This document discusses air and moisture permeability of textile layers through numerical simulation methods. It begins by defining air permeability and describing a common method to determine permeability parameters by comparing experimental flow data to an equation. It then provides examples of simulating idealized fabric structures and combined cloth layers to model airflow. The document concludes by discussing a recommended three-layer clothing combination and analyzing moisture transport and insulation properties using physical principles.
Modeling of Rough Surface and Contact Simulationijsrd.com
As a result of limitation of manufacturing processes, real surfaces always have some roughness and surface curvature. In many heat transfer applications, the perfectly smooth surfaces are necessary to transmit the heat. Due to the surface curvature of contacting bodies, the macro-contact area is formed, the area where micro-contacts are distributed randomly. The real contact occurs only over microscopic contacts. The heat flow must pass through the macro-contact and then micro-contacts to transfer from one body to another to form heat conductance. This phenomenon leads to a relatively high temperature drop across the interface. Thermal contact resistance (TCR) is a complex interdisciplinary problem, which includes geometrical, mechanical, and thermal analyses. In this paper, geometric modeling of asperities of rough surface 2 μm, 3.2 μm and 15μm surface roughness's is done in ANSYS and the number of asperities and areal contact area is found. The simulation is done with 1.8MPa pressure and with SS 304 as material for all above mentioned surface roughness's. The contacting bodies are kept at LN2 temperature and atmospheric temperature.
Title: In-plane Permeability measurement of Fibrous materials with unknown principle axes by compaction method.
Many industries are facing major challenges of weight reduction of huge metallic structures. In order to reduce the weight of structures, manufacturers are willing to replace metallic parts by composites. In order to produce efficiently composite parts, material's properties have to be measured. Among them, the permeability tensor of fibrous media is of great importance. It is a measure of the ease of flow for a viscous liquid(resin) in the fibrous media along the three directions of space.
Within this context, the study will aim at developing the technique to measure the in-plane tensor for unknown materials or materials of unknown principal permeability directions by using compaction of fibrous material and we will develop the numerical model
Tool - MATLAB, Comsol Multiphysics.
Comparative Study of Morphological, Correlation, Hybrid and DCSFPSS based Mor...IDES Editor
This paper proposes comparative study of two basic
approaches such as Morphological Approach (MA) and
Correlation Approach (CA) and three modified algorithms
over the basic approaches for detection of micronatured defects
occurring in plain weave fabrics. A Hybrid of CA followed by
MA was developed and has shown to overcome the drawbacks
of the basic methods. As automation of MA using DC
Suppressed Fourier Power Spectrum Sum (DCSFPSS),
DCSFPSSMA could not yield improvement in Overall
Detection Accuracy (ODA) for micronatured defects,
automation of modified Hybrid Approach (HA) was proposed
leading to the development of Tribrid Approach (TA). Modified
Hybrid approach involves cascade operation of CA and MA
both automated using DCSFPSS. Texture periodicity of defect
free fabric was obtained using DCSFPSS which was extended
for the design and extraction of defect independent template
for CA and for the design of the size of structuring element
for morphological filtering process. Overall Detection
Accuracy was used by adopting simple binary based defect
search algorithm as the last step in the experimentation to
detect the defects. Overall Detection Accuracy was found to be
~100%/97.41%/ 98.7 % for 247 samples of warp break defect/
double pick/ normal samples and 96.1% /99% for 205 thick
place defect samples/normal samples belonging to two
different plain grey fabric classes. Robustness of the
performance of TA scheme was tested by comparing TA with
two traditional algorithms viz., CA and MA and our previously
proposed hybrid algorithm and DCSFPSSMA. This TA
algorithm outperformed when compared to CA-only, MA-only,
HA and DCSFPSSMA by yielding an overall ODA of more
than 98% for the defect and defect free samples of different
fabric classes. Secondly, the recognition of defect area less
than 1 mm2 which has not been reported in the literature yet,
was possible using this algorithm. We propose to use this
method as a means to grade the grey fabric similar to the
standard fabric grading system.
Prediction of Draw Ratio in Deep Drawing through Software Simulationsirjes
Deep drawing process is one of the most commonly used Metal Forming Process within the
industrial field. Different analytical, numerical, empirical and experimental methods have been developed in
order to analyze it. In this paper deep drawing process with varying punch and die geometries are analysed. This
work reports on the stages of finite element analysis (FEA) and simulations of a Deep drawing process. The
obtained result allows to find optimum draw ratios in deep drawing.
A Comparison of micro CT with other techniques used in the characterization of scaffolds.
Biomaterials 27 (2006) 1362 - 1376
Saey Tuan Ho, Dietmar W. Hutmacher
Modeling of Rough Surface and Contact Simulationijsrd.com
As a result of limitation of manufacturing processes, real surfaces always have some roughness and surface curvature. In many heat transfer applications, the perfectly smooth surfaces are necessary to transmit the heat. Due to the surface curvature of contacting bodies, the macro-contact area is formed, the area where micro-contacts are distributed randomly. The real contact occurs only over microscopic contacts. The heat flow must pass through the macro-contact and then micro-contacts to transfer from one body to another to form heat conductance. This phenomenon leads to a relatively high temperature drop across the interface. Thermal contact resistance (TCR) is a complex interdisciplinary problem, which includes geometrical, mechanical, and thermal analyses. In this paper, geometric modeling of asperities of rough surface 2 μm, 3.2 μm and 15μm surface roughness's is done in ANSYS and the number of asperities and areal contact area is found. The simulation is done with 1.8MPa pressure and with SS 304 as material for all above mentioned surface roughness's. The contacting bodies are kept at LN2 temperature and atmospheric temperature.
Title: In-plane Permeability measurement of Fibrous materials with unknown principle axes by compaction method.
Many industries are facing major challenges of weight reduction of huge metallic structures. In order to reduce the weight of structures, manufacturers are willing to replace metallic parts by composites. In order to produce efficiently composite parts, material's properties have to be measured. Among them, the permeability tensor of fibrous media is of great importance. It is a measure of the ease of flow for a viscous liquid(resin) in the fibrous media along the three directions of space.
Within this context, the study will aim at developing the technique to measure the in-plane tensor for unknown materials or materials of unknown principal permeability directions by using compaction of fibrous material and we will develop the numerical model
Tool - MATLAB, Comsol Multiphysics.
