo.::r (CLT). and
stress laminated timber (SLT).
3.3 Examples of modern timber bridges with short
and medium span
The rapid developments of pOpul,llion and CCOllO-
my have imposed enormous strains on our envi-
ronmcnt. How to use the limited and n:ncwable
resources effectively and reduce the environmen-
tal pollution are the questions that the human so-
ciety should think about.
Modern timber bridge is a structure with the
energy-saving and ellvironment-friendly advanta-
ges. At present. China is vigorously promoting
the construction of urban and rural traffic. Due
to China's wide area of mountains. if the modern
timber structures arc applied in short and medium
span bridges !<ngely. not only will it save cost and
shorten the construction period. but also improve
and beautify the environment greatly. Developing
modern timber bridge will have many advantages.
Firstly. it will u~e 1I10re renewable resources and
protect lhe min..:ral r":SOllfCCS. Sccondly. it will
rich the forms of Chinese short and medium
bridges from building materials. At last. it will
drive till: dcvclopmellt of Chinese timber industry
and narrow the gap between China and foreign
countries in timber process technology.
Modern timber bridge is popular In many coun-
tries, such as Norway. American. Japan and so
on, The Ilton Sylor Memori,d Bridge in Ameri-
elln. the Flisa Bridge in Norway and so on are all
the successful ..:xamplc~ of modern timber bridge
(Christopher 21111). The main ~pans of many tim-
ber bridges are larger than -HJ m. Maybe modern
limber bridge is more suitable for short and medi-
um Sp,1Il bridges. It will have good economic ,1I1d
environmental benefits if the.' second<Jry roads. ru-
ral roads and overpa~s bridge~ ('ould adopt modern
timber short and medium span bridge~. For C:l.am-
pIc. the Black Dog Halt Bridge. as ,hown in
Fig,S. is a pedestrian bridge located in southwest
England. The glulam arch rib used has a length of
3.2 Advantages of modern timber bridge
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5. 76
(b) Bridge under construction
Fig.7 Sleel·timber bridge in Tongchuan
GLT. as shown in Fig.B. can configure differ-
ent levels of limber according to the stress re-
quirements of timber components al different
parts. The timber defects arc removed or evenly
averaged to all layers. I' can be used (0 produce
limber beam. pl!ltc or arch. In addition. the
lengths and section sizes of tht.: components ClUl be
produced without the limitations of timber"s natu-
fal size. and can be rnachinc(1 into different
ShllPCS according to the force-bearing demands.
The timber components can be obtained by fac-
torization production. which makes them more
diversified and homogenized.
CLT. as shown in Fig. I). can make full usc of
the high tensile strength parallel to the grilin and
high compressive strength perpendicular to the
grain of timber. It can improve the integrity.
homogeneity and dual direction mechanical prop-
erties of timber products. It also can make full
usc of low grade lumber with high filctoriz<ltion
production (Fu 2(12).
SLT. as shown in Fig. 10_ is an integral plate
structure through the lateral compressive stress in
Meizhen Fu el al
Fig.S GLT
Fig.'} CLT
Fig.1O SLT
the inner layer by tensioning pre-stressed rein-
forcement. The adoption of pre-stress not only
increases its service performance. but also
strengthens the connection between the timber
components. It can improve the overall servIce
performance. so as to promote the development
of timbcr bridge. especially SLT plate girder
bridge.
4.1.2 Diversified connections
The traditional connections are usually tooth con-
nection. mortise and tenon joint. as well as nail
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6. Journal 01 TraNie and Transportation Englneerulg{EIlQJlsh EdItion) 77
(e) Bolleo~n.ellon
EpoIY Iro~1
Shnr.l~d
Sl~rped hole
lb) Illnl~eOIl.ll~e"OlI
II) alnand SQd~1 ~onn~~lion
!-ig.l1 Connl'Clion Il'Chnolog of limb.:r ,>lr~rtl1r~
connection and so on. 1I0wccr. the carr)ing ca-
pacity and conSlruction efficiency of Ihe~ con·
nections arc very low. and their fatigue perform.
ances iHe poor. ~'!eanwhile. with the dec1op-
men! of modern timber bridge. the span is be-
coming larger and larger gradual I) . {he demands
are improving. and the conneclion form~ are
more ilnd more abundant. The ball and socket
connection showing in Fig. 11 (iI) makc~ it is pos·
sible to construct the complex timber {russ struc-
tures. The hinge connection showing in Fig. 11 (b)
makes timber arch bridge more popular. The bolt
Wlllleclion showing in Fig. 11 (c) realizes Ihe COIl-
nection of multi-clements. which is safer and
more reliable. In addilion. somc new steel-timber
connections arc gradually appe:ll"ing. For exam-
ple. the connection showing in Fig. ll<d) rcduccl>
the installation difficulty during construction. and
promotes the dexelopment of the modern steel-
tImber composite bridge (Schneider 1f)nSl.
