The thalamus is a large mass of gray matter located in the cerebrum that serves as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It has several nuclei that are involved in functions like sensory processing, motor control, arousal, memory, and cognition. The thalamus receives inputs from various subcortical structures and sends outputs to different regions of the cerebral cortex via fiber tracts called thalamic radiations. Damage to the thalamus can result in thalamic syndromes characterized by abnormal pain or sensory processing.
The thalamus is a large structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclear groups based on location and connectivity. The anterior, medial dorsal, lateral, and intralaminar nuclei are association nuclei that connect to association areas of cortex. The ventral anterior, ventral lateral, and ventral posterior nuclei are modality-specific relay nuclei that connect primary sensory and motor areas. The thalamus plays key roles in sensory processing, motor control, cognition and memory through its extensive reciprocal connections throughout the brain.
The thalamus is a large structure in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center between various brain regions. It is subdivided into several nuclear groups including anterior, medial, lateral, intralaminar and reticular nuclei. The thalamus receives sensory information from ascending tracts and projects to different areas of the cerebral cortex, playing roles in motor, sensory, cognitive and limbic functions. Specific thalamic nuclei have reciprocal connections with cortical and subcortical regions to integrate various neural systems.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt sensory and motor functions and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat intractable pain.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt motor control, sensory processing, and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat chronic pain conditions.
The interhemispheric transcallosal transventricular approach provides access to thalamic tumors that protrude into the lateral ventricle. It involves a U-shaped skin incision and craniotomy exposing the sagittal suture and superior temporal line. The dura is opened in a C-shape along the superior sagittal sinus. This allows visualization of the frontal and parietal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and corpus callosum for tumor resection through the ventricle.
The thalamus is a large structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclear groups based on location and connectivity. The anterior, medial dorsal, lateral, and intralaminar nuclei are association nuclei that connect to association areas of cortex. The ventral anterior, ventral lateral, and ventral posterior nuclei are modality-specific relay nuclei that connect primary sensory and motor areas. The thalamus plays key roles in sensory processing, motor control, cognition and memory through its extensive reciprocal connections throughout the brain.
The thalamus is a large structure in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center between various brain regions. It is subdivided into several nuclear groups including anterior, medial, lateral, intralaminar and reticular nuclei. The thalamus receives sensory information from ascending tracts and projects to different areas of the cerebral cortex, playing roles in motor, sensory, cognitive and limbic functions. Specific thalamic nuclei have reciprocal connections with cortical and subcortical regions to integrate various neural systems.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt sensory and motor functions and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat intractable pain.
The thalamus is a paired, oval structure located in the diencephalon that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It is divided into several nuclei that process different sensory modalities. The thalamus receives input from various areas and projects to specific regions of the cortex. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can disrupt motor control, sensory processing, and cause syndromes like thalamic pain. Surgical procedures targeting thalamic nuclei have been used to treat chronic pain conditions.
The interhemispheric transcallosal transventricular approach provides access to thalamic tumors that protrude into the lateral ventricle. It involves a U-shaped skin incision and craniotomy exposing the sagittal suture and superior temporal line. The dura is opened in a C-shape along the superior sagittal sinus. This allows visualization of the frontal and parietal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and corpus callosum for tumor resection through the ventricle.
The thalamus is a large gray mass located in the diencephalon that contains several nuclei with different functions. It acts as a relay station for sensory information sent to the cerebral cortex. Specific nuclei relay information for different senses like vision, hearing, and somatosensation. Diffuse nuclei connect with broad areas of the cortex and are involved in attention, motor control, and limbic functions. Damage to thalamic nuclei can cause syndromes like contralateral sensory loss, ataxia, hemianopia, and pain.
The document provides information about the diencephalon and its components. It discusses the thalamus in detail, including its location, external features, internal structure, nuclei, functions, blood supply, and clinical correlations. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information and plays roles in motor control, memory, emotion, and arousal. The document also briefly describes the other parts of the diencephalon, including the hypothalamus, metathalamus (medial and lateral geniculate bodies), subthalamus, and epithalamus.
The document discusses the diencephalon region of the forebrain, focusing on the thalamus and hypothalamus. It describes the thalamus as the major part of the diencephalon, located on each side of the third ventricle. The thalamus is divided into anterior, medial, and lateral parts containing different thalamic nuclei. The hypothalamus lies ventral to the thalamus and is divided into preoptic, supraoptic, tuberal, and mamillary regions containing important nuclei that regulate functions like autonomic control, endocrine control, temperature, hunger and thirst, emotions, and circadian rhythms.
Thalamus which is the Relay center in our Body.