Comparative Study of Morphological, Correlation, Hybrid and DCSFPSS based Mor...IDES Editor
This paper proposes comparative study of two basic
approaches such as Morphological Approach (MA) and
Correlation Approach (CA) and three modified algorithms
over the basic approaches for detection of micronatured defects
occurring in plain weave fabrics. A Hybrid of CA followed by
MA was developed and has shown to overcome the drawbacks
of the basic methods. As automation of MA using DC
Suppressed Fourier Power Spectrum Sum (DCSFPSS),
DCSFPSSMA could not yield improvement in Overall
Detection Accuracy (ODA) for micronatured defects,
automation of modified Hybrid Approach (HA) was proposed
leading to the development of Tribrid Approach (TA). Modified
Hybrid approach involves cascade operation of CA and MA
both automated using DCSFPSS. Texture periodicity of defect
free fabric was obtained using DCSFPSS which was extended
for the design and extraction of defect independent template
for CA and for the design of the size of structuring element
for morphological filtering process. Overall Detection
Accuracy was used by adopting simple binary based defect
search algorithm as the last step in the experimentation to
detect the defects. Overall Detection Accuracy was found to be
~100%/97.41%/ 98.7 % for 247 samples of warp break defect/
double pick/ normal samples and 96.1% /99% for 205 thick
place defect samples/normal samples belonging to two
different plain grey fabric classes. Robustness of the
performance of TA scheme was tested by comparing TA with
two traditional algorithms viz., CA and MA and our previously
proposed hybrid algorithm and DCSFPSSMA. This TA
algorithm outperformed when compared to CA-only, MA-only,
HA and DCSFPSSMA by yielding an overall ODA of more
than 98% for the defect and defect free samples of different
fabric classes. Secondly, the recognition of defect area less
than 1 mm2 which has not been reported in the literature yet,
was possible using this algorithm. We propose to use this
method as a means to grade the grey fabric similar to the
standard fabric grading system.
Prediction of Draw Ratio in Deep Drawing through Software Simulationsirjes
Deep drawing process is one of the most commonly used Metal Forming Process within the
industrial field. Different analytical, numerical, empirical and experimental methods have been developed in
order to analyze it. In this paper deep drawing process with varying punch and die geometries are analysed. This
work reports on the stages of finite element analysis (FEA) and simulations of a Deep drawing process. The
obtained result allows to find optimum draw ratios in deep drawing.
A Comparison of micro CT with other techniques used in the characterization of scaffolds.
Biomaterials 27 (2006) 1362 - 1376
Saey Tuan Ho, Dietmar W. Hutmacher
Damage detection in cfrp plates by means of numerical modeling of lamb waves ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The paper presents an application of modeling acoustic waves propagation in a carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) plates for
damage detection. This task is a part of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods which are very important in many industry
branches. Propagation of Lamb waves is modeled using three-dimensional finite element method by means of commercial
software. In the paper three different cases of plate structures with and without flaws are considered to present review of selected
methods for the detection of defects in time and frequency domain. These are comparisons of: A-scans, B-scans, dispersion
curves, spectrograms, scalograms and energy plots. Developed numerical model first has been validated by means of analytical
solution for isotropic plate.
Keywords: Lamb waves, non-destructive testing, finite element method, damage detection
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Evaluation of Air Flow Characteristics of Aerostatic Thrust Porous Bearings: A Numerical Approach by Marcelo Gustavo Coelho Resende, Leandro José da Silva, Cláudio de Castro Pellegrini and Túlio Hallak Panzera* in Evolutions in Mechanical Engineering: Crimson Publishers_ Structural engineering
Aerostatic porous bearings have been investigated in the last decades for precision engineering designs, since these bearings offer zero-friction and high operating speeds, as well as providing a very precise positioning system without external influence. Numerical methods such as CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) play an important role in the design and behavior analysis of porous aerostatic bearings, being possible to adjust the geometry and characteristics of the porous restrictor even before its manufacture In the present work, the behavior of the gas at the inlet and outlet of a porous thrust bearing made of cementitious composites is analysed by numerical simulation using CFD method. The results reveal a stable behavior of the cementitious porous bearing and a good correlation between numerical and experimental load capacities.
https://crimsonpublishers.com/eme/fulltext/EME.000520.php
For More open access journals in Crimson Publishers
please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For More Articles on Structural engineering
Please click on: https://crimsonpublishers.com/eme
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
1.Critically assess the aerodynamic characteristics of a vehicle.
2.Select and specify the most appropriate methods for wind tunnel testing of scale models and interpret the results of the test.
3.Analyse and critically evaluate the aerodynamic cooling systems.
Multiscale Modeling Approach for Prediction the Elastic Modulus of Percolated...ijtsrd
In this study the effective elastic modulus of cellulose nanocrystal CNC network is evaluated using multiscale method and micromechanical analysis. For this purpose, the elastic modulus of CNC water phases are randomly assigned to a two dimensional 2D checkerboard structure and the elastic response is evaluated. In addition, the effect of having a different number of phases CNC, water and interface is evaluated by assigning a discreet and continuous distribution of elastic modulus to checkerboard structure. When the number of phases increases dramatically, the distribution of phases is continuous and is defined with Weibull distribution. The results show that for two phase materials CNC and water when the microstructure has organized pattern the rule of the mixture and numerical model provide the same effective modulus, however when the microstructure is completely random, the self consistent micromechanical model should be used. Also, this study suggests 50 volume fraction as the percolation threshold for the CNC network with 10 GPa effective elastic modulus. The results from percolated multiphase network reveal that for microstructures with 4 phases and above, the percolated network converge to 35 GPa. Mehrdad Bor | Jim Huang "Multiscale Modeling Approach for Prediction the Elastic Modulus of Percolated Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) Network" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26553.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/26553/multiscale-modeling-approach-for-prediction-the-elastic-modulus-of-percolated-cellulose-nanocrystal-cnc-network/mehrdad-bor
Numerical simulations have been undertaken
for the benchmark problem in a Square cavity by using
computational fluid dynamics software. This work aims at
discussing the fundamental numerical and computational
fluid dynamic aspects which can lead to the definition of
the following meshing methods and turbulence models.
The meshes used for the simulation are hexahedral,
hexahedral cell with near wall refinement, tetrahedral
grid, polyhedral, tetrahedral with near wall refinement
and polyhedral mesh with prism layer cells based the near
wall thickness of Y+ less than one. The turbulence models
used for the simulation work are AKN K-Epsilon Low-Re,
Realizable K-Epsilon, Realizable K-Epsilon Two-Layer,
standard K-Epsilon, standard K-Epsilon Low-Re,
Standard K-Epsilon Two-Layer, V2F K-Epsilon,
SST(Menter) K-Omega, and Standard(Wilcox) K-Omega.