4.1.3 Improvement of the durability
The durilbilit) performance of modern limber
bridge is greatly improved with the development
of modern allli-corrosion and fire prevelllion
technology and the :Idoption of timber bridge
deck surfacing technology.
Firstly. anti-corrosion technology improves Ihe
durability of limber bridge. The emergence of
modern anti-corrosion technology <lnd preserva-
tives improvc Ihe anti-corrosion propertics of the
timber structure. Meanwhile. its durability has
been grcatly improved. The quality of timber Ihat
treated with prcscr'itli'c~ is stabile. economical
and wide arict) in sourcc~. which can achie've
good application and improve the life of mo<krn
limber bridge. In addition. relaled corrosion
specifications arc also gradual!) perfected.
The second improvement is from fire resist-
ance. Timber is a kind of biological material.
which is composed of numerous tubular cells. and
ha~ low Ihcrmal conductiit}. MCitnv.hile. there
ll> free water between the ccll~ to n:duce the tem-
perature rcJ)ing on Ihe evapor:ltion of the water.
[n addition. incombustible gas will be geneTiltcd
when burning process. For the large-size compo-
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7. 78
nents. cilrbidc layer formed on the surface. will
prevent the supply of oxygen. Fireproof property
of large size limber structure is as good as other
materials componenls. For example. when Ihe
structure suffers with high temperature (15000
r). the timber structure will n01 be destroyed
rapidly. but the steel structure will be damaged
rapidly due to Ihe sharp decline in yield strength.
us shown in Fig. 12 (Ritler 20(5).
Fig.12 Slccl·I,ml)(:r structure in fire
Thirdly. pavement can improve durability and
service performance of modern timber bridge.
The asphalt pavement is of good durability and
high sliding resistance and llsed best at present.
4.1.4 Other conditions
After years of theory and application research.
timber bridge has rapidly progressed in the devel-
oped countries such as the Europe. United States·
and Canada. Meanwhile. the relevant specifica-
tions arc gradually perfeetcd such as Canadian
highwlly bridge design code(CSA CAN/CSA-S6-
06). AA$J-1TO LRFD bridge design specifications
and so on. They stipulate the calculation. deck
design. construction. and other aspects of timber
bridge.
There is also some developments of timbcrwork
in China. The national standard code for design
of timber structure (GB 50()05-20ll3)implemcllted
in 200-1. and the manual tilllberwork design man-
ual published in 200S(Long et al. 2005) and so on
arc all useful to promOte the development of tim-
ber construction and lead the domestic study of
timl>crwork design.
Meizhen Fu el al.
4.2 Material conditions
The development of timber structure depends on
timber resources. Due to the foresl protection
which has significant achievements after the past
fifty years' cycle of deterioration and recovery de-
velopment. the resources problem has improved
and the present Situations arc as follows:
Firstly. forest area and forest accumulation
grow continually. The seventh forest survey data
in China shows that the net increase of forest arca
is 20.5-13 million hectMes· and the coverage ntte
is increased from 18. 21 % to 20. 36%. up by
2. 15%. Net increase of forest accumulation is
1. 123 billion ml
with an annual llct increase of
225 million Ill'. presenting a good trend.
Secondly. man~made forest grows quickly. The
man-made forest arca is 62 million hectares now.
with a nct increase of 8. -1311 million hect,lres.
The man-made forcst accumulation is 1. 96 billion
m'. with a net increase of H7 million mJ
. Fur-
thermore. there arc 10. -1618 million hectares im-
mature forests. providing subsequent reserves of
timber in the future.
Thirdly. deforestation is shift to man-made for-
est gradually. the man-made forest will provide
more than -W% of timber we need. and the pro-
portion is growing yearly.
Fourth. amount of imported timber is increas-
ing. Thc forest accumulation in the world increa-
ses about 900 million ml
each year. There <He
many countries having enough timber resources.
such as Russia having great potcnti,lI to provide
timber to China.
4.3 Application prospect
Compared with concrete and steel structure. mod-
ern timber structure has many advantages, light
self-weight. higher factori,lI construction. fast in
construction. and good comprehensive economic
benefits. It is beautiful and has good coordination
with the environment. So its application prospec-
tive in Chinese short and medium span bridges
will have broad market demand.
