Anaerobic glyco
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Anaerobic glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to lactate when oxygen is limited. It provides energy for short, intense exercise from 10 seconds to 2 minutes. Under anaerobic conditions, NAD is regenerated by lactate dehydrogenase to allow glycolysis to continue, unlike aerobic conditions where hydrogen is transferred to oxygen through electron transport chains.
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and pyruvate. It mainly occurs in the liver and kidney cytosol. The key steps involve converting pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and overcoming the regulation of two irreversible glycolysis reactions through four unique gluconeogenic enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon that control the activity of the rate-limiting enzymes: glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and pyruvate carboxylase.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
Class 2 glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose or glycogen to produce energy in the form of ATP. It can occur aerobically or anaerobically. Glycolysis involves three phases - phosphorylation, splitting of hexose sugars, and energy capture through oxidation of triose sugars. The pathway produces pyruvate or lactate as end products depending on whether oxygen is present. Glycolysis is tightly regulated at key steps and provides energy for tissues even without oxygen present through anaerobic glycolysis.
Integration of Metabolism
1. After a meal, nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and triglycerides increase in the bloodstream. This causes insulin levels to rise and glucagon levels to fall.
2. In the fed state, the liver takes up nutrients from the bloodstream and directs them to storage or other tissues. Glucose is stored as glycogen or converted to fatty acids. Amino acids are used for protein synthesis.
3. The liver increases fatty acid synthesis, triglyceride synthesis, and releases triglycerides into the blood to be stored in adipose tissue and muscle. This allows storage of excess nutrients from meals.
Digestion and absorption of lipids
The major dietary lipids are triacylglycerols, cholesterol, phospholipids, and free fatty acids. Lipids are insoluble in water and require digestion by lipases and emulsification by bile salts to be broken down into absorbable components. In the small intestine, pancreatic lipase breaks triacylglycerols into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols within mixed micelles. Bile salts also aid in emulsifying lipids into smaller particles. Digestion products are absorbed via micelle diffusion and resynthesized into triglycerides and phospholipids within intestinal cells before transport to the liver via the lymphatic system or blood.
Gluconeogenesis -
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors and occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys. Key substrates include lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The process is regulated by substrate availability and key enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Gluconeogenesis is critical for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake.
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and pyruvate. It mainly occurs in the liver and kidney cytosol. The key steps involve converting pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and overcoming the regulation of two irreversible glycolysis reactions through four unique gluconeogenic enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon that control the activity of the rate-limiting enzymes: glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and pyruvate carboxylase.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
Class 2 glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose or glycogen to produce energy in the form of ATP. It can occur aerobically or anaerobically. Glycolysis involves three phases - phosphorylation, splitting of hexose sugars, and energy capture through oxidation of triose sugars. The pathway produces pyruvate or lactate as end products depending on whether oxygen is present. Glycolysis is tightly regulated at key steps and provides energy for tissues even without oxygen present through anaerobic glycolysis.
Integration of Metabolism
1. After a meal, nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and triglycerides increase in the bloodstream. This causes insulin levels to rise and glucagon levels to fall.
2. In the fed state, the liver takes up nutrients from the bloodstream and directs them to storage or other tissues. Glucose is stored as glycogen or converted to fatty acids. Amino acids are used for protein synthesis.
3. The liver increases fatty acid synthesis, triglyceride synthesis, and releases triglycerides into the blood to be stored in adipose tissue and muscle. This allows storage of excess nutrients from meals.
Digestion and absorption of lipids
The major dietary lipids are triacylglycerols, cholesterol, phospholipids, and free fatty acids. Lipids are insoluble in water and require digestion by lipases and emulsification by bile salts to be broken down into absorbable components. In the small intestine, pancreatic lipase breaks triacylglycerols into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols within mixed micelles. Bile salts also aid in emulsifying lipids into smaller particles. Digestion products are absorbed via micelle diffusion and resynthesized into triglycerides and phospholipids within intestinal cells before transport to the liver via the lymphatic system or blood.