From these meshes and turbulence models, we will
conclude the suitable mesh and turbulence for the
recirculation flow by the grid independent test. These
analytical values of results are compared with reference
data which gives an optimization of experimental work.
Unsteady simulation was ran for all the Grid Independent
mesh with the SST k omega model with the time step of
0.01 sec for 40 seconds. The flow nature is studied with
and without the temperature for Reynolds number, 1000
and 10000.
Atmospheric turbulent layer simulation for cfd unsteady inlet conditionsStephane Meteodyn
The aim of this work is to bridge the gap between experimental approaches in wind tunnel testing and numerical computations, in the field of structural design against strong winds. This paper focuses on the generation of an unsteady flow field, representative of a natural wind field, but still compatible with CFD inlet requirements. A simple and “naïve” procedure is explained, and the results are successfully compared to some standards.
The aim of this paper is to show the possibilities offered by Scilab/Xcos to model and simulate aeraulic and HVAC systems. In particular we develop a new Xcos module combined with the use of Modelica language to show how aeraulic systems can be modeled and studied. In this paper we construct a reduced library composed by few elements: hoods, pipes and ideal junctions. The library can be easily extended to obtain a more complete toolbox. The developed library is tested on a simple aeraulic circuit.
Simulations Of Unsteady Flow Around A Generic Pickup Truck Using Reynolds Ave...Abhishek Jain
Above Research Paper can be downloaded from www.zeusnumerix.com
The research paper aims to replicate the wind tunnel test of General Motors pick-up truck using CFD analysis. The pickup is a blunt body and simulation reveals vortex shedding from the edges of the vehicle downstream. The unsteadiness of this phenomenon is seen in the oscillation of residue. The paper shows matching of velocity magnitude downstream of the vortex. Authors - Bahram Khalighi (GM, USA), Basant Gupta et al Zeus Numerix.
Damage detection in cfrp plates by means of numerical modeling of lamb waves ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The paper presents an application of modeling acoustic waves propagation in a carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) plates for
damage detection. This task is a part of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods which are very important in many industry
branches. Propagation of Lamb waves is modeled using three-dimensional finite element method by means of commercial
software. In the paper three different cases of plate structures with and without flaws are considered to present review of selected
methods for the detection of defects in time and frequency domain. These are comparisons of: A-scans, B-scans, dispersion
curves, spectrograms, scalograms and energy plots. Developed numerical model first has been validated by means of analytical
solution for isotropic plate.
Keywords: Lamb waves, non-destructive testing, finite element method, damage detection
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Evaluation of Air Flow Characteristics of Aerostatic Thrust Porous Bearings: A Numerical Approach by Marcelo Gustavo Coelho Resende, Leandro José da Silva, Cláudio de Castro Pellegrini and Túlio Hallak Panzera* in Evolutions in Mechanical Engineering: Crimson Publishers_ Structural engineering
Aerostatic porous bearings have been investigated in the last decades for precision engineering designs, since these bearings offer zero-friction and high operating speeds, as well as providing a very precise positioning system without external influence. Numerical methods such as CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) play an important role in the design and behavior analysis of porous aerostatic bearings, being possible to adjust the geometry and characteristics of the porous restrictor even before its manufacture In the present work, the behavior of the gas at the inlet and outlet of a porous thrust bearing made of cementitious composites is analysed by numerical simulation using CFD method. The results reveal a stable behavior of the cementitious porous bearing and a good correlation between numerical and experimental load capacities.
https://crimsonpublishers.com/eme/fulltext/EME.000520.php
For More open access journals in Crimson Publishers
please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For More Articles on Structural engineering
Please click on: https://crimsonpublishers.com/eme
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
1.Critically assess the aerodynamic characteristics of a vehicle.
2.Select and specify the most appropriate methods for wind tunnel testing of scale models and interpret the results of the test.
3.Analyse and critically evaluate the aerodynamic cooling systems.
Multiscale Modeling Approach for Prediction the Elastic Modulus of Percolated...ijtsrd
In this study the effective elastic modulus of cellulose nanocrystal CNC network is evaluated using multiscale method and micromechanical analysis. For this purpose, the elastic modulus of CNC water phases are randomly assigned to a two dimensional 2D checkerboard structure and the elastic response is evaluated. In addition, the effect of having a different number of phases CNC, water and interface is evaluated by assigning a discreet and continuous distribution of elastic modulus to checkerboard structure. When the number of phases increases dramatically, the distribution of phases is continuous and is defined with Weibull distribution. The results show that for two phase materials CNC and water when the microstructure has organized pattern the rule of the mixture and numerical model provide the same effective modulus, however when the microstructure is completely random, the self consistent micromechanical model should be used. Also, this study suggests 50 volume fraction as the percolation threshold for the CNC network with 10 GPa effective elastic modulus. The results from percolated multiphase network reveal that for microstructures with 4 phases and above, the percolated network converge to 35 GPa. Mehrdad Bor | Jim Huang "Multiscale Modeling Approach for Prediction the Elastic Modulus of Percolated Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) Network" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26553.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/26553/multiscale-modeling-approach-for-prediction-the-elastic-modulus-of-percolated-cellulose-nanocrystal-cnc-network/mehrdad-bor
Numerical simulations have been undertaken
for the benchmark problem in a Square cavity by using
computational fluid dynamics software. This work aims at
discussing the fundamental numerical and computational
fluid dynamic aspects which can lead to the definition of
the following meshing methods and turbulence models.
The meshes used for the simulation are hexahedral,
hexahedral cell with near wall refinement, tetrahedral
grid, polyhedral, tetrahedral with near wall refinement
and polyhedral mesh with prism layer cells based the near
wall thickness of Y+ less than one. The turbulence models
used for the simulation work are AKN K-Epsilon Low-Re,
Realizable K-Epsilon, Realizable K-Epsilon Two-Layer,
standard K-Epsilon, standard K-Epsilon Low-Re,
Standard K-Epsilon Two-Layer, V2F K-Epsilon,
SST(Menter) K-Omega, and Standard(Wilcox) K-Omega.
From these meshes and turbulence models, we will
conclude the suitable mesh and turbulence for the
recirculation flow by the grid independent test. These
analytical values of results are compared with reference
data which gives an optimization of experimental work.
Unsteady simulation was ran for all the Grid Independent
mesh with the SST k omega model with the time step of
0.01 sec for 40 seconds. The flow nature is studied with
and without the temperature for Reynolds number, 1000
and 10000.
