This document discusses analytical thinking and innovation. It begins by explaining that analytical thinking helps people sort facts from perceptions and beliefs by breaking things down and examining their components. The document then covers various analytical thinking strategies like first principles analysis, questioning assumptions, and identifying root causes of problems. It also discusses how analytical thinking can help avoid biases. The document notes analytical thinking is important for research, teamwork, and communication. It concludes by linking analytical thinking to design thinking and innovation, noting how analysis can be applied throughout the innovative process.

1. Analytical
Thinking and
Innovation
By Bruce M. Mackh, PhD

2. What’s your view?
• To an optimist, the
glass is half full.
• To a pessimist, the
glass is half empty.
• To an analytical
thinker, the glass is
twice as big as it needs
to be.

3. Introduction
• People view the world
through many lenses.
+ Senses
+ Knowledge
+ Beliefs
+ Experiences
• Analytical thinking is
a tool that helps us
sort fact and truth
from perceptions and
beliefs.

4. Deep Questions
Belief Knowledge
Truth Skepticism and
Doubt

5. Analysis
• Analysis is a detailed
examination of the elements or
structure of something.
+Break it down into its
constituent parts to
determine their relationship
or value.
+Understand more about it,
identify what it is, or
discover what it contains.

6. First Principles and Analysis in Five Steps
Step Five
build an entirely new solution from the
ground up
Step Four determine what is possible
Step Three break the problem into its factual components
Step Two
identify assumptions and sort facts from
opinions or beliefs
Step One state the goal

7. Reasoning by Analogy
The human brain is very comfortable with
analogies because our minds work by
connecting new ideas to existing knowledge.
Analogies are comparisons. For example, we
might think, “I know that A is like B, and
B is like C, so A must also be like C.

8. Assumptions and
Beliefs
• The problem with
analogies is that
they’re built on
assumptions and
beliefs, not
facts.

9. Confirmation Bias
• Human beings tend to prefer evidence that
confirms our pre-existing beliefs.
• We disregard evidence that contradicts
those beliefs.
+ We feel threatened or attacked.
+ We become uncomfortable.
• It’s very hard to question your beliefs and
even harder to change your mind, even in
the face of facts and truth.

10. Strategy #1: Five Whys
You’ve probably encountered a
small child who asked you a
question and then kept asking
“Why?” over and over. Taking
the same approach can help us
uncover our assumptions.

11. Strategy #2: Socratic Questioning
Clarifying questions:
“What do you mean by
___?”
Probing assumptions:
“What is another
explanation for ___?”
Examining reasons or
evidence: “Why do you
think this is true?”
Considering implications or
consequences: “What effect
would ___ produce?”
Exploring different
viewpoints: “What alternative
is there to ___?”
Questioning the original
question: “What was the point
of the question we began
with?”

12. Strategy#3: Problem-Cause-Solution
Problems are symptoms of deeper causes or multiple causes.
Break down all the possible causes for the problem and
evaluate the severity of each cause.
Focus on finding solutions to the most urgent aspects of
the problem.
Identify the biggest cause, find connections or
correlations, and find solutions with the biggest impact.

13. Doubt is a Scientific Tool
CARTESIAN DOUBT
• A methodological process
that employs doubt to
identify that which
cannot be doubted.
PHILOSOPHICAL DOUBT
• Constantly questioning the
foundation of one’s beliefs so
understanding is grounded in
verifiable information.
“Regard no practice as immutable. Change and
be ready to change again. Accept no eternal
verity. Experiment.” B.F Skinner, 1979

14. Employ Reason Free from Passion
• When thinking analytically, the process of discovery might
stir up strong feelings because our findings could contradict
our beliefs.
+ Do not allow personal feelings or beliefs to derail your
efforts.
+ Focus on what is factual and provable, not on opinions.
Analysis is about what you know or can prove, not about what
you think or believe.