Anatomy & Physiology of Thalamus
Book references:- Snell's Anatomy and K. and prema Sembuligum
Medical
-Yash Bhandari (Physiotherapist)
The thalamus is a paired, symmetrical structure located in the center of the brain near the brainstem. Each half is bulb-shaped and around the size of a walnut. The thalamus contains several nuclei that receive and relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex. It plays an important role in regulating states of consciousness and sleep/wake cycles. Damage to the thalamus can cause sensory deficits, involuntary movements, and even permanent coma. Common pathologies include lesions from blocked blood vessels and thalamic syndromes that cause loss of sensation.
The thalamus is a paired structure located in the brain that serves as a relay center and integrator for sensory and motor signals. It receives input from various areas of the body and brain and relays this information to the appropriate regions of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus is divided into several nuclei that serve functions like relaying sensory information, regulating states of consciousness, and participating in memory and emotion. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can cause syndromes with loss of sensory abilities and motor impairments on the opposite side of the body.
The thalamus and hypothalamus are structures located in the brain. The thalamus relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex, except for smell. It is divided into lateral, medial, and anterior parts by the internal medullary lamina. The lateral geniculate body relays visual information and the medial geniculate body relays auditory information. The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis and the autonomic nervous system by controlling hormones released by the pituitary gland. It receives input from the body and brain and responds by exerting control via nervous connections, bloodstream, and cerebrospinal fluid.
The thalamus is a structure located in the middle of the brain between the cerebral cortex and midbrain. It is the largest component of the diencephalon. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information (except smell) sending signals to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It is divided into nuclei that each have distinct functions and connections related to motor control, sensory processing and integration, arousal, memory and cognition. Damage to specific thalamic nuclei can disrupt functions like sensory perception, movement, consciousness and memory formation.
The thalamus is a structure located in the middle of the brain between the cerebral cortex and midbrain. It is the largest component of the diencephalon. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information (except smell) sending signals to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It is divided into nuclei that each have distinct functions and connections related to motor control, sensory processing and integration, arousal, memory and cognition. Damage to different thalamic nuclei can disrupt various functions and result in sensory deficits, movement problems or changes to consciousness.
The thalamus is a midline brain structure that relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness. The thalamus contains several nuclei that have different functions. Lesions in the thalamus can cause sensory loss or a thalamic syndrome on the opposite side of the body, characterized by spontaneous pain.
The diencephalon is the deep part of the forebrain located above the midbrain. It consists of four key parts: the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station for all sensory systems except smell. The hypothalamus regulates functions like thirst, hunger, autonomic functions, and temperature. The epithalamus contains the pineal gland which regulates circadian rhythms. The subthalamus connects to motor control areas and the reticular activating system.
Overview of the anatomy of the brain and its physiologyssuser1d880f
The document provides information about the anatomy and structures of the human brain. It discusses the main parts and lobes of the brain including the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem. It describes the ventricles and basal ganglia. Key structures mentioned include the cerebral cortex, motor and sensory areas, Broca's area, thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, lateral ventricles, caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus, amygdala, and claustrum. The relationships between these structures and their functions are summarized.
The brainstem consists of 3 parts - midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and contains important centers that control respiration, cardiovascular function, and consciousness. It also contains nuclei for cranial nerves 3 through 12. The medulla contains pyramids, olives, and tracts. The pons connects the medulla to the midbrain. The midbrain connects the pons to the forebrain and contains the cerebral aqueduct and corpora quadrigemina. The reticular formation extends through the brainstem and is important for motor control, sensory processes, autonomic functions, and maintaining alertness.
The thalamus is a large egg-shaped structure located in the brain that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It has multiple nuclei that receive input from various sensory systems and project to different regions of the cortex. The thalamus plays an important role in sensory perception and motor control through its connections with the cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia.
The document summarizes key structures and functions of the forebrain and brainstem. It discusses the major components of the forebrain - the telencephalon including the cerebral hemispheres, limbic system, and basal ganglia. It also describes the diencephalon including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brainstem is formed of the medulla, pons, and midbrain. Key structures in the midbrain include the tectum, tegmentum, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. The document outlines functions of sensory processing, motor control, arousal, autonomic functions, and other roles of different brain regions.
The diencephalon includes structures like the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus. The thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It contains nuclei that relay specific sensations like vision, hearing, and somatosensation. The hypothalamus controls autonomic functions and regulates behaviors related to hunger, thirst, temperature, sleep, and reproduction. It also controls the pituitary gland. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland and habenular nucleus. The subthalamus contains the subthalamic nucleus and is involved in motor control.
The document discusses the thalamus and hypothalamus. It provides details on the anatomy, internal structure, nuclei, connections and blood supply of the thalamus. It describes the relations, boundaries, nuclei and connections of the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station and integrative center for sensory information to the cortex. The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system and limbic system through its nuclei and connections. Lesions of the thalamus can cause sensory loss, involuntary movements and effects on motor control through disruption of thalamic circuits.