Atmospheric turbulent layer simulation for cfd unsteady inlet conditionsStephane Meteodyn
The aim of this work is to bridge the gap between experimental approaches in wind tunnel testing and numerical computations, in the field of structural design against strong winds. This paper focuses on the generation of an unsteady flow field, representative of a natural wind field, but still compatible with CFD inlet requirements. A simple and “naïve” procedure is explained, and the results are successfully compared to some standards.
The aim of this paper is to show the possibilities offered by Scilab/Xcos to model and simulate aeraulic and HVAC systems. In particular we develop a new Xcos module combined with the use of Modelica language to show how aeraulic systems can be modeled and studied. In this paper we construct a reduced library composed by few elements: hoods, pipes and ideal junctions. The library can be easily extended to obtain a more complete toolbox. The developed library is tested on a simple aeraulic circuit.
Simulations Of Unsteady Flow Around A Generic Pickup Truck Using Reynolds Ave...Abhishek Jain
Above Research Paper can be downloaded from www.zeusnumerix.com
The research paper aims to replicate the wind tunnel test of General Motors pick-up truck using CFD analysis. The pickup is a blunt body and simulation reveals vortex shedding from the edges of the vehicle downstream. The unsteadiness of this phenomenon is seen in the oscillation of residue. The paper shows matching of velocity magnitude downstream of the vortex. Authors - Bahram Khalighi (GM, USA), Basant Gupta et al Zeus Numerix.
Computer Modeling Air Drawing in Melt Blowing Nonwovens Process Produced by D...ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Structure failure often occurs in the structure of wall. This failure can adversely affect the comfort level of the structure. Knowing the behavior of structure resulting from the load is important, as it can help to predict the strength of the structure and comfort of the structure being worked on. One way to find out and predict the strength and comfort of the structure as a result of the load received is experimental test and simulation. The simulation VecTor2 used to predict the shear force, crack, and displacement of reinforced concrete wall when applied the load. This simulation considered the effect of bond stress-slip effect of behavior reinforced concrete. Bonds stress-slip gives a great influence on the strength and hysteretic response of the reinforced concrete wall. That is why this study considers the influence of bond stress-slip on reinforced concrete wall. All the result of simulation VecTor2 using bond stress-slip effect would be compared with the result of the experimental test to see the accuracy of the simulation test.
The concept of sustainable construction is increasingly affecting the development of the construction market.The specificity of construction as an economic activity and ofthe construction product (goods and services) determine the existence of a complex vertical chain of links, involving different actors, who tend to work in the short term and are limited to the rational use of knowledge and experience in practice. Moreover, it is characterized by a low level of inter-company relationshipsresulting in a fragmentation of responsibilityand complicates and hinders the realization of projects and sites,which meet the requirements of sustainable construction. Sustainable construction requires a holistic approach and substantial changes in the organization of construction activity, both at the market and firm level, under the active role of the state. The aim of the study is: 1) analysis of problems in the vertical chain of connections in the construction market, 2)an analysis of the possibilities for creating stable long-term relationships and a joint approach of clients, contractors and subcontractors, which can provide economic, social and environmental efficiency of the construction.
Since the recent development of UAVs(Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) and digital sensors technology has enabled the acquisition of high-resolution image data, it is considered that the image data of riverside can be analysed. Therefore, this study analyses the applicability of remote sensing techniques through image analysis in river systems and habitats. The target stream in this study was the Cheongmi stream and the applicability of the river environmental evaluation technique was analysed through image analysis. The satellite images used for the analysis of river topography and environments were compared with the aerial images taken by a micro UAV), and the river environmental evaluation was carried out with the field research at the same time. The data acquisition range and application limit by river environmental evaluation technique proposed previously were evaluated, and as a result, it was found that it was possible to draw various evaluation parameters using a drone that could take an image at a low altitude in comparison to satellite images.
Industrial engineering is founded on the idea that there is always a better way. This mantra rings true in everything an industrial engineer does, from lean manufacturing to six sigma, to quality control and ergonomics. This paper demonstrates the uniqueness of this discipline, the impact its techniques has in sectors outside of manufacturing, and the positive effects it has on businesses.
The study was carried out using the UAV for analyzing the characteristics of debris in order to present the methodology to estimate the quantitative amount of debris caught in small river facilities. A total of six small rivers that maintained the form of a natural river were selected for collecting UAV images, and the grouping of each target in the image was carried out using the object-based classification method, and based on the object-based classification result of the UAV images, the land cover classification for the status of factors causing the generation of debris for six target sections was carried out by applying the screen digitizing method. In addition, in order to verify the accuracy of the classification result, the error matrix was performed, securing the reliability of the result. The accuracy analysis result showed that for all six target sections, the overall accuracy was 93.95% and the Kappa coefficient was 0.93, showing an excellent result.
Multilevel Inverters are getting popular and have become more attractive to researchers in the recent times for high power applications due to their better power quality and higher efficiency as compared to two level inverters. This research work presents a detailed comparative analysis of various multicarrier sinusoidal PWM schemes such as In Phase Disposition, Phase Opposition Disposition and Alternate Phase Opposite Disposition implemented on five level conventional and modified cascaded h-bridge inverters in MATLAB/SIMULINK software. Conventional five level topology uses eight switches and suffers from increased switching complexity while modified five level topology uses only five switches and is recommended to reduce switching complexity and switching losses. It also ensures less number of components, reduced size and overall cost of the system. The effect of modulation index (Ma) on the output harmonic contents in various PWM techniques is also analyzed.
Objective: Cervical cancer (CC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths among women worldwide.Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most important element in this disease.The aim of this study is to prepare TiO2/ZnO nanocomposite (NC), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO)nanoparticles (NPs) to determine the anticancer activity on human CC cell line (HeLa) and healthy mouse fibroblast cell line (L-929). Materials&Methods: ZnO, TiO2 NPs and NC were prepared by a solution combustion synthesis method. The samples were characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy. Stability analysis was performed with zeta potential. The synthesized NC and NPs were permormed to the HeLa and L-929 cell lines and anticancer activity of these NC and NPs were determined by using MTT method. The HeLa and L-929 cells were treated with different concentrations of these NC and NPs (0,5-100 μg/ml) for 24, 48 and 72 hours. The spectrophotometric readings at 570 nm were recorded and analysed with Graphpad Prism7. Results: NC and NPs were successfully synthesized. The effects of these NC and NPs on the HeLa and L-929 cells were compared with the control group and IC50 values were determined for 24, 48 and 72 hours. Then we compared the effects of these molecules on the L-929 cell line with the HeLa cell line and founded more active is on HeLa cells. Conclusion:There are many drugs used in CC treatment. However, undesirable toxicity and drug resistance of these drugs negatively affect treatment.We have synthesized NC and NPs in order to formulate basis of a new drug in this study and have identified anti-cancer activity.As a result, we found that NC and NPs anti-cancer activity was higher in HeLa cells than in L-929.