Gluconeogenesis -
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors and occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys. Key substrates include lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The process is regulated by substrate availability and key enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Gluconeogenesis is critical for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose residues that serves as a storage form of glucose. It is composed mainly of α-1,4 glycosidic linkages with branches every tenth residue by α-1,6 linkages. Glycogen is found primarily in liver and muscle cells bound in granules and provides a readily available source of glucose through breakdown. Glycogen synthesis utilizes UDP-glucose and glycogenin to initiate polymer formation, while breakdown is catalyzed by phosphorylase releasing glucose-1-phosphate and other enzymes are needed to further process the glucose for energy production.
Ketosis
Ketosis occurs when the body needs to break down body fat for energy due to low glucose levels. This produces ketones as byproducts. Ketosis takes place when there is insufficient glucose available, such as during low-carb diets, lack of insulin, or excessive alcohol use. Very high ketone levels can make the blood acidic and cause the dangerous ketoacidosis condition. Ketosis is treated by replacing fluids, electrolytes, and administering insulin therapy to reverse the processes that caused it.
Regulation of glycogen metabolism
The document summarizes the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Key points include:
- Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are reciprocally regulated through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase enzymes by hormones like insulin and glucagon.
- Insulin promotes glycogenesis by stimulating dephosphorylation while glucagon promotes glycogenolysis by stimulating phosphorylation via the cAMP pathway.
- Regulation allows the storage of glucose as glycogen when blood glucose is high and the release of glucose from glycogen when blood glucose is low to maintain homeostasis.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH in the process. It is an ancient and nearly universal pathway that occurs in the cytosol of cells. Glycolysis consists of two phases - the preparatory phase in which ATP is consumed to modify glucose, and the payoff phase in which net ATP is produced. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose, isomerization to fructose, and cleavage and rearrangement to two trioses. This yields two pyruvate molecules, two ATP, and two NADH from each glucose. Glycolysis is highly regulated and crucial for energy production in most organisms.
GLUCONEOGENESIS & ITS REGULATION
This document summarizes gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. It describes the major substrates and sites of gluconeogenesis, its importance during fasting, and how it resembles the reversed pathway of glycolysis. Key enzymes that bypass irreversible glycolysis steps are pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by substrates, enzymes like pyruvate carboxylase, and hormones including glucagon and glucocorticoids.
TCA cycle- steps, regulation and significance
The document discusses the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), including its 8 steps, regulation, and significance. The TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondria and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuels like carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It harvests electrons from these fuels to produce NADH and FADH2, which are then used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and the production of cellular energy.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Fate of pyruvate - A quick review
This document discusses the fate of pyruvate in cells. Pyruvate can undergo several reactions depending on cellular conditions. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate. In mitochondria, pyruvate is carboxylated to oxaloacetate or transaminated to alanine. It can also be converted to malate or ethanol. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is regulated by phosphorylation and by products that inhibit or activate its enzymes.
Bioenergetics & Regulation of Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate that occurs in 10 steps and produces ATP and NADH. In the preparatory phase, 2 ATP are used to phosphorylate glucose. In the payoff phase, 4 ATP and 2 NADH are produced, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule. Glycolysis is regulated by 3 enzymes - hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Hormones like insulin and glucagon also affect glycolysis rates, with insulin promoting it and glucagon inhibiting it.
Overview of lipid metabolism
Lipid metabolism involves the oxidation of fatty acids to produce energy. There are three main types of fatty acid oxidation: beta, alpha, and omega. Beta-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria and breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA via a four-step process. Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in the liver through a series of reactions. Ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are produced from acetyl-CoA in the liver during periods of low glucose and provide energy for other tissues. Lipoproteins such as chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL are involved in transporting lipids between tissues.
Ketone bodies
They are water soluble substances.
2. They are synthesized at a relatively low rate in well nourished individuals.
3. Plasma level of ketone bodies < 1mg/dl.
4. Urinary level of ketone bodies <3 mg/24 hour urine.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It mainly takes place in the liver and kidneys. Key steps involve the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and regulation of enzymes like PEP carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or starvation when carbohydrate sources are limited.