The thalamus is a paired structure located in the diencephalon that relays sensory and motor information to and from the cerebral cortex. It contains several nuclei that can be categorized as specific relay nuclei, association nuclei, and nonspecific nuclei. The thalamus plays a key role in sensory relay, feedback loops between cortex and subcortical structures, and regulating arousal and attention. Lesions of the thalamus can cause motor, sensory, cognitive and arousal disturbances depending on the location within the thalamus.
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located beneath the cerebral cortex that support functions like emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory formation, and olfaction. It includes structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus. The limbic system plays an important role in emotional life and memory formation. Diseases or injuries affecting limbic structures like the hypothalamus and thalamus can cause issues like pituitary dysfunction, diabetes insipidus, insomnia, and visual defects.
1. Cerebral edema can be cytotoxic, vasogenic, hydrostatic, osmotic, or hydrocephalic depending on the underlying cause and mechanism.
2. Management of cerebral edema focuses on controlling ICP, optimizing cerebral perfusion, and using specific therapies like hyperventilation, osmotherapy, and corticosteroids.
3. Mannitol is a commonly used osmotic agent that works by increasing plasma osmolality and creating an osmotic gradient to draw fluid from brain tissue, reducing edema. Its administration transiently improves edema but must be carefully monitored.
This document discusses spinal metastases. Key points include:
- Vertebral metastases are the first sign of malignancy in 12-20% of cases and commonly occur in the thoracolumbar region.
- Symptoms include spinal pain and neurologic deficit due to destruction of vertebral elements, instability, or compression/infiltration of spinal cord/nerves.
- Diagnosis involves imaging like MRI, CT, PET, or biopsy.
- Treatment includes medical options like chemotherapy, radiation, steroids, or bisphosphonates as well as surgical options depending on factors like instability, pain level, tumor type, and life expectancy.
- Scoring systems help evaluate patients for surgical vs palliative
The thalamus is a large gray mass located in the diencephalon that contains several nuclei with different functions. It acts as a relay station for sensory information sent to the cerebral cortex. Specific nuclei relay information for different senses like vision, hearing, and somatosensation. Diffuse nuclei connect with broad areas of the cortex and are involved in attention, motor control, and limbic functions. Damage to thalamic nuclei can cause syndromes like contralateral sensory loss, ataxia, hemianopia, and pain.
The document provides information about the diencephalon and its components. It discusses the thalamus in detail, including its location, external features, internal structure, nuclei, functions, blood supply, and clinical correlations. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information and plays roles in motor control, memory, emotion, and arousal. The document also briefly describes the other parts of the diencephalon, including the hypothalamus, metathalamus (medial and lateral geniculate bodies), subthalamus, and epithalamus.
The document discusses the diencephalon region of the forebrain, focusing on the thalamus and hypothalamus. It describes the thalamus as the major part of the diencephalon, located on each side of the third ventricle. The thalamus is divided into anterior, medial, and lateral parts containing different thalamic nuclei. The hypothalamus lies ventral to the thalamus and is divided into preoptic, supraoptic, tuberal, and mamillary regions containing important nuclei that regulate functions like autonomic control, endocrine control, temperature, hunger and thirst, emotions, and circadian rhythms.
Thalamus which is the Relay center in our Body.
Anatomy & Physiology of Thalamus
Book references:- Snell's Anatomy and K. and prema Sembuligum
Medical
-Yash Bhandari (Physiotherapist)
The thalamus is a paired, symmetrical structure located in the center of the brain near the brainstem. Each half is bulb-shaped and around the size of a walnut. The thalamus contains several nuclei that receive and relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex. It plays an important role in regulating states of consciousness and sleep/wake cycles. Damage to the thalamus can cause sensory deficits, involuntary movements, and even permanent coma. Common pathologies include lesions from blocked blood vessels and thalamic syndromes that cause loss of sensation.
The thalamus is a paired structure located in the brain that serves as a relay center and integrator for sensory and motor signals. It receives input from various areas of the body and brain and relays this information to the appropriate regions of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus is divided into several nuclei that serve functions like relaying sensory information, regulating states of consciousness, and participating in memory and emotion. Damage to certain thalamic nuclei can cause syndromes with loss of sensory abilities and motor impairments on the opposite side of the body.
The thalamus and hypothalamus are structures located in the brain. The thalamus relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex, except for smell. It is divided into lateral, medial, and anterior parts by the internal medullary lamina. The lateral geniculate body relays visual information and the medial geniculate body relays auditory information. The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis and the autonomic nervous system by controlling hormones released by the pituitary gland. It receives input from the body and brain and responds by exerting control via nervous connections, bloodstream, and cerebrospinal fluid.
The thalamus is a structure located in the middle of the brain between the cerebral cortex and midbrain. It is the largest component of the diencephalon. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information (except smell) sending signals to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It is divided into nuclei that each have distinct functions and connections related to motor control, sensory processing and integration, arousal, memory and cognition. Damage to specific thalamic nuclei can disrupt functions like sensory perception, movement, consciousness and memory formation.