Graphene is a material that attracts attention in technical textile applications as in many other areas due to its outstanding features. In this study, it was aimed to investigate the performance properties of graphene coated fabrics. Pre-treated polyester fabrics were coated with nano-graphene powders at different concentration rates (50, 100 and 200 g/kg) by knife-over-roll technique. According to test results, generally, the graphene coating had a positive effect on the performance properties of polyester fabrics.
This study was focused on the effects of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) additive on process parameters and compost quality of Co-composting of filter cake and bagasse. Filter cake and bagasse were mixed and sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) from a heating power plant of sugar mill. Three compost mixes (M) were obtained: MA with 0%, MB with 10% and MC with 20 wt % of fuel ash. These three different mixes were composted in an experimental composter as three parallel experiments for 3 weeks each. The physical, chemical and biological parameters were monitoring during composting. Significantly, ash additives decreased the total organic carbon; measured by mineralization the breaking down of the organic matter was more rapid in the MC than in the MA, as well as increased the pH during composting. Interesting, the pH decreased was most important in MA and attend 5 for the first week of composting, and then it gradually increased to pH around 8 at the end of the process. The results indicated that ash inhibits the pH drop due to production of organic acids during composting. The acidity of the material was reported as affects the process during the initial phase of rising temperature and quality of the final product. The temperature reached up to 50-55oC during thermophilic phase, the greater temperature was obtained for MC. At the end of composting, the electrical conductivity increased in the MC, especially in MC, but don’t exceed limit (4 mS/cm) for prevent phytotoxicity of the compost. The SCBA additive was likely to speed up the composting process of bagasse with filter cake from 44 days to 33 days.
The work presents report on production and analysis of bioresin from epoxidized mango kernel oil (EMKO). The bioresin (acrylated epoxidized mango kernel oil) or AEMKO was produced from epoxidized mango kernel oil via acrylation chemical reaction route. The FTIR spectrum analysis of epoxidized mango kernel oil (EMKO) and acrylated epoxidized mango kernel oil (AEMKO) produced gave the degree of acrylation (DOA) as 46%. The Viscosity of AEMKO (resin) was determined at room temperature (25 °C) to be 387cP while the density at 25oC was 1.2 g/cm3. The glass transition temperature (Tg) of the bioresin was determined to be 95oC. Production cost analysis of the bioresin was done and found to be N8, 804.35 per litre. The high cost was due to high costs of the chemicals, labour and overhead charges involved at my local level. At commercial level, those components of the costs would definitely reduce to the level compatible with synthetic (polyester) resin (N2, 500 per litre) currently sold by some markers in Nigeria. However, the overall results of the work demonstrated that bioresin can be successfully synthesized from mango kernel oil with properties compatible with ASTM standards. The commercial production of the bioresin will go a long way in mitigating some of the challenges associated with total use of fossil fuel currently use for production of bulk of synthetic resins for composite manufacturing activities.
The window functions used for digital filter design are used to eliminate oscillations in
the FIR (Finite Impulse Response) filter design. In this work, the use of Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) algorithm is proposed in the design of cosh window function, in which has widely used in the
literature and has useful spectral parameters. The cosh window is a window function derived from the
Kaiser window. It is more advantageous than the Kaiser window because there is no power series
expansion in the time domain representation. The designed window function shows better ripple ratio
characteristics than other window functions commonly used in the literature. The results obtained
were presented in tables and figures and successful results were obtained
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between 2D gray scale pixels and 3D gray scale pixels of image reconstructions in computed tomography (CT). The 3D space image reconstruction from data projection was a challenging and difficult research problem. The image was normally reconstructed from the 2D data from CT data projection. In this descriptive study, a synthetics 3D Shepp-Logan phantom was used to simulate the actual data projection from a CT scanner. Real-time data projection of a human abdomen was also included in this study. Additionally, the Graphical User Interface (GUI) for the application was designed using Matlab Graphical User Interface Development Environment (GUIDE). The application was able to reconstruct 2D and 3D images in their respective spaces successfully.The image reconstruction for CT in 3D space was analyzedalong with 2D space in order to show their relationships and shared properties for the purpose of constructing these images.
In this work the antimicrobial activity and the economic viability analysis of the essential oil extracted from the hybrid formed by the seeds species of the Murupi (Capsicum chinense), Criollos de Morellos (Capsicum annuum) and Finger of the young (Capsicum baccatum ). The essential oil of the pepper was obtained by the steam drag process and for this extraction, the Soxhlet method was used. For the determination of the antimicrobial activity of the oil the disc diffusion method was used for the strains of Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The results point out the resistance of the tested strains to the essential oil of the respective pepper and, in terms of financial and economic aspects, this was not feasible on a small scale. It is suggested that other microorganisms be tested and, later, that studies be carried out with the purpose of characterizing the studied oil chemically for proper application in the agroindustry.
Eliminating Gibbs phenomenon, which occurs during design of Finite Impulse Response (FIR) digital filter and which is undesirable, is very important in order to provide expected performance from digital filter. Window functions have been developed to eliminate these oscillations and to improve the performance of the filter in this regard. In this work, an application was developed for designing window function using LABVIEW which is a graphical programming environment produced by National Instruments. LABVIEW offers a powerful programming environment away from complexity. In this work, the performances of cosh and exponential window functions, which are designed by using the possibilities of LABVIEW in programming, are examined and the situations that will occur under various conditions are compared.
Better efficiency of the air transport system of a country at the national level, especially in terms of its
capacity to generate value for passenger flow and cargo transport, effectively depends on the identification of
the demand generation potential of each hub for this type of service. This requires the mapping of the passenger
flow and volume of cargo transport of each region served by the system and the number of connections. The
main goal of this study was to identify important factors that account for the great variability (demand) of
regional hubsof the airport modal system in operation in the State of São Paulo, the most populated and
industrialized in the Southeast region in Brazil. For this purpose, datasets for each airport related to passengers
or cargo flow were obtained from time series data in the period ranging from January 01, 2008 to December
31, 2014. Different data analysis approaches could imply in better mapping of the flow of the air modal system
from the evaluation of some factors related to operations/volume. Therefore, different statistical models - such
as multiple linear regression with normal errors and new stochastic volatility (SV) models - are introduced in
this study, to provide a better view of the operation system in the four main regional hubs, within a large group
of 32 airports reported in the dataset.