71994-2014 China Academic Joumal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. http://www.cnki.net
8. Journal 01 Traffic and Transportation EngineeringCEnglish Edition)
4.3.1 Pedestrian bridges
Modern limber struclure lws good applic,lIion ,icl-
vantages in the county and overpaSS bridge. In
North Amcric<I. the middle <tnd small :.pan bridg-
es at second roads or rural roads mostly arc timber
bridge. achieving good cconomic and cnviron-
mental bellcfit~. In China. cspl.:cially in Ihe re-
gions such as Sichuan and Yunnan which are rich
in timber rc~ource. applying the timber bridge as
the shon and medium ~pan bridges will bring
great landscape and economic bendits. Using
timber in the pedestrian tandsc<lpc bridge will give
people more warm feeling and eomplcting il high
gradc structural form of bridge. We used to giving
some design schemes of timber bridge for tile new
campus of an university overpass the lake as a pe-
destrian bridges. The span of them arc all 20 11l
,JIld 111'0 sehemes of lhem arc shown in Fig. 13. It
can be foreseell that a new bright scenery will be
added to this campu, bccause of this timber
bridge.
4.3.2 Bridge in cold region
In cold regiol1. Ihe dc-icing sail is utilizcd frc-
qucntly. which is commonly ('oillposcd of NaCI
and CaCll . Thereforc. it i~ easy to cause scrioll~
corrosion on concrete or steel bridge. [n addition.
the scasonal and day temperature changes arc wry
large in cold region. which will produce a lot of sec-
ondary internal force and deformatioll.
To minimize the effects of de-icing salt and
temperature change. using timbcr bridges in cold
region can avoid the corro~ion damage caused by
dc-icing salt and reduce the :.econdar) intcrnal
force and deformation due to temperature
change. so as 10 improve the scrvice pcrformilllce
;llld life of the bridge.
4.3.3 Loea/landmark bridge
Modern limber bridge will playa rok of land·
mark bridge in China with its ~pecial materi<ll.
Taking Xujiilng long :.pan timber nus:. arch bridge
"llappy Xujiang Bridge" a~ an example (Fig. -1).
which is located ill Xukou Town. 5uzhou CiIY,
China. The material of this bridgc is mainly tim-
79
(a) S~h~lI1~ A
(b) Sch.rn~B
I·;g. lJ l'cl.kslri~11 OInlJ<,r bridge 111 campus
bcr exccpt the pile. And its carrying capacity is
-1.5 kN ml
• and its totill e,trrying capilcity is llJS
IOns. II uses high hardness pine bre<lking Iradi-
tional timber architecture concept. fhe length of
this bridge is 120 m with the ddtll of (l m· and
the main span is 75. 7 Ill. which is the largest sin-
gle-hOle span bridge of limber bridge in Ihe world
CLu2tlll).
71994-2014 China Academic Joumal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.. http://www.cnki.net
9. 80
4.3.4 Old bridge rehabilitations
It will greatly shorten the construction time and
simplify the equipment with good economy by
using timber deck to replace the destructive con-
crete deck in bridge reinforcement. For example.
the reinforcement project of Hundrop Bridge in
Norway in 200'J. It was originally a five-span
bridge with concrete deck. During the reinforce-
ment. it used timber deck (CLT deck) to replace
the original concrete deck to reduce the dead load
of Ihe bridge. It took full use of the original foun-
dation. and reduced the reinforcement costs. The
new deck was shown in Fig. 15. It is a good exam-
ple to apply modern timber bridge structure in old
bridge rehabilitations.
Fig. IS New Cl.T deck or HUlldrop nridge
5 Conclusions
Chinese short and medium span bridges face a se-
ries of problems. such as monotonous structural
form. m<.tterial over-reliance on cement and steel.
suffering multiple bridge defects. and difficulty in
ma intenanee.
Timber structure has many advantages: light
self-weight. convenient in construction. green
and environmental coordination. and good com-
prehensive economy. It is necessary and feasible
to apply it in the short and medium span bridges
in China.
With the development of modern timber struc-
tural processing. connection. m<lintenance tech-
nology and the abundant timber resources in
China. the applic<ltion prospective of timber shorl
and medium span bridges in China is broad.
MeiZhen Fu el al
Acknowledgments
The research is supported by National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (NSFC) (No. 51378(68).
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71994-2014 China Academic Joumal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. http://www.cnki.net