The thalamus is a structure located in the middle of the brain between the cerebral cortex and midbrain. It is the largest component of the diencephalon. The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information (except smell) sending signals to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It is divided into nuclei that each have distinct functions and connections related to motor control, sensory processing and integration, arousal, memory and cognition. Damage to different thalamic nuclei can disrupt various functions and result in sensory deficits, movement problems or changes to consciousness.
The thalamus is a midline brain structure that relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness. The thalamus contains several nuclei that have different functions. Lesions in the thalamus can cause sensory loss or a thalamic syndrome on the opposite side of the body, characterized by spontaneous pain.
The diencephalon is the deep part of the forebrain located above the midbrain. It consists of four key parts: the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station for all sensory systems except smell. The hypothalamus regulates functions like thirst, hunger, autonomic functions, and temperature. The epithalamus contains the pineal gland which regulates circadian rhythms. The subthalamus connects to motor control areas and the reticular activating system.
Overview of the anatomy of the brain and its physiologyssuser1d880f
The document provides information about the anatomy and structures of the human brain. It discusses the main parts and lobes of the brain including the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem. It describes the ventricles and basal ganglia. Key structures mentioned include the cerebral cortex, motor and sensory areas, Broca's area, thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, lateral ventricles, caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus, amygdala, and claustrum. The relationships between these structures and their functions are summarized.
The brainstem consists of 3 parts - midbrain, pons, and medulla. It connects the spinal cord to the forebrain and contains important centers that control respiration, cardiovascular function, and consciousness. It also contains nuclei for cranial nerves 3 through 12. The medulla contains pyramids, olives, and tracts. The pons connects the medulla to the midbrain. The midbrain connects the pons to the forebrain and contains the cerebral aqueduct and corpora quadrigemina. The reticular formation extends through the brainstem and is important for motor control, sensory processes, autonomic functions, and maintaining alertness.
The thalamus is a large egg-shaped structure located in the brain that serves as a relay center for sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex. It has multiple nuclei that receive input from various sensory systems and project to different regions of the cortex. The thalamus plays an important role in sensory perception and motor control through its connections with the cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia.
The document summarizes key structures and functions of the forebrain and brainstem. It discusses the major components of the forebrain - the telencephalon including the cerebral hemispheres, limbic system, and basal ganglia. It also describes the diencephalon including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brainstem is formed of the medulla, pons, and midbrain. Key structures in the midbrain include the tectum, tegmentum, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. The document outlines functions of sensory processing, motor control, arousal, autonomic functions, and other roles of different brain regions.
The diencephalon includes structures like the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus. The thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It contains nuclei that relay specific sensations like vision, hearing, and somatosensation. The hypothalamus controls autonomic functions and regulates behaviors related to hunger, thirst, temperature, sleep, and reproduction. It also controls the pituitary gland. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland and habenular nucleus. The subthalamus contains the subthalamic nucleus and is involved in motor control.
The document discusses the thalamus and hypothalamus. It provides details on the anatomy, internal structure, nuclei, connections and blood supply of the thalamus. It describes the relations, boundaries, nuclei and connections of the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay station and integrative center for sensory information to the cortex. The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system and limbic system through its nuclei and connections. Lesions of the thalamus can cause sensory loss, involuntary movements and effects on motor control through disruption of thalamic circuits.
The thalamus is a paired structure located in the diencephalon that relays sensory and motor information to and from the cerebral cortex. It contains several nuclei that can be categorized as specific relay nuclei, association nuclei, and nonspecific nuclei. The thalamus plays a key role in sensory relay, feedback loops between cortex and subcortical structures, and regulating arousal and attention. Lesions of the thalamus can cause motor, sensory, cognitive and arousal disturbances depending on the location within the thalamus.
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located beneath the cerebral cortex that support functions like emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory formation, and olfaction. It includes structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus. The limbic system plays an important role in emotional life and memory formation. Diseases or injuries affecting limbic structures like the hypothalamus and thalamus can cause issues like pituitary dysfunction, diabetes insipidus, insomnia, and visual defects.
1. Cerebral edema can be cytotoxic, vasogenic, hydrostatic, osmotic, or hydrocephalic depending on the underlying cause and mechanism.
2. Management of cerebral edema focuses on controlling ICP, optimizing cerebral perfusion, and using specific therapies like hyperventilation, osmotherapy, and corticosteroids.
3. Mannitol is a commonly used osmotic agent that works by increasing plasma osmolality and creating an osmotic gradient to draw fluid from brain tissue, reducing edema. Its administration transiently improves edema but must be carefully monitored.
This document discusses spinal metastases. Key points include:
- Vertebral metastases are the first sign of malignancy in 12-20% of cases and commonly occur in the thoracolumbar region.
- Symptoms include spinal pain and neurologic deficit due to destruction of vertebral elements, instability, or compression/infiltration of spinal cord/nerves.