Glycogen metabolism
This document summarizes glycogen metabolism. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose using enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, carried out by phosphorylase and debranching enzymes. The glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and can re-enter circulation from the liver or be used locally by tissues in glycolysis. Glycogen thus serves to maintain blood glucose levels and acts as a fuel reserve for muscles.
GLYCOGENOLYSIS & REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
- Glycogenolysis is the degradation of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle into glucose. It is carried out by independent cytosolic enzymes.
- Glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds in glycogen, producing glucose-1-phosphate. A debranching enzyme then breaks alpha-1,6 bonds to fully degrade glycogen.
- Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which can be further converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver, releasing it into circulation. Muscle lacks this enzyme and uses its glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
- Glycogen metabolism is regulated by hormones like
Glycolysis
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
URONIC ACID PATHWAY
This document summarizes the glucuronic acid pathway, an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose metabolism. It provides UDP-glucuronic acid, which is used to conjugate bilirubin, steroids, and drugs to make them more water soluble and excretable. The pathway also synthesizes glycosaminoglycans and is involved in vitamin C synthesis in many animals. Key steps include the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to UDP-glucuronate and the subsequent production of L-gulonate, a precursor for ascorbic acid synthesis. Certain genetic disorders can cause excess excretion of metabolites from this pathway such as L-xylulose in essential pentosuria.
Cori cycle
The Cori cycle is a metabolic pathway where lactic acid produced during anaerobic glycolysis in muscles is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose, which returns to the muscles. During intense exercise, muscles produce lactic acid when oxygen demand exceeds supply. The lactic acid travels to the liver where it is converted to pyruvate and then glucose through gluconeogenesis. The glucose returns to the muscles and is broken down again to lactic acid, completing the cycle. The Cori cycle plays an important role in preventing lactic acidosis in muscles during exercise and provides energy when muscle activity stops to repay oxygen debt.
Glycogenolysis biochemistry.ppt[1]
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main energy storage molecule in animal cells. It is broken down into glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis, which occurs primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle in response to hormones like glucagon and epinephrine. Glycogenolysis involves three key steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages via phosphorolysis to produce glucose-1-phosphate, 2) glycogen debranching enzyme cleaves α-1,6 linkages in branches, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. This glucose-6-phosphate
Transamination & deamination
A comprehensive presentation on Transamination & Deamination for MBBS, BDS ,B.Pharm & biotechnology students to facilitate self study.
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The term cellular respiration is an oxidation-reduction process in which organic food is broken-down inside the cell and energy is released, Hence it is the form of catabolic process.
Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes. Cellular respiration is a multi step process of breakdown of glucose to release energy.These include glycolysis, the preparatory reaction, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. ATP production is also discussed.The word glycolysis means “sugar splitting,” and that is
exactly what happens during this pathway. Glucose, a sixcarbon
sugar, is split into two three-carbon sugars.
Energy-ATP-and-Respiratoin.pptx
The document discusses cellular respiration and how energy is obtained from glucose to produce ATP through a series of metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain, where oxygen is the final electron acceptor and ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation using the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane. ATP is then used as the "energy currency" of cells to power various metabolic reactions and cellular work including muscle contraction, active transport, and biosynthesis.
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Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose residues that serves as a storage form of glucose. It is composed mainly of α-1,4 glycosidic linkages with branches every tenth residue by α-1,6 linkages. Glycogen is found primarily in liver and muscle cells bound in granules and provides a readily available source of glucose through breakdown. Glycogen synthesis utilizes UDP-glucose and glycogenin to initiate polymer formation, while breakdown is catalyzed by phosphorylase releasing glucose-1-phosphate and other enzymes are needed to further process the glucose for energy production.
Ketosis
Ketosis occurs when the body needs to break down body fat for energy due to low glucose levels. This produces ketones as byproducts. Ketosis takes place when there is insufficient glucose available, such as during low-carb diets, lack of insulin, or excessive alcohol use. Very high ketone levels can make the blood acidic and cause the dangerous ketoacidosis condition. Ketosis is treated by replacing fluids, electrolytes, and administering insulin therapy to reverse the processes that caused it.