15. Activity 1
• Use the Activity 1 Template.
• Choose one of the three statements listed on the template.
• State whether you agree or disagree with the statement.
• Make a list of all your assumptions about the statement. What
are your thoughts? What are your feelings? What are your
beliefs.
• Analyze and test your assumptions. Conduct an internet search
for facts that could disprove your assumptions. Avoid
confirmation bias!
• List the provable facts and truth you discovered.
• Complete the reflective statement at the end of the template.

16. What’s the Point?
• The point of analytical
thinking is to free
ourselves from the biases
and assumptions that hinder
innovation.
+ Don’t ask what has already
been done.
+ Don’t ask what others have
done.
+ Instead, build a NEW
solution!

17. Why is analytical thinking
important for research?
• In research, we strive to discover
fact and truth.
• Researchers don’t work from a
foundation of, “I think it, so it
must be true” or “Somebody said so,
so it must be true.”
• We employ the norms of good
scholarship, check our facts, and
cite our sources.

18. Why is analytical
thinking important for
teamwork?
• Working on teams brings us into
close contact with other people who
have well-developed beliefs,
biases, preconceptions, and
opinions.
• Teamwork is more productive when we
can identify root causes and
discover facts upon which we can
build solutions.

19. Why is analytical
thinking important for
communication?
• Analytical thinking helps us
differentiate between what we
believe or feel and what’s factual
and provable.
• When we can approach a topic from
a position of reason, we
communicate more clearly and
effectively.

20. Innovate
• The root word of “innovate” is
“new,” so to innovate is to
change something, to make it
new, or to find a new way of
doing something.
• Innovation begins with
something that already exists,
then looking at it differently
to see how it can be made
better, transformed,
repurposed, or changed to
become something new.

21. Design Thinking
• Design thinking is an approach to problem-solving based
on innovation.
• It occurs in five phases, which can be repeated as
necessary until the desired result is achieved.

22. Steps in Design Thinking – 1. Empathize
To design a solution for someone, we first need to get to
know them.
Make direct contact with actual human beings. Don’t just
assume you know what they want or need.
The point is to gain empathy for the people who would use
the solution you’re going to design – to try to understand
the problem from their perspective.

23. 2. Define
Conduct research into
the problem, existing
solutions, and the
problem’s context.
Gather information that
will help you understand
the problem as
thoroughly as you can.

24. 3. Ideate
• Our next step is to design a
solution that meets the user’s
needs.
• First, generate as many ideas as
possible. Don’t edit or critique
your ideas yet. Think of as many
as you can, even if you think
they’re crazy or couldn’t possibly
work.
• Then evaluate and narrow your
choices and select the idea you’ll
develop into a solution.

25. 4. Prototype
• A prototype is a model of what you’d like to do in real life.
• Prototypes don’t have to be elaborate or expensive. The point is
to transform something abstract (an idea) into something
concrete.
• When your prototyping process identifies glitches in your
solution, it’s time to return to the Ideate phase (#3) and figure
out a way to fix it. You might have to do this several times
before you get to a workable solution.

26. 5. Test
• The last step is to
test your solution
with the actual human
beings you’re trying
to serve.
• Sometimes our tests
are successful and
sometimes they’re not.
A failed test sends us
back through the
design thinking
process (iteration).

27. Three Spaces of Innovation
In Change by Design (2nd
ed., 2019), Tim Brown, co-
founder of the renowned
design firm IDEO explains
the “three spaces of
innovation,” which
correlate with the steps of
design thinking.
Inspiration
Ideation
Implementation

28. Inspiration
• Inspiration begins by recognizing
a problem or opportunity that
motivates our search for a
solution.
• Our goal is to understand the
problem thoroughly enough to
begin generating ideas toward a
solution.

29. Ideation
• Ideation is the process of
generating, developing,
prototyping, and testing ideas
as we formulate a solution.

30. Implementation
• Implementation occurs
when we’ve achieved a
successful test and put our
solution into action.
• It takes our design from an
abstract idea to a concrete
reality as we enact the
solution in the real world.

31. Analyze the Solution
Is it
desirable?
(Do we want
it?)
Is it
feasible?
(Can we do
it?)
Is it viable?
(Can we
sustain it?)

32. Analytical Thinking + Innovation
We analyze the
problem to begin
thinking of a
solution.
We analyze the
needs of the people
affected by the
problem.
We analyze our
ideas and potential
solutions to decide
which one to try.
We analyze our
prototypes to see
what works best.
We analyze the
results of our
tests to decide if
we should implement
the solution.
We analyze our
solution after
implementation,
looking for more
ways to innovate.

33. Activity 2
• Use the Activity 2 Template.
• Choose one of the scenarios provide on the template and design
an innovative solution using analytical thinking.
• We will not bring the solution to life in the real world, so
you’ll have to use your imagination to speculate about
prototyping, testing, and implementation.
• Include a written explanation of how you used analytical
thinking to create an innovative solution to the problem.
Include sketches, diagrams, or other visual components to
explain your solution.
• Complete the reflective summary.

34. Wrap-Up
Analytical thinking is the basis of sound research,
effective teamwork, clear communication, and
innovation.
The more proficient we become in seeking facts and
truth over opinion or belief, the better prepared
we are to help solve the world’s problems.
Everyone has the ability to make a difference in
the world. Analytical thinking and innovation are
the keys!

35. Wrap-Up
• Our lives are full of challenges.
Approaching them from an analytical
mindset turns them into interesting
problems instead of impossible obstacles.
• If you’d like to learn more about how to
apply these principles to your life, you
might want to read Stanford University
d.school co-founder Bernard Roth’s book
The Achievement Habit. It’s an excellent
book!

36. Reference List
Balfour, A. J. (1921). A defence of philosophic doubt: being an essay on the foundations of belief. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Bartha, Paul, "Analogy and Analogical Reasoning", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.),https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/reasoning-analogy/
Broughton, J. Descartes's Method of Doubt, Princeton University Press, 2002.
Campbell, P. (2021). First Principles. ProfitWell. Thinking from first principles (profitwell.com)
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2017). Applied behavior analysis. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson.
Descartes, R. The Selections from the Principles of Philosophy.
Frankfurt, H. (2006). On Truth. New York: Knopf.
Gettier, E. (2000). Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. In S. Bernecker, & F. Dretske (Eds.), Knowledge: Readings in Contemporary
Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Glanzberg, Michael, "Truth", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/truth/.
Griffith, J., Fable, Method, and Imagination in Descartes (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), pp. 67–70
Kahneman, D. Thinking Fast and Slow.
Pardi, P. (2011) What is Knowledge? Philosophy News. | What is Knowledge?
Pardi, P. (2019). What is Truth? Philosophy News | What is Truth?
Schieber, J. (2018). What is Skepticism. Philosophy News| What is Skepticism? See also
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/closure-epistemic/
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior: B.F. Skinner. New York: Macmillan.
Williams, B. (2004). Truth and Truthfulness. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

37. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
1
Lecture Notes and Additional Information for Instruction
Slide # Instruction
1
• Analytical thinking is an essential skill across all fields of human endeavor.
• When we base our decisions on fact and truth instead of opinion or belief, we can
innovate better solutions to life’s problems and lead more successful lives.
•
2
• Display slide and simply read the text. You’ll elaborate on the next slide.
3
• Everything we perceive through our senses is filtered through our prior knowledge,
beliefs, and accumulated experiences.
• The brain makes sense of external stimuli (sight, sound, etc.) by connecting
perception to existing knowledge. These connections may not be grounded in fact
or truth.
4
Philosophers have debated the concepts of belief, knowledge, and truth for millennia.
Let’s begin with some shared definitions.
• Belief is a condition that exists within a person’s mind.
• Knowledge is a belief in a proposition that a person is justified in holding as true.
• Truth is found in facts that exist independently of belief (they are true whether or
not someone believes them).
• Skepticism and doubt exist between knowledge and belief.
5
• The word “analysis” means a detailed examination of the elements or structure of
something.
• When we analyze something, we break it down into its constituent parts to
determine their relationship or value.
• Analysis helps us understand more about something, determine what it is, or know
what it contains.
• Analysis is the opposite of synthesis. Analysis is taking something apart, but
synthesis is combining elements into a new whole.
6
• First principles thinking is form of analysis that seeks to break down a complicated
proposition by uncovering its underlying assumptions, facts, or ideas.
• The five steps on this slide also mirror the steps of innovation, which we’ll discuss
later in this lesson.
7
• Analogies are just comparisons, and they’re an essential part of how the brain sorts
and organizes information.
• The problem is when we let analogies take the place of digging deeper for facts and
truth.
• Social media is a very good example. We believe what we see because it’s like other
things we’ve seen before or because it aligns with our beliefs, but if we don’t stop
and think analytically or search for facts and truth, we can be deceived quite easily.

38. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
2
8
• Example
o My friend bought two cars from XYZ company. Both had serious mechanical
problems.
o If I buy a car from XYZ, it would have problems, too.
o So I’ll buy a different kind of car.
• Just because your friend’s cars had problems does not mean you would also have
problems. This is an analogy, not fact and truth.
9
• Contradictory evidence makes us uncomfortable or even causes us to feel attacked.
• Challenges to our pre-existing beliefs feel very threatening.
• Evidence of this phenomenon is found throughout history. People can become
extremely upset when someone tries to up-end their beliefs, (Consider Galileo, as
just one example.)
• Social media fuels confirmation bias as it tailors what we’re presented with based
on other things we’ve read, viewed, liked, or shared.
10
Problem: You are always late.
1. Why are you late? Because you don’t leave on time.
2. Why don’t you leave on time? Because you’re paying attention to what you’re
doing.
3. Why are you paying attention to what you’re doing? It’s very interesting.
4. Why is it interesting? Because it’s important to me.
5. Why isn’t being on time important to you? Because you care more about
exercising choice over how you spend your time than you do about conforming
to an external expectation.
Now that you know this is a matter of priorities, you can adjust your behavior.
11
• Socrates believed that knowledge is already inside the human mind, so we have to
do to unlock it is to ask the right questions.
• Questioning ensures you’ve gone deep enough into a problem to find your
assumptions.
12
• Medical professionals regularly deal with problem-cause-solution
o A patient comes in with a problem. The doctor diagnoses the cause and
pursues a treatment solution.
o Patient: doctor, my knee hurts
o Doctor: let’s run some tests.
o After testing, Doctor: your knee is bone-on-bone. We’ll need to replace it.
Let’s schedule the surgery…
13
Cartesian Doubt (after philosopher Rene Descartes)
• Accept only information you know to be true.
• Break known truths into smaller pieces.
• Solve simple problems first.
• Make a list of further problems.
Philosophical Doubt

39. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
3
• Doubt is the foundation of scientific inquiry, stating assertions that can be
tested and proven.
14
• The phrase “reason free from passion” is often used to describe the law.
• Think about the process in a courtroom, where lawyers build a case based on
evidence, facts, and truth.
15
• Distribute the Activity 1 Template to students and provide instructions about due
date and grading (if you choose to use it as a graded assignment)
16
• Emphasize the importance of determining fact and truth through analytical thinking
17
• Mention that in professional settings, peer review is required so that we ensure
that the research in our disciplines conforms to the standards of fact and truth.
18
• Any time human beings work together, we will have differences of opinion.
• We collaborate more successfully when we can keep our work focused on facts
instead of beliefs.
19
• This connects to the idea of “reason free from passion”
• When we can communicate factually based on evidence not opinion, we are more
successful
20
• Innovations don’t materialize out of thin air. They’re the product of an analytical
problem-solving process.
• Innovation is a new approach to an existing problem. It takes past and present
practices into account while striving for a new or better approach
21
• NOTE: if time is limited, you could go rather quickly through slides 21-25 that
explain the five parts of design thinking.
• Design thinking is not the only useful approach to innovation, but it’s a proven
formula for structuring the innovation process.
22
• Design thinking is a human-centric process. It keeps the user of the solution at the
forefront of every consideration.
23
• The definition stage is where we rely most heavily on analytical thinking.
• What is the problem?
• What do we know about it?
• What facts can we gather about it?
• What other factors might be at work in the problem? (etc.)
24
• Consider introducing the idea of brainstorming when displaying this slide.
• Resource: IDEO’s 7 Simple Rules of Brainstorming
25
• Design thinking operates on a “bias toward action” meaning that a quick and messy
prototype is preferable to something refined and beautiful.

40. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
4
• Prototypes can be storyboards, role-playing, and much more. They do not have to
be physical models. The point is to bring ideas out of your head and make them
visible in the real world so that we can interact with them together.
26
• Testing is step 5 of design thinking, but it is not the end. Tests can reveal
opportunities for improvement, glitches that must be addressed, or open new
possibilities.
27
• The three spaces of innovation offer another way to understand the innovation
process.
28
• The inspiration space encompasses the design thinking stages of empathize and
define.
• 8Something motivates us to begin a design process, then we develop empathy for
t9he persons involved, and gather information to define the problem as thoroughly
as10 possible.
29
• We might move between and among many possibilities during this phase, following
an unsatisfactory test by reconfiguring a prototype, rejecting a prototype to go back
to brainstorming, or seeking to redefine the problem by gathering additional
information.
• Innovation is not a linear process, even though the design thinking graphic makes it
appear to be. Design thinkers “fail early and often” trying an idea, rejecting it, and
trying another.
• Analytical thinking is always at work, determining what works, what doesn’t, and
suggesting what to do next.
30
• However, design thinking does not stop with implementation.
• Every solution should be subject to periodic evaluation and continuous
improvement as found in the principles of action research.
• No solution will remain perfect forever. There’s always space for innovation!
31
• A well-designed solution will answer these three questions successfully.
• Desirable: a solution nobody will use is not a solution at all. (Ex: to eat a more
healthful diet, replace ice cream with broccoli)
• Feasible: a solution we don’t have the power to implement is not a solution, either.
(Ex: to solve global warming, launch climate-regulating satellites that bounce excess
sunlight back into space)
• Viable: a solution we can’t afford to put into practice in the long term is not a good
solution (Ex: to solve the problem of student debt, eliminate tuition)
32
• Every aspect of innovation involves analytical thinking.
• Emphasize this idea as you read around the slide using the arrow indicators to track
the path.
33
• Distribute the Activity 2 Template to students and provide instructions regarding
the due date and grading criteria you have determined.

41. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
5
34
• Add your own concluding remarks here at the end of the presentation.
35
• This is a good book. Not only will students enjoy it, but it’s helpful for faculty, too.
36
• References provided for faculty background, but not necessary to share with
students unless desired

42. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
Lesson Plan
New Instruction
Title Analytical Thinking and Innovation
Lesson Objective Students will refine their understanding of analytical thinking and
innovation through direct instruction and two engaged learning
activities.
Materials and
Equipment
PowerPoint presentation
Computer
Projection system
Activity 1 Template (provide electronically through the LMS)
Activity 2 Template (provide electronically through the LMS)
Hook Slide 2 (glass half-full)
Instruction Present the lesson using the PPT slides and instructor notes
document, pausing to discuss important points and answer students’
questions.
Guided Practice Activity 1
Students will choose a controversial topic, identify their
assumptions, and conduct research to test their assumptions
Independent Practice Activity 2
Students will choose a problem and apply analytical thinking to
create an innovative solution
Assessment Collect students’ work for Activity 1 and Activity 2 to assess their
level of engagement with the ideas presented in class.

43. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
Activity 1 Template
1. Choose one of the three statements listed below.
2. State whether you agree or disagree with the statement you chose.
3. Make a list of all your assumptions about the statement.
a. What are your thoughts?
b. What are your feelings?
c. What are your beliefs.
4. Analyze and test your assumptions. Conduct an internet search for facts that could disprove
your assumptions. Your task is to test your assumptions, not to look for evidence to confirm
them. It’s easy to find sources that agree with your perspective but much more difficult to
investigate sources that disagree.
5. List the provable facts and truth you discovered in your search
6. Complete the reflective statement at the end of the template.
Statements
1. Pit bulls are a vicious dog breed and should be banned nationally.
2. Scientific objectivity is a myth: all science is inevitably affected by the researcher’s personal
biases and beliefs.
3. Violent video games are harmful to players’ mental health and lead to criminal behavior outside
of the game.
4. If none of these statements appeals to you:
a. Choose another controversial topic.
b. Write a statement similar to the three above.
c. Follow the other steps of this assignment as directed.
_________________________________________________________________
Please type your answers directly into the cells below each question.
Cells will automatically expand as needed.
1. Which statement did you choose?
2. Did you initially agree or disagree with this statement? Explain.
3. List all the assumptions, beliefs, feelings, or thoughts you have about this topic before conducting
your research.

44. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
4. Test your assumptions by searching for factual, provable, verifiable information that could
DISPROVE your original response to the question.
• Note the sources you consulted (you do not need a full scholarly citation – just including the
URL is acceptable for this activity) and what facts and truth you learned from them.
• Once you have found these facts, you can also search for factual, provable, verifiable
information that could prove your original response.
Remember: the point is to think analytically while confining your search to facts and truth.
Therefore, using blogs or other opinion-based sources is inadvisable.
5. Summarize your research by making a list of the key facts you discovered.
Reflective Summary
Provide a reflective answer to this question: how did this activity affect your original answer to the
statement you chose? Did you change your mind? Did your search for facts and truth confirm your
initial belief? Please describe your thought process and how you used analytical thinking in this
activity.
Please change the file name to include your last name before submitting your work.

45. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
Activity 2 Template
Step 1: Choose one of the problems below.
Step 2: Imagine how you would use one of the three models for analytical thinking and innovation that
we discussed in class.
First Principles Design Thinking Three Spaces of Innovation
1. State the goal
2. Identify assumptions
3. Break problem into its factual
components
4. Determine what is possible
5. Build a new solution
1. Empathize
2. Define
3. Ideate
4. Prototype
5. Test
1. Inspiration
2. Ideation
3. Implementation
Step 3: Describe each step of the process and illustrate what you would do and how you would do it. Be
as detailed and thorough as possible.
Step 4: Complete the reflective summary statement.
_________________________________________________________________
Problem 1 – Roommate Dilemma
• Problem: Two roommates in a standard dorm room have conflicting work/sleep schedules.
Redesign the space so that each person can work without disturbing the other’s sleep.
• Constraints:
o The room is 15 x 20 feet and contains two desks, two XL-twin beds, two chairs, and two
4-drawer dressers.
o The dorm offers bunking kits for beds.
o You cannot make any permanent modifications to the furniture or room.
Problem 2 – Healthy Lifestyle Upgrade
• Problem: You know that you should take action to improve your health by eating better and
exercising more, but you just can’t seem to make yourself do it.
• Constraints:
o You must maintain your existing commitments to work or school.
o You are limited to the resources already available to you (campus fitness center, dining
service, etc.)
Problem 3 – Redesign Your Morning Routine
• Problem: Your morning routine is a mess. No matter how early you set your alarm, you seem to
end up running out of time and end up running late. How can you make sure you get to work or
class on time?
• Constraints: This design option depends on the existing elements of your life, so the details are
up to you.

46. Analytical Thinking and Innovation
Problem 4 – Student Choice
• Describe a problem of your choice, either personal or a something that concerns you at a larger
scale.
• Use the strategies for innovation we’ve discussed to design a solution using analytical thinking
_________________________________________________________________
Please type your answers directly into the cells below each question.
Cells will automatically expand as needed.
Step 1: Which problem did you choose?
Step 2: How did you apply analytical thinking to the problem?
Step 3: What process did you use? Describe what you would do to solve the problem and how you
would do it. Your answer should be detailed and thorough. Attach additional drawings, diagrams, or
references as needed to explain your solution thoroughly.
Step 4: Provide a reflective answer to this question: how has what you learned in this lesson helped
you understand more about analytical thinking and innovation, and how might you use this
knowledge as a student or in your life after graduation?
Please change the file name to include your last name before submitting your work.