- Diagnosis involves imaging like MRI, CT, PET, or biopsy.
- Treatment includes medical options like chemotherapy, radiation, steroids, or bisphosphonates as well as surgical options depending on factors like instability, pain level, tumor type, and life expectancy.
- Scoring systems help evaluate patients for surgical vs palliative
This document provides information on the anatomy of the major lobes and structures of the human brain. It describes the key sulci (fissures) and gyri (convolutions) that make up the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and limbic lobes. For each lobe, it lists the sulci and gyri on the lateral surface, medial surface and basal surface. It also provides descriptions of other structures like the insular lobe and signs that can help identify sulci on MRI scans of the brain. Diagrams of brain sections in the sagittal, axial and coronal planes are included to illustrate the spatial relationships between lobes and sulci/gyri.
Bone tumors can be primary, originating in bone tissue, or secondary (metastatic) tumors that have spread from other sites. They are classified based on the normal cell type and include hematopoietic, chondrogenic, osteogenic, and others of unknown or various origins. Evaluation of bone tumors involves history, physical exam, labs/imaging, and biopsy. Radiography provides key information like the site and borders of the lesion, type of bone destruction, periosteal reaction, and matrix/soft tissue involvement to characterize the tumor and determine if it is benign or malignant.
The document provides an overview of spinal cord anatomy and spinal tumors. It describes the layers surrounding the spinal cord, blood supply, and classifications of spinal tumors as extradural, intradural extramedullary, or intramedullary. Common presentations include back pain, sensory and motor deficits, and sphincter disturbances. MRI is important for diagnosis. Extramedullary tumors are often metastases that compress the cord without exceeding disk spaces. Intradural tumors like meningiomas attach to dura and taper the CSF. Intramedullary gliomas are more common in thoracic regions and males.
The radial nerve is a continuation of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. It supplies the posterior compartment of the upper limb. It courses through the axilla, arm, and spiral groove of the humerus before dividing into superficial and deep branches in the forearm. The radial nerve is susceptible to injury at several points along its course, which can result in weakness of wrist and finger extension as well as sensory loss on the back of the hand. Damage to specific branches can produce unique clinical presentations depending on the level and extent of injury.
Craniometry is the technique used to measure the dry skull after removing soft tissues. Key landmarks are used as measurement points, including unpaired points like nasion, glabella, and bregma, as well as binate points like porion, zygion, and gonion. Standard craniometric measurements are taken using instruments like spreading calipers and sliding calipers to determine metrics of the entire skull as well as regions like the face, palate, and mandible. Length, width, and height are some of the metrics captured to characterize skull morphology.
Craniometry is the technique used to measure the dry skull after removing its soft parts using various craniometric points and landmarks as reference points. Standard craniometric measurements include maximum cranial length, breadth, bizygomatic breadth, basion-bregma height, and facial heights and breadths. Instruments used include spreading calipers, sliding calipers, and measuring tapes. Various indices can also be calculated from craniometric measurements to study relationships between measurements. Cephalometry is similarly used in dentistry to analyze tooth and jaw relationships and positions.
The radial nerve provides motor innervation to the posterior forearm muscles and cutaneous sensation to the back of the arm and lateral forearm. It arises from the brachial plexus and travels through the spiral groove of the humerus. Damage to the radial nerve can result in wrist drop and sensory loss on the dorsal hand. Injuries commonly occur in the axilla, spiral groove, or at the radial tunnel at the elbow.
The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure running from the foramen magnum to the L1-L2 vertebrae. It contains white and gray matter and is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions. The spinal cord transmits motor and sensory information between the brain and body via ascending and descending tracts. It is supplied by the anterior and posterior spinal arteries and drained by veins that communicate with the azygos system.
The document describes the anatomy of the brain including sulci and gyri. It discusses typical continuous fissures such as the interhemispheric fissure and sylvian fissure. It then describes the lobes of the brain including the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and limbic lobes. Key sulci and gyri are identified for each lobe on the lateral, medial and basal surfaces of the brain. Signs to identify sulci on MRI are also provided.
This document discusses various types of vascular malformations of the brain. It begins by describing the histopathology and classification of arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), venous angiomas, capillary telangiectasias, and cavernous malformations. It then covers the pathology, clinical features, diagnosis using angiography, and treatment options for AVMs including surgery, radiosurgery, and endovascular embolization. It also discusses dural arteriovenous fistulas, carotid cavernous fistulas, vein of Galen malformations, developmental venous anomalies, cavernous malformations, capillary telangiectasias, and sinus pericranii.
The document summarizes the embryology of the brain. It describes how the neural tube forms from the ectoderm and divides into subdivisions. It then discusses the development of specific brain structures like the medulla, pons, midbrain, cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres. Key events include formation of the neural plate and tube, development of brain vesicles and flexures, migration of neural crest cells, and growth and differentiation of structures derived from the prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon.
This document discusses craniometry and cephalometry, which are techniques used to measure the skull and head. Craniometry involves measuring the dry skull after removing soft tissues, while cephalometry measures the head with soft tissues intact. Both are branches of physical anthropology. Key craniometric and cephalometric points are identified which are landmarks used to take measurements of the skull, face, and palate. Various indices are also described, such as cephalic index which categorizes head shape, and facial and palatomaxillary indices relating to face and palate width. Cephalometry is also used in dentistry and orthodontics to analyze teeth, jaws, and skull relationships to inform treatment.
The optic nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain. It has several parts:
1. The intraocular part passes through the eyeball.
2. The intraorbital part extends from the eyeball to the optic canal.
3. The intracanalicular part passes through the optic canal to the brain.
4. The intracranial part converges with the other optic nerve to form the optic chiasm in the brain.
Craniometry and functional craniology involve the measurement of the human skull and head to analyze differences between populations. This document outlines the history and objectives of craniometry, which include examining differences between species, investigating variations within species, and applying measurements in clinical and forensic applications. It then describes common anatomical landmarks, measuring devices and techniques, and analyses used to estimate characteristics like sex, age, and ethnicity from skull measurements.
This document provides an overview of smart and intelligent textiles. It defines smart textiles as textiles that can sense environmental stimuli and react or adapt in response through the integration of functionalities into the textile structure. Smart textiles are classified into three categories - passive, active, and ultra smart - based on their functional activity of sensing, reacting, and adapting. Examples of applications for smart textiles include military, healthcare, space exploration, and fashion. The document also discusses phase change materials and how they can be incorporated into textiles to provide thermoregulation properties for applications such as sportswear, bedding, and medical uses.
This document discusses solar cell textiles and flexible organic solar cells that can be incorporated into clothing and other fabrics. It describes how organic and inorganic photovoltaic technologies can be used to create flexible solar cells that are woven into fibers and fabrics. This allows for solar energy to be harvested from clothing and other textiles, providing a portable and lightweight source of renewable energy for various applications. Key benefits include lower costs compared to rigid solar panels and easier integration into apparel and other fabrics. However, more research is still needed to improve the efficiency and manufacturing of photovoltaic fibers and textile-based solar cells.
The document discusses technical textiles in India. It notes that India's specialty fabric industry is still developing compared to global players. The government is focusing on upgrading infrastructure using technical textiles like geosynthetics and automotive nonwovens. Other niche areas seeing growth are medical, agricultural, and protective textiles. The document also outlines 12 main categories of technical textiles and variables involved in their production like polymers, fibers, yarns, fabrics, and finishing techniques.
Sampling involves taking representative samples of raw materials or finished goods rather than testing entire populations due to constraints of time and cost. Samples are taken from test lots, consignments, packages, containers, and other groupings using random or unbiased sampling methods to ensure samples accurately represent properties of the whole. Common sampling methods include zoning, core sampling, numerical sampling, and random draw or cut square for fibers or yarns. Sample size and selection depends on material type, amount available, intended tests, and required accuracy.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
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This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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2. The term thalamus derives from a Greek word that means “inner chamber” or
“meeting place”.
The thalamus is the largest component of the diencephalon
• Rostrocaudal dimension of about 30 mm, height of about 20 mm, width of about
20 mm, and an estimated 10 million neurons in each hemisphere.
• The term diencephalon includes the following structures: epithalamus, thalamus
(including the met thalamus), hypothalamus, and sub thalamus.
• Thalamus lies medially in the cerebrum. Dorsal aspect form the floor of the IV
ventricle, bounded medially by III ventricle, laterally by internal capsule and
basal ganglia; ventrally it is continuous with sub thalamus.
THALAMUS
3. The thalamus serves primarily as a relay station that modulates and coordinates
the function of various systems.
• Locus for integration, modulation, and intercommunication between various
systems.
• Has important motor, sensory, arousal, memory, behavioral, limbic, and
cognitive functions.
• The largest source of afferent fibers to thalamus is cerebral cortex and cortex is
the primary destination for thalamic projections.
• Many systems and fibers converge on the thalamus.
4. Thalamus is a part of diencephalon.
Diencephalon divided into 4 regions;
•Thalamus
•Hypothalamus
•Epithalamus
•Ventral thalamus(or subthalamus)
5.
6.
7. Thalamus
•Large mass of grey matter,lies immediately lateral to third ventricle
•The thalamus is an ovoid nuclear mass, c.4cm long, which borders the
dorsal part of third ventricle.
Two poles;
Anterior pole(or end)
-Lies behind the interventricular foramen
Posterior pole(or end)
-Also called PULVINAR
-Lies just above and lateral to superior colliculus.
9. Superior(dorsal) surface;
-The superior (dorsal) surface of the thalamus is covered by a thin layer of
white matter, the stratum zonale.
-It extends laterally from the line of reflection of the ependyma (taenia
thalami), and forms the roof of the third ventricle.
-This curved surface is separated from the
overlying body of the fornix by the choroid
fissure with the tela choroidea within it.
-More laterally it forms part of the floor of the lateral ventricle.
-Related laterally to caudate nucleus.
-Seperated from caudate nucleus stria
terminalis and thalamostriate vein.
11. SURFACES OF THE THALAMUS
Superior surface
Medial surface
Inferior surface
12. THE MEDIAL SURFACE
•The medial surface of the thalamus is the superior (dorsal) part of the lateral
wall of the third ventricle.
•It is usually connected to the contralateral thalamus by an interthalamic
adhesion behind the interventricular foramina.
•The boundary with the hypothalamus is marked by an indistinct hypothalamic
sulcus, which curves from the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct to the
interventricular foramen.
•The thalamus is continuous with the midbrain tegmentum, the subthalamus and
the hypothalamus
15. •Inferior surface of the tegmentum is related to hypothalamus anteriorly and
to ventral thalamus posteriorly.
•The ventral thalamus separates the thalamus from tegmentum of midbrain.
INFERIOR SURFACE OF THALAMUS
16. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE THALAMUS
Thalamus consists of mainly of grey matter.
Superior surface is covered by a thin layer of white matter called stratum
zonale.
Lateral surface is covered by a similar layer called external medullary layer.
Internally, the thalamus is divided into anterior, medial and lateral nuclear
groups by a vertical Y-shaped sheet of white matter, the internal medullary
lamina.
Nuclei of the anterior part.
Anterior nucleus.
Nuclei in the medial part
Largest nuclei among them medial dorsal nucleus.
17. NUCLEI IN THE LATERAL PART
Ventral group Lateral group
Ventral anterior nucleus
Ventral lateral nucleus
Or
Ventral intermediate nucleus
Ventral posterior nucleus
Lateral dorsal
nucleus
Lateral posterior
nucleus
Pulvinar
18. OTHER THALAMIC NUCLEI
•Intralaminar nuclei
Embedded within the internal medullary Lamina
•Midline nuclei
Scattered cells between medial part of the thalamus and ependyma of third
ventricle.
•Medial and lateral geniculate bodies
Now included under the thalamus.
21. • The thalamus is traversed by a band of myelinated fibers, the internal
medullary lamina, which runs along the rostrocaudal extent of the thalamus.
• The internal medullary lamina separates the medial from the lateral group of
nuclei.
• Rostrally and caudally, the internal medullary lamina splits to enclose the
anterior and intralaminar nuclear groups, respectively.
• The internal medullary lamina contains intrathalamic fibers connecting the
different nuclei of the thalamus with each other.
22. • Another medullated band, the external medullary lamina, forms the lateral
boundary of the thalamus medial to the internal capsule.
• Between the external medullary lamina and the internal capsule is the reticular
nucleus of the thalamus.
• The external medullary lamina contains nerve fibers leaving or entering the
thalamus on their way to or from the adjacent capsule
23. • The anterior tubercle of the thalamus (dorsal surface of the most rostral
part of the thalamus) is formed by the anterior nuclear group.
• Consists of two nuclei: principal anterior and anterodorsal.
• The anterior group of thalamic nuclei has reciprocal connections with the
hypothalamus (mamillary bodies) and the cerebral cortex (cingulate gyrus).
• The anterior group also receives significant input from the hippocampal
formation of the cerebral cortex (subiculum and presubiculum) via the
fornix
ANTERIOR NUCLEAR GROUP
24. • The anterior nuclear group of the thalamus is part of the limbic system,
which is concerned with emotional behavior and memory mechanisms.
• Discrete damage to the mamillothalamic tract has been associated with
deficits in a specific type of memory, episodic long-term memory, with relative
sparing of short term memory and intellectual capacities.
25. Schematic diagram showing the reciprocal connections among the
anterior nucleus of the thalamus, mamillary body and cingulate gyrus.
26. • Of the medial nuclear group, the dorsomedial nucleus is the most highly
developed in humans.
• In histologic sections stained for cells, three divisions of the dorsomedial
nucleus are recognized: a dorsomedial magnocellular division located
rostrally, a dorsolateral parvicellular division located caudally, and a
paralaminar division adjacent to the internal medullary lamina.
• It also receives inputs from the temporal neocortex (via the inferior thalamic
peduncle), amygdaloid nucleus and substantia nigra pars reticulata, and
adjacent thalamic nuclei, particularly the lateral and intralaminar groups.
• The dorsomedial nucleus belongs to a neural system concerned with
affective behavior, decision making and judgment, memory, and the
integration of somatic and visceral activity.
MEDIAL NUCLEAR GROUP
27. LATERAL NUCLEAR GROUP
• The lateral nuclear group of the thalamus is subdivided into two groups, dorsal
and ventral.
1. DORSAL SUBGROUP:
• This subgroup includes, from rostral to caudal, the lateral dorsal, lateral
posterior, and pulvinar nuclei.
• The lateral dorsal nucleus, although anatomically part of the dorsal tier of the
lateral group of thalamic nuclei, is functionally part of the anterior group of
thalamic nuclei, with which it collectively forms the limbic thalamus.
28. • Similar to the anterior group of thalamic nuclei, the lateral dorsal nucleus
receives inputs from the hippocampus (via the fornix) and an uncertain input
from the mamillary bodies and projects to the cingulate gyrus.
• The borderline between the lateral posterior nucleus and the pulvinar nucleus is
vague, and the term pulvinar– lateral posterior complex has been used to refer to
this nuclear complex.
• The pulvinar–lateral posterior complex has reciprocal connections caudally
with the lateral geniculate body and rostrally with the association areas of the
parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices . It also receives inputs from the
pretectal area and superior colliculus.
30. 2. VENTRAL SUBGROUP:
• This subgroup includes the ventral anterior, ventral lateral, and ventral
posterior nuclei.
• The neural connectivity and functions of this subgroup are much better
understood than those of the dorsal subgroup. In contrast to the dorsal
subgroup, which belongs to the multimodal association thalamic nuclei, the
ventral subgroup belongs to the modality-specific thalamic nuclei.
• These nuclei share the following characteristics:
-They receive a direct input from the long ascending tracts.
-They have reciprocal relationships with specific cortical areas.
-They degenerate on ablation of the specific cortical area to which they project
31.
32. CONNECTIONS OF THE THALAMUS
•Afferent impulses from large number of subcortical centers converge to the
thalamus.
•Visual and aduditory impulses reach the lateral and medial geniculate bodies.
•Sensation of taste are conveyed to the thalamus through solitariothalamic
fibers.
•Thalamus does not receive direct olfactory impulses they probably reach
through amygdaloid complex.
•Thalamus receive profuse connections from all part of cerebral cortex,
cerebellum and corpus striatum.
33. Thalamus is there fore regarded as integrating centre where information of
all sources is brought together.
The information from thalamus is projected to whole of the cerebral cortex
through thalamo-cortical projection.
Thalamocortical fibers form large bundles known as thalamic radiations
or thalamic radiation.
Thalamic radiations
Superior thalamic
radiation
(dorsal )
Posterior thalamic radiations
( caudal )
Ventral thalamic
radiation
35. CONNECTION OF VENTRAL GROUP OF NUCLEI
Most important connection of thalamus are from ventral posterior nucleus
Cerebral Cortex
(somatosensory area,3 1 2)
Ventral Posterior Nucleus
Medial part Lateral part
Trigeminothalamic tract Medial leminiscus
Solitariothalamic tract Spinothalamic tract
36. • Blood supply of the thalamus is derived from four parent vessels: basilar root of
the posterior cerebral, posterior cerebral, posterior communicating, and internal
carotid.
• The basilar root of the posterior cerebral artery, via paramedian branches,
supplies the medial thalamic territory.
• The posterior cerebral artery, via its geniculothalamic branch, supplies the
posterolateral thalamic territory.
• The posterior communicating artery, via the tuberothalamic branch, supplies
the anterolateral thalamic territory.
• The internal carotid artery, via its anterior choroidal branch, supplies the
lateral thalamic territory.
BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE THALAMUS
37. •Thalamic syndrome (or thalamic pain syndrome) is a condition that can be
associated with inadequate blood supply from the posterior cerebral artery.
•Rare neurological disorder in which the body becomes hypersensitive to pain as
a result of damage to the thalamus, a part of the brain that affects sensation
•Primary symptoms are pain and loss of sensation, usually in the face, arms,
and/or legs.
•Pain or discomfort may be felt[1] after being mildly touched or even in the
absence of a stimulus.
•The pain associated with thalamic syndrome may be made worse by exposure to
heat or cold and by emotional distress. Sometimes, this may include even such
emotions as those brought on by listening to music.
•It is also known as "Dejerine-Roussy disease", after Joseph Jules Dejerine and
Gustave Roussy
THALAMIC SYNDROME
38. • A multiplicity of neurologic signs and symptoms has been reported in disorders
of the thalamus.
These reflect
• (1) the anatomic and functional heterogeneity of the thalamus.
• (2) simultaneous involvement of several nuclei even by discrete vascular
lesions due to the fact that arterial vascular territories in the thalamus cross
nuclear boundaries.
• (3) simultaneous involvement of neighboring areas such as the midbrain in
paramedian thalamic vascular lesions, the internal capsule in lateral thalamic
vascular lesions, and the sub thalamus in posterior thalamic vascular lesions.
CLINICAL CORRELATES OF THALAMIC
ANATOMY