Linear attenuation coefficient (휇) is a measure of the ability of a medium to diffuse and absorb radiation. In the interaction of radiation with matter, the linear absorption coefficient plays an important role because during the passage of radiation through a medium, its absorption depends on the wavelength of the radiation and the thickness and nature of the medium. Experiments to determine linear absorption coefficient for Lead, Copper and Aluminum were carried out in air. The result showed that linear absorption Coefficient for Lead is 0.545cm – 1, Copper is 0.139cm-1 and Aluminum is 0.271cm-1 using gamma-rays. The results agree with standard values.
This study presents results of Activity Concentrations, Absorbed dose rate and the Annual Effective dose rates of naturally occurring radionuclides (40K, 232Th and 226Ra) absorbed in 8 soil samples collected from different areas within the Ajiwei mining sites in Niger State, North Central Nigeria. A laboratory γ-ray spectrometry NaI (Tl) at the Centre for Energy Research and Training (CERT), Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, was used to carry out the analysis of the soil samples. The values of Activity Concentration for 40K ranged from 421.6174 ± 7.9316 to 768.7403 ± 7.9315; for 226Ra it ranged from 20.6257 ± 2.0858 to 44.0324 ± 5.0985 and for 232Th the ranged is from 23.7172 ± 1.3683 to 62.7137 ± 4.1049 Bq.Kg-1. While the Absorbed Dose for 40K ranged from 17.5814 ± 0.3307 to 32.0565 ± 0.3307 ŋGy.h-1, for 226Ra the range is from 9.5291 ± 0.9636 to 20.3430 ± 2.3555 ŋGy.h-1 and for 232Th range from 14.3252 ± 0.4414 to 37.8791 ± 2.4794 ŋGy.h-1. The total average Absorbed Dose rate of the 8 soil samples collected is 63.7877 ŋGy.h-1 and the estimated Annual Effective Dose for the sampled areas range from 0.0636- 0.1028mSvy-1 (i.e 64 – 103 μSv.y-1), with an average Annual Effective Dose of 0.0782 mSv.y-1 (i.e. 78.2 μSv.y-1). These results show’s that the radiation exposure level reaching members of the public in the study areas is lower than the recommended limit value of 1 mSv.y-1 (UNSCEAR, 2000). Also the mean Radium Equivalents obtained ranged from 107.3259 BqKg-1 (AJ1) to 179.4064 BqKg-1 (AJ4). These results show that the recommended Radium Equivalent Concentration is ≤ 370 BqKg-1 which is the requirement for soil materials to be used for dwellings, this implies that the soil from this site is suitable use for residential buildings. The mean External Hazard Index ( Hext ) ranged from 0.1229 Bqkg-1 (AJ3) to 0.4226 Bqkg-1 (AJ7).. While the maximum allowed value of (Hext = 1) corresponds to the upper limit of Raeq (370 BqKg-1) in order to limit the external gamma radiation dose from the soil materials to 1.5 mGy y-1. That is, this Index should be equal to or less than unity (Hext ≤ = 1). Furthermore, the mean Internal Hazard Index (Hext) ranged from 0.3456 Bqkg-1 (AJ1) to 0.6453 Bqkg-1 (AJ2) .Finally, the mean value of the Excess Alpha Radiation (Iα) ranged from 0.1031 Bq.Kg-1 (AJ1) to 0.2202 Bq.Kg-1 (AJ3. All these values for Iα are below the maximum permissible value of Iα= 1 which corresponds to 200 Bq.Kg-1. It can therefore be said that no radiological hazard is envisaged to dwellers of the study areas and the miners working on those sites area.
Pick and place task is one among the most important tasks in industrial field handled by “Selective
Compliance Assembly Robot Arm” (SCARA). Repeatability with high-speed movement in horizontal plane is
remarkable feature of this type of manipulator. The challenge of design SCARA is the difficulty of achieving
stability of high-speed movement with long length of links. Shorter links arm can move more stable. This
condition made the links should be considered restrict then followed by restriction of operation area
(workspace). In this research, authors demonstrated on expanding SCARA robot’s workspace in horizontal area
via linear sliding actuator that embedded to base link of the robot arm. With one additional prismatic joint the
previous robot manipulator with 3 degree of freedom (3-DOF), 2 revolute joints and 1 prismatic joint is become
4-DOF PRRP manipulator. This designation increased workspace of robot from 0.5698m2 performed by the
previous arm (without linear actuator) to 1.1281m2 by the propose arm (with linear actuator). The increasing
rate was about 97.97% of workspace with the same links length. The result of experimentation also indicated
that the operation time spent to reach object position was also reduced.
Physical and chemical properties of host environment to concrete structures have serious impact on
the performance and durability of constructed concrete facilities. This paper presents a 7-month study that
simulated the influence of soil contamination due to organic abattoir waste and indiscriminate disposal of spent
hydrocarbon on strength and durability of embedded concrete. Concrete mix, 1:1.5:3 was designed for all cube
and beam specimens with water-cement ratio of 0.5 and the compressive and flexural strengths of the specimen
were measured from age 28 days up to 196 days in the host environment. It was found that both host
environments attack the physical and strength of concrete in compression and flexure. However, hydrocarbon
had much greater adverse effect on the load-carrying capacity of concrete structures and hence make
constructed facilities less serviceable and vulnerable to premature failure.
Visualization of cartographic systems in mobile devices is a challenge due to the its own
limitations to show all the relevant information that the user needs on the screen. Within this paper we review
current state-of- the-art technological solutions to face this problem and we classify them in a novel typology. In
addition, it is shown an example case of a developed system for a logistic company specialized in dangerous
goods. The system is able to calculate optimal routes and communicate the drivers the best path in order to
achieve a great management of the company resources
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www.ijmret.org Volume 2 Issue 8 ǁ December 2017.
Air and Moisture Permeability of Textiles
Karel Adámek, Jan Kolář, Pavel Peukert
(Department of Numerical Simulations, VUTS Liberec, a.s., Czech Republic)
ABSTRACT : The paper contains several technical solutions of air and moisture permeability in textile
layers and theirs combinations. It is useful collection of the author’s knowledge from several last years.
Discussed are also various marketing declarations of miraculous characteristics of individual used materials.
Examples show not only own technical solution, but also the good description of ongoing processes, using the
method of numerical simulation.
KEYWORDS – air permeability flow numerical simulation, functional clothing,moisture permeability, textile
materials
I. INTRODUCTION
At the beginning, the parameters of air
permeability are evaluated from comparison of
measured permeability with formula used in
standard commercial code. In next paragraphs, two
basic cases were solved – as so-called porous jump
for relative thin layers, the idealized “wire”
structures of fabrics, simulated influence of wind
on combined cloth layers instead complicated
measuring in wind tunnel and so-called porous
volume for thick layers. The results are presented
as examples from real practice.
1.1 Air permeability definition
The air permeability definition presents [1] and
the method was used in several solved cases [2-8]
etc. The pressure resistance of observed layer
against airflow velocitygives its air permeability in
general. The resistance is composed from linear
term, typical for instance for leaking at low
velocity (so-called Darcy’s law) and from quadratic
term, typical for flowing in channels or around
flowed bodies (Weissbach’s or Moody’s law). In
observed real layer usually exists some
combination of both such limiting cases. Used
commercial software [9] describes this fact as the
equation
Δp = C2 . ρ/2 . t . w2
+ μ / α . t . w,
where
Δp (Pa) pressure difference
w (m/s) = V/S flow velocity
V (m3
) volume flow
S (m2
) flow cross section
t (m) layer thickness
ρ (kg/m3
) medium density
μ (Pa.s) dynamic viscosity
α, C2 two unknownpermeability
parameters,depending on the
layer structure.
For next treatment, it should be determine the
dependence of volume flow on pressure gradient
V = f (Δp),
so-called flow characteristics, for sample of known
cross section S transformed into
w = f (Δp).
Received function is inverted into the function of
pressure gradient on flow velocity
Δp = f (w),
so-called resistance characteristics, which is
formally identical with above mentioned
permeability equation. The function is
subsequently substituted by quadratic function
Δp = A.w2
+ B.x + C
and by comparison of both coefficients of linear
and quadratic term with permeability equation
above
A = C2 . ρ/2 . t
B = μ / α . t
the unknown permeability parameters α, C2 are
determined as
C2 = 2 . A / (ρ . t)
α = μ / (B . t).
They are used for definition of so-called „porous
jump“ in such permeable layer, which simplifies
the next numerical simulation.The Fig. 1 presents
typical result of such dependence of flow resistance
on flow velocity Δp = f (w).
Fig.1: Permeability – flow resistance depending on
flow velocity
For geometrically simple forms (as for instance
perforated sheet) the dependence can be simulated,
too, for complicated structures (fabric, knitwear,
filtering paper etc.) must be determined
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International Journal of Modern Research in Engineering and Technology (IJMRET)
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experimentally. Nevertheless, for direct simulation
of the flow through such complicated real layer
special codes are available. Some useful
information about it can be found in [10].
Note 1: The absolute term C in received
quadratic function should be equal to zero, because
at zero flow the flow resistance is zero, too. Non-
zero value means some error in measuring or
evaluation, it must be determined.
Note 2: The permeability in textile technology
is defined as volume flow through an area (m3
/s/m2
= m/s). The same value in fluid mechanics is so-
called density of volume flow. More suitable is use
of mass flow density, because the mass is objective
reality, independent on state values of medium. If
volume flow of a compressible medium is used,
always must be defined its temperature and
pressure.
Note 3: Power function Δp = f (wn
), where
1<n<2 was used in another substitution [4]. It is
possible to state that such function of pressure
resistance contains a combination of both first and
second power of velocity as the equation above.
II. POROUS JUMP
This special boundary condition is used in
[9]for simplification of created model. The inserted
partition models the permeable layer, where the
pressure resistance is created as sudden pressure
change at the thickness of such thin permeable
layer, without modelling the complicated structure
of layer. Parameters of permeability are evaluated
as above.
1.2 Permeability of idealized weave
Here are presented some results of flow
numerical simulation in an idealized fabric
structure, where idealized rigid and impermeable
cylinders [1, 6] etc. substitute the individual yarns.
Necessary permeability parameters are received by
simulation and next calculations for similar
geometries can be realized with porous jump,
without creation of complicated structure.
The Fig. 2 shows the view on satin-like fabric, the
Fig. 3 presents the velocity field in ground plan
section across to the flow direction and just in
binding points of the fabric and the Fig. 4 is the
same situation, but in cross section through such
idealized fabric weave along the flow direction.
It is clear that presented case is the model of
flow through a wire sieve, not a fabric. Really, the
individual yarns are partially permeable and
deformed by forces during fabric creation, so it is
necessary to determine permeability parameters
experimentally and received values to enter in used
numerical simulation. Such simple “wire” models
can be used for mutual qualitative comparison of
various weaves of fabrics or knitwear and for
determination of relative permeability parameters
of such idealized layers.
Fig. 2: Model of idealized weave (satin-like)
Fig. 3: Ground plan of the velocity field in
idealized weave
Fig. 4: Cross section of the velocity field in
idealized weave
The permeability of the only one chemical yarn,
composed from many elementary fibers and
provided by protective twist is simulated on the
model after the Fig. 5. Although its idealized
geometry, the solution is very time consuming.
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International Journal of Modern Research in Engineering and Technology (IJMRET)
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Fig. 5: Model of idealized chemical yarn composed
from many elementary fibers
The complexity of real fabric is visible on the
microphotography of the simple plane-weave on
the Fig. 6 and on its digital evaluation on the Fig. 7
– copied from [11]. Individual yarns of created
fabric are very deformed, so it is clear that the
model of real weave is not possible now. The
pattern of observed plain weave, which could be
used as repeating elementary element of the weave,
is not observable. Permeability parameters mustbe
evaluated from real measuring.
Nevertheless, similar complex structures can be
modelled, too, using the method developed and
used in [10], where several next references can be
found.
Fig. 6: Microphotography of real plane-weave
Fig. 7: Digitalized surface of real plane-weave
1.3 Textile layer permeability at higher flow
velocity
In the so-called wind tunnel can be simulated
the airflow through the clothing, consisting from
several layers. The cylindrical wire frame,
substituting the body or arm, is „dressed“ in several
layers of clothing. As an illustration, the result of
such model is presented below.
The Fig. 8 presents streamlines around wire
frame, “dressed“ in individual layer, the wind
direction from the left side.