Regulation of glycogen metabolism
The document summarizes the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Key points include:
- Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are reciprocally regulated through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase enzymes by hormones like insulin and glucagon.
- Insulin promotes glycogenesis by stimulating dephosphorylation while glucagon promotes glycogenolysis by stimulating phosphorylation via the cAMP pathway.
- Regulation allows the storage of glucose as glycogen when blood glucose is high and the release of glucose from glycogen when blood glucose is low to maintain homeostasis.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH in the process. It is an ancient and nearly universal pathway that occurs in the cytosol of cells. Glycolysis consists of two phases - the preparatory phase in which ATP is consumed to modify glucose, and the payoff phase in which net ATP is produced. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose, isomerization to fructose, and cleavage and rearrangement to two trioses. This yields two pyruvate molecules, two ATP, and two NADH from each glucose. Glycolysis is highly regulated and crucial for energy production in most organisms.
GLUCONEOGENESIS & ITS REGULATION
This document summarizes gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. It describes the major substrates and sites of gluconeogenesis, its importance during fasting, and how it resembles the reversed pathway of glycolysis. Key enzymes that bypass irreversible glycolysis steps are pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by substrates, enzymes like pyruvate carboxylase, and hormones including glucagon and glucocorticoids.
TCA cycle- steps, regulation and significance
The document discusses the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), including its 8 steps, regulation, and significance. The TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondria and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuels like carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It harvests electrons from these fuels to produce NADH and FADH2, which are then used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and the production of cellular energy.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Fate of pyruvate - A quick review
This document discusses the fate of pyruvate in cells. Pyruvate can undergo several reactions depending on cellular conditions. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced to lactate. In mitochondria, pyruvate is carboxylated to oxaloacetate or transaminated to alanine. It can also be converted to malate or ethanol. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is regulated by phosphorylation and by products that inhibit or activate its enzymes.
Bioenergetics & Regulation of Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate that occurs in 10 steps and produces ATP and NADH. In the preparatory phase, 2 ATP are used to phosphorylate glucose. In the payoff phase, 4 ATP and 2 NADH are produced, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule. Glycolysis is regulated by 3 enzymes - hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Hormones like insulin and glucagon also affect glycolysis rates, with insulin promoting it and glucagon inhibiting it.
Overview of lipid metabolism
Lipid metabolism involves the oxidation of fatty acids to produce energy. There are three main types of fatty acid oxidation: beta, alpha, and omega. Beta-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria and breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA via a four-step process. Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in the liver through a series of reactions. Ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are produced from acetyl-CoA in the liver during periods of low glucose and provide energy for other tissues. Lipoproteins such as chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL are involved in transporting lipids between tissues.
Ketone bodies
They are water soluble substances.
2. They are synthesized at a relatively low rate in well nourished individuals.
3. Plasma level of ketone bodies < 1mg/dl.
4. Urinary level of ketone bodies <3 mg/24 hour urine.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It mainly takes place in the liver and kidneys. Key steps involve the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and regulation of enzymes like PEP carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or starvation when carbohydrate sources are limited.
Glycogen metabolism
This document summarizes glycogen metabolism. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose using enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, carried out by phosphorylase and debranching enzymes. The glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and can re-enter circulation from the liver or be used locally by tissues in glycolysis. Glycogen thus serves to maintain blood glucose levels and acts as a fuel reserve for muscles.
GLYCOGENOLYSIS & REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
- Glycogenolysis is the degradation of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle into glucose. It is carried out by independent cytosolic enzymes.
- Glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds in glycogen, producing glucose-1-phosphate. A debranching enzyme then breaks alpha-1,6 bonds to fully degrade glycogen.
- Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate which can be further converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver, releasing it into circulation. Muscle lacks this enzyme and uses its glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.
- Glycogen metabolism is regulated by hormones like
Glycolysis
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
URONIC ACID PATHWAY
This document summarizes the glucuronic acid pathway, an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose metabolism. It provides UDP-glucuronic acid, which is used to conjugate bilirubin, steroids, and drugs to make them more water soluble and excretable. The pathway also synthesizes glycosaminoglycans and is involved in vitamin C synthesis in many animals. Key steps include the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to UDP-glucuronate and the subsequent production of L-gulonate, a precursor for ascorbic acid synthesis. Certain genetic disorders can cause excess excretion of metabolites from this pathway such as L-xylulose in essential pentosuria.
Cori cycle
The Cori cycle is a metabolic pathway where lactic acid produced during anaerobic glycolysis in muscles is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose, which returns to the muscles. During intense exercise, muscles produce lactic acid when oxygen demand exceeds supply. The lactic acid travels to the liver where it is converted to pyruvate and then glucose through gluconeogenesis. The glucose returns to the muscles and is broken down again to lactic acid, completing the cycle. The Cori cycle plays an important role in preventing lactic acidosis in muscles during exercise and provides energy when muscle activity stops to repay oxygen debt.
Glycogenolysis biochemistry.ppt[1]
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main energy storage molecule in animal cells. It is broken down into glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis, which occurs primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle in response to hormones like glucagon and epinephrine. Glycogenolysis involves three key steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages via phosphorolysis to produce glucose-1-phosphate, 2) glycogen debranching enzyme cleaves α-1,6 linkages in branches, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. This glucose-6-phosphate
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The term cellular respiration is an oxidation-reduction process in which organic food is broken-down inside the cell and energy is released, Hence it is the form of catabolic process.
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This study investigated the effects of chemically cross-linking the enzymes glucose oxidase (GOx) and catalase (CAT) to simulate their proximity in peroxisomes. The cross-linked enzymes (XGC) were compared to non-cross-linked enzymes (nXGC) in producing and decomposing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). XGC produced lower levels of H2O2 over a longer period of time and decomposed H2O2 faster than nXGC due to the enzymes' closer proximity. This suggests cross-linking GOx and CAT can reduce H2O2 accumulation and accelerate decomposition, mimicking peroxisomes' enhanced antioxidant effects.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells use oxygen and food to produce energy in the form of ATP. Glucose and oxygen are broken down through a series of steps, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing carbon dioxide, water, and ATP as byproducts. All living organisms undergo cellular respiration to power their metabolic functions. It is the opposite of photosynthesis and relies on sugars produced through photosynthesis.
Carbohydrate metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism and regulation of blood sugar involves several key pathways:
Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate and is regulated by three enzymes. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle aerobically or be reduced to lactate anaerobically. Gluconeogenesis synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrates in the liver. Glycogen metabolism involves glycogenesis to store glucose as glycogen and glycogenolysis to break down glycogen back to glucose. The HMP shunt pathway generates reducing power and pentoses using a portion of glucose. Dental caries and periodontal disease can be influenced by carbohydrate intake and metabolism.
Baeyer Villiger Oxidation of Ketones, Cannizzaro Reaction, MPV
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1) The Baeyer-Villiger oxidation reaction involves the oxidation of ketones with peroxy acids to form esters through a rearrangement reaction.
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Photorespiration & functioning of Rubisco enzyme
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Techno-Economic_Analysis_of_Brine_Treatment_by_Mul.pdf
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A level biology photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to produce food from carbon dioxide and water. It occurs in two main stages:
1. Light-dependent reactions trap light energy from the sun using chlorophyll and use it to split water molecules and produce ATP and NADPH. This takes place in the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplasts.
2. Light-independent reactions use the ATP and NADPH to fix carbon from carbon dioxide into organic carbohydrates like glucose. This occurs in the chloroplast stroma and is known as the Calvin cycle. The overall equation is 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Photolysis or photosplitting of w ater
The document summarizes different methods for photolysis of water, which is the process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using light. It describes (1) electrolysis, thermal decomposition, photobiological, and photoelectrochemical water splitting. Photoelectrochemical water splitting involves using semiconductors to obtain electrical energy for splitting water. It can use photovoltaic cells, semiconductor-liquid junctions, or a combination. The document also discusses the role of band gaps in metal oxides used as photocatalysts and explains photobiological water splitting using algae. It concludes that hydrogen is a promising fuel that can be obtained through photosplitting of water.
Biomethanation of organic waste, Anaerobic degradation,Degradation of organic...
Energy has a major economical and political role to play in the modern day society. Energy consumption in the developed countries has more or less stabilized whereas in developing countries like India and China it is increasing at a phenomenal rate. The Government is looking forward to Biomethanation as a secondary source of energy by utilizing industrial, agricultural and municipal solid wastes. A large amount of money is being invested in this direction with various projects under different stages of implementation and many to follow them. Hence the long-term sustainability of the technology needs to be judged. Various potential merits of Biomethanation like reduction in land requirement for disposal, preservation of environmental quality, etc. are the spin off of the process. A study of biomethanation plant in different developed countries and India has been carried out. To understand the technical feasibility in the Indian context, a comparison is made between the characteristics of Indian waste and the ideal wastes characteristics. Further problems of the operational stability, commercial viability of biomethanation in India, developmental plans covering issues in the formulation of national policy, improvements in collection and transportation systems, marketing strategy, and funds allocation has been highlighted .With the growing energy crisis supplemented by environmental concerns, Biomethanation can serve as a potential waste-to-energy generation alternative.
With the ever increasing awareness of green house gases and its adverse impact on the environment, pursue of Biomethanation of Municipal Solid Waste will drastically reduce the emission of CH4 and CO¬2, earning the country precious carbon credits. It will also forge India among developing countries, leading in adoption of technology which suffices the broad guidelines as laid under KAYOTO PROTOCOL.
Respiration
Respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled oxidation and reduction reactions where carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis are oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen is reduced to water. There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration, which occurs in the presence of oxygen, and anaerobic respiration, which occurs in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration has two types - lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Glycolysis is the first step of respiration, occurring with or without oxygen. The Krebs cycle is another step where pyruvic acid from glycolysis undergoes further oxidation, producing carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The electron transport chain uses carriers like cytoch
Manufacture of caustic soda and chlorine using electrolysis process ...
This document discusses the manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda using electrolysis processes. It provides background on the chlor-alkali industry and describes the three main electrolysis processes: diaphragm cell, mercury cell, and membrane cell. The membrane cell process is highlighted as the most energy efficient and environmentally friendly option. Properties and production details of chlorine, caustic soda, and hydrogen are also outlined. A literature review covers previous research on improving chlor-alkali cell efficiency and treating wastewater from the process.
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The document discusses runaway reactions that can occur in batch and semi-batch reactors due to a competition between the heat generated by an exothermic reaction and the heat removed from the reaction vessel. It introduces the concept of thermally stable and unstable operating points based on the relationship between heat production and heat removal rates. The Seveso accident in 1976 is presented as an example of an uncontrolled runaway reaction that contaminated a nearby village due to inadequate safety systems and understanding of reaction kinetics and thermal behavior.
acid base catalysed Ester hydrolysis
The document discusses various mechanisms for ester hydrolysis reactions. It describes 8 possible mechanisms - AAC1, AAC2, AAL1, etc. - that differentiate between acid-catalyzed and base-catalyzed reactions, and whether the bond breaks at the acyl or alkyl carbon. The most common mechanisms are AAC2 for acid hydrolysis, involving a tetrahedral intermediate, and BAC2 for base hydrolysis, also proceeding through a tetrahedral intermediate. Rare mechanisms like AAC1 and BAL1 can occur for certain esters when the leaving group easily forms a stable carbonium ion.
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Cellular Respiration Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport
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Anaerobic glyco
- 2. ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS - • IS THE TRANSFORMATION OF GLUCOSE TO LACTATE WHEN LIMITED AMOUNTS OF OXYGEN(O2) ARE AVAILABLE. • ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS IS ONLY AN EFFECTIVE MEANS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION DURING SHORT, INTENSE EXERCISE, PROVIDING ENERGY FOR A PERIOD RANGING FROM 10 SECONDS TO 2 MINUTES.
- 3. GLYCOLYSIS UNDER AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS • REGENARATION OF CYTOSOLIC NAD UNDER AEROBIC CONDITION • UNDER ANAEROBIC CONDITION ,NAD IS REGENERATED BY LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE • ETHANOLIC FERMENTATION IN YEAST SERVES A DUAL PURPOSE
- 4. • THE INITIAL PHOSPHORYLATION REACTIONS (STEPS 1 AND 3 IN SLIDE 3.2) EXPEND TWO MOLECULES OF ATP. ONE MOLECULE OF ATP EACH IS OBTAINED IN STEPS 7 AND 10. SINCE ALL OF THE STEPS FROM 6 TO 11 OCCUR TWICE PER MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE, THE NET BALANCE IS A GAIN OF TWO MOLES OF ATP PER MOLE OF GLUCOSE—A VERY MODEST CONTRIBUTION TO THE FINAL TALLY. STILL, GLYCOLYSIS IS A VIABLE SOURCE OF ATP, AND IT IS THE MAJOR ONE THAT OPERATES IN OUR TISSUES UNDER ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS, THAT IS, WHILE OXYGEN IS IN SHORT SUPPLY. THIS CONCERNS MOSTLY SKELETAL MUSCLE DURING MAXIMAL EXERCISE, SUCH AS A 100 METER DASH. AS NOTED ABOVE, ERYTHROCYTES AND SOME OTHER CELL TYPES RELY ON ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS EVEN UNDER AEROBIC CONDITIONS.
- 5. THE GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE REACTION (STEP 6 IN SLIDE 3.2) REDUCES ONE EQUIVALENT OF NAD+ TO NADH. THE CONCENTRATION OF NAD+ IN THE CYTOSOL IS NOT HIGH, AND IT MUST THEREFORE BE REGENERATED FROM NADH IN ORDER FOR GLYCOLYSIS TO CONTINUE. UNDER AEROBIC CONDITIONS, THE HYDROGEN IS TRANSFERRED FROM NADH TO ONE OF SEVERAL CARRIERS THAT DELIVER IT TO THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN IN THE MITOCHONDRIA, AND ULTIMATELY TO OXYGEN. THESE SHUTTLE MECHANISMS ARE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN SECTION 6.9. UNDER ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS, THIS IS IMPOSSIBLE; THEREFORE, OTHER MEANS FOR HYDROGEN DISPOSAL ARE REQUIRED.
- 6. • ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS ALSO OCCURS IN MANY MICROBES, WHICH ALSO FACE THE NEED TO REOXIDIZE NADH. WITHOUT THE OPTION OF REVERTING TO OXIDATIVE METABOLISM WITHIN A SHORT TIME SPAN, THEY MUST ALSO DEAL WITH THE CONTINUED ACCUMULATION OF ACID. THE YEAST SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE SOLVES THIS PROBLEM THROUGH ETHANOLIC FERMENTATION: THE ACID IS CONVERTED TO A NEUTRAL AND CONSIDERABLY LESS TOXIC COMPOUND (ETHANOL) VIA DECARBOXYLATION. THE CO2 DEVELOPED IN THIS REACTION MAKES BREAD DOUGH RISE UP, WHEREAS THE ETHANOL DOES THE SAME TO GOVERNMENT TAX REVENUE.*
- 7. ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS SYSTEM -Also has some alternative names,the lactic acid or the lactacid system -this system mainly provides the bulk of ATP production during high intensity ,sub-maximal efforts. -it may also become the dominant producer of ATP during repeated phosphate efforts which have insufficient recovery time allow full phosphocreatine Replenishment
- 8. -THE ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS SYSTEM IS CLOSELY LINKED WITH SEVERAL FITNESS COMPONENTS • ANAEROBIC POWER • LOCAL MUSCULAR ENDURANCE • SPEED • MUSCULAR POWER
- 9. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS • AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS HAS CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER AS BY PRODUCTS WHILE ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS HAVE CHUMS OUT BY PRODUCT SUCH AS ETHYL ALCOHOL IN PLANTS AND LACTIC ACID IN ANIMALS • ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS ON THE OTHER HAND OCCURS WHEN GLUCOSE IS BROKEN DOWN WITHOUT THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN