The document summarizes the skeletal and digestive systems of ruminants. It is divided into two parts: 1) The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum, while the appendicular skeleton includes the four limbs. The skull protects the brain and is connected to the spinal cord. 2) The digestive system includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach consisting of four chambers (rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum), small intestine, large intestine, liver and pancreas. Food is broken down by enzymes in these organs to absorb nutrients.

1. Skeleton System divided two parts
Axial Skeleton: Extending from base of the skull
all the way caudally to the tail; skull, vertebral
column, rib and sternum
Appendicular Skeleton: 4 legs
Axial Skeleton: Skull forms the basis of head,
protects the brain. Brain is connected to the
spinal cord. Skull have cranial bone e.g occipital,
parital, temporal
Lacrimal, nasal palatine are facial bone

3. Thoracic Vertebrae and rib: The thoracic
vertebrae are specialized for the attachment
of rib. The rib are joined to the vertebral
column dorsally so that the head of each rib
articulates with the body of two adjacent
vertebrae. Ventrally the anterior rib articulates
with sternum, the posterior rib are
interconnected costal arch ventrally.
Lumber region: The lumbar vertebrae have flat
wing –like transverse processes that broaden
the abdominal cavity dorsally provide strong
attachment for the abdominal muscle.

4. Sacral region: The sacral vertebrae are fused
together to form the sacrum on each side. The
large flatten process for articulation to the
ileum of pelvic girdle on each side is ischium
ventrally is pubis.
Coccygeal region: The caudal vertebrae are
progressively reduced. They serve as site for
insertion of the muscle used in moving tail.
Appendularr Skeleton: Bone of fore limb.

5. Scapula: It is a flat and triangular bone situated
craniolateral aspect of the thorax.
Humerus: This is a long bone situated obliquely
downward and backward from shoulder joint
aabove with scapula and elbow joint below
radius and ulna: Radius and ulna are fused
with each other in ox. Radius is large but no
longer
Carpel: There are six short bones arranged in
two rows below the radius and ulna with
metacarpel bone below.

6. Metaarpel: In human metacarpal bone lie in the
flat part of the hand. In animal placed
vertically above carpus fetlock below. There
are four metacarpel bone. In dog 5 metacarpel
bone, 3rd and 4th are large. Small metacarpel
bone situated at the pastern.
Phalanges: The small bone of the toe are
phalynx.
Hind limb

7. • Skeleton of chicken
• Chicken skeleton has main 2 function –storage of
calcium and help in breathing, Calcium is used during
making egg shell.
• Feather bone supports the wings and allow flight.
Long bone like tibia femur, ulna filling with bone
marrow make white and red blood cells.
• Skull is small and sternum is long. The tail is short
fused bone called pygostyle. The neck is long
• Many similarities are found with animal bone.

9. Digestive System
The alimentary canal or digestive tract is a muscular
membrane tube which extends from the mouth to the
anus. They are named mouth, pharynx, esophagus and
intestine. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are
accessory organs of this system.
Mouth: It is elongated at the beginning of the alimentary
canal comprises of the vestibule of the mouth cavity. It
is organ of prehension, mastication, salivation and
rumination. The prehension is assisted by the rough
tongue and teeth of ruminant. Saliva is secreted by
parotid, mandibular and sub lingual gland. The lips are
thick and rigid muscular membrane situated at the
orifice of the mouth. The hard palate forms the roof of
the mouth posteriorly soft palate.

10. Tongue: It is composed of mucous membrane, muscles
papilla, vessels and nerves. it is highly muscle
structure. It is organ of taste.
Pharynx: It is roughly funnel shaped space at the base
of cranial cavity and behind the posterior nasal
apparatus This is common digestive and respiratory
passage.
Teeth: Teeth are hardest structure of the body. There
are four type of teeth.
Incissor-biting-anterior in position
Canine- Tearing
Premolar and molar- grinding and places laterally

11. Esophagus: It is a muscular tube extends from
pharynx to stomach. Average length in ox is 90 cm.
The thickness of tube is4 cm. In young ruminant
drinking milk goes straight from the esophagus into
the abomasums.
Abdominal cavity: This is the largest cavity of the body
extends from diaphragm to the pelvic inlet. Cranial
wall is diaphragm and caudally pelvic cavity. The
diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal
cavity.
Peritoneum is a serous membrane which lies the
abdominal wall and is reflected over the viscera. It
provides a slippery surface for movement of
abdominal viscera and acts as storage of fat.

12. Ruminant stomach:
Rumen: The rumen is a large muscular sac. It
occupies most part in the left small part in the right
abdominal cavity. The mucus membrane is heavily
studded with large papillae, like a towl and brown in
colour. The PH of rumen is 5.8 to 6.8 with large
amount of fermentable carbohydrate. The rumen has
dorsal and ventral sac. It has strong muscular mixing
cycle every minute. This is called ruminal movement.
Ruminant regurgitate food back up to their mouths
for chewing and grinding second time. A cow will
spend on average 7 hrs a day doing this.

15. Reticulum: This pyriform sac is the smallest of all other
compartments, honey comb like structure located behind
the diaphragm.
Omasum: It is roughly oval in shape and a muscular
tissue. There are about 100 folds (laminae) with
numerous papillae in ox, that grind the fold before
passing the abomasum.
 Abomasum: This is similar with stomach of non-
ruminant. In non-ruminant. In non-ruminant stomach is
just located behind the left side of diaphragm. Special
secretions from the stomach are:
• Hydrochloric acid- To kill harmful bacteria
• Mucin- enzyme that protect the stomach from acid

16. Lipase- An enzyme that digest fat
Pepsin-An enzyme that digest protein
Intestine: Most part are situated at the right side of
the abdominal cavity.
Small intestine: Contains numerous villi. It has
digestive and absorptive function.
a) Duodenum: This is first part of small intestine.
Pancreas lies close to duodenum. The gall bladder
open into duodenum with for fat digestion. The gall
bladder stores bile salt. The length of duodenum of
ox is I m.

17. b) Jejenum: It constitutes most of the length of
small intestine, in ox 38 m, narrow tube with
number of coils folded and absorbed nutrients.
Blood supply is from mesentery.
c) Ileum: small intestine finished in the ileum and a
thick tube. In ox ileum may be upto 1 m. length
Large Intestine:
Cecum, colon and rectum. Cecum is a blind sac
help in fibre digestion. It is continuous to the
colon. In horse and donkey colon is greatly
enlarge is also a site of digestion.

18. • Rectum is the terminal part of intestine. Anus is the
terminal opening of GI tract situated below the roof
of the tail.
Accessary digestive organ
Liver: It is largest gland of body. It is reddish brown in
colour. It is placed in the right side of the abdominal
cavity. It divides in lobes. Blood supply from portal
vein. Gall bladder is present in the visceral surface.
Horse have no gall bladder.
Pancreas: It is a soft gland irregularly lobulated organ.
Pancreatic duct open in duodenum with common
salt. Pancrease also produce glucagon and insulin
hormone.

19. Digestive System of poultry
The digestive system consists of alimentary canal along
which food passes esophagus to crop. Mouth
structure has beak with no teeth. The pharynx is
continuous with mouth. Proventiculus is small and
tubular which secretes hydrochloric acid. The
muscular stomach or gizzard located behind the
proventiculus.