Fig. 8: Streamlines around permeable textile
cylinder with wire frame
The Fig. 9 presents the ground plan of the cross
section of the pressure field (symmetrical half,
only). The maximum value is so-called stagnation
pressure on the windward side (left); the minimum
is in the area of maximum velocity (flanks).
On the Fig. 10, there is the corresponding
temperature field, when the inner surface (body) is
warmer than the surroundings. It is visible that on
the windward side the outer cold air penetrates in
the layer depth and on the contrary, on flanks the
warmer air penetrates partially out into the
surroundings. In the backflow area on the backside
the cold air is penetrating partially into the layer of
the clothing again.
Fig. 9: Pressure field around of permeable
textile cylinder (wind from the left side)
Fig. 10: Temperature field in the surroundings of
permeable textile cylinder (wind from the left side)
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III. RECOMMENDED CLOTHING
COMBINATION
The theory of wet air together with heat transfer
areused here for discussion about so-called
„functional wear“, recommended for outdoor
activities. Dealers of such wear (and Mr. Google,
too) recommend in general the composition of
three layers. The first one takes away the
perspiration from the skin, the second is thermal
insulation and the third is permeable for the water
vapor out and impermeable for rain and wind in.
What about the laws of the nature?
1.4 The first layer
The function of it is agreeable, because by the
taking off the perspiration, the body skin remains
dry. It is supposed that the humidity production by
the perspiration is fully vaporized and is going
together with air from the skin through the wear.
Possible not evaporated part must be evaporated at
the outer surface of this first layer, where wet
surface is arising. Larger wet area means better
evaporating in general, the phenomenon was
discussed in [12, 13] etc.
The Fig. 11 presents the record of temperature
and relative moisture of air between the body skin
and the first layer (T-shirt) during the load test of
45 minutes [12] on the exercise bike in conditioned
labor. Two and two sensors are placed on breast
and back. Already after 15 minutes of the trial the
temperature of air at backside is close to the body
temperature 30.5°C and relative humidity of 95%.
The corresponding dew point is here 29.5°C; it
means that the state is very close to the humidity
condensation. At very small temperature
decreasing of this wet air a part of air humidity is
condensed as liquid – after physical laws it is
possible to evaporate in the given volume at given
temperature certain maximum mass of water vapor,
corresponding to the pressure of saturated water
steam at this temperature - see [14] or any
handbook of wet air.
Due to the vaporcondensation, the tested layer
becomes wet, so the cooling of the body increases
and temperatures are slightly decreasing, even if
the test under load continues.
Fig. 11a: Record of temperature (range +25/+32°C)
during load test of 45 min.
Fig. 11b: Record of relative moisture (0-100%)
during load test of 45 min.
1.5 The second layer
After general physical principles the
temperature at the inner side to the body (here the
warmer) of the insulating layer is higher than on
the outer side (here cooler). Water vapor, contained
in the wet air, is going through this layer in the
direction of decreasing temperature. Therefore,
some part of the vapor (of air humidity) can
condensate, thermal insulation becomes wet and its
thermally insulating capability is decreasing.
However, as mentioned below, this decreasing is
not considerable. Moreover, more, the clothing
must be dried after each use, to remove humidity,
captured in the layer.
A little of theory: The humidity part in the wet
material ω (%) is defined after handbooks for
drying, for instance [10], as ratio of the humidity
mv (kg) to the wet material
ω = mv / (mv + ms),
where ms (kg) is the dry basis. It is important to
note here, that this fraction (in %) ω is calculated
for dry and wet material from different basis! The
Fig. 12 shows the dependence of the water content
as multiple of dry basis (ms=1) for different
humidity fraction ω, when in dry fibers (ω = 0%, λ
= 0.175 W/(m.K)) some water mass is absorbed (λ
= 0.6 W/(m.K)). Really, the tested material is able
to absorb some maximum water mass, depending
on the structure of material and its next
characteristics. The water excess, if any, is then
flowing out by the gravitation.
Really, the tested material contains always
some small water amount (usually several %),
corresponding to the balance between the humidity
in material and partial pressure of the water vapor
in the surroundings. This fact is neglected here.
The excessively dried material is getting wet again
at this balanced state, so the energy used for such
excessive drying was consumed uselessly.
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Fig. 12: Water mass depending on the humidity
fraction
Supposing that the value of heat conduction
coefficient λ is proportional to the material
humidity, is possible to calculate it from simple
balance equation for basic material of different
humidity as
ms . λs + mv . λv = (ms + mv) . λ,
where s = dry basis, v = humidity, the result see the
graph Fig. 13. The conductivity of former dry
material in increased 2.23 times, but the absolute
change for observed insulating material from 0.17
to 0.38 is not high.
Fig. 13: Change of the heat conduction coefficient
with humidity fraction
This simple consideration is theoretic, when the
humidity distribution in the dry basis is fully
uniform. Additionally, some mass of the condensed
water is captured or spread among individual fibers
by capillary forces. Therefore, the water fills the
original air gaps and both thermal insulation and
permeability become worse. It is clear that real
mechanism of humidity transport through fiber
layer is much more complicated as presented in this
simple model.
The difference between temperature profiles for
dry and wet insulating layer presents the next case
[5]. On the inner side of this combined layer is
defined solid wall (body skin) of defined
temperature +27°C (300 K), on the outer side is the
surrounding air (-3°C, 270 K) – the temperature
difference of 30 K. On the outer side is simulated
heat transfer by convection, when along the wall is
flowing air (wind).
On the Fig. 14 is from left to right the
temperature field in insulating layer and in
surrounding air, on the Fig. 15 is the (horizontal)
temperature profile in this model. Due to higher
thermal conductivity (or due to lower thermal
resistance) the wet insulation (dotted line) has
lower temperature difference at given insulation
thickness, compared with dry insulation (full line).
Differences of both cases are not too high.
Fig. 14: Temperature field
(left = insulation, right = air)
Fig. 15: Temperature profiles for wet (dotted) and
dry (full) insulation
1.6 The third layer
Thermally insulating resistance of this thin
layer is small, so the temperature of the inner
surface is practically identical with the outer
surrounding. In winter condition of the Central
Europe it means, that the wet air, passed through
the first and the second layer above, is on the
reverse side of the third layer surely colder than its
dew point temperature, thus the main part of its
water content is condensed here. For information:
the average temperature during heating season
(from October to April approx.) for Liberec (50°N,
375 m above sea level) is +2.7°C.
After experiments in laboratory it is defined that
this upper layer is impermeable for water until the
pressure of 200 kPa (corresponding to the water
column of 20 m!), so the water, condensed on
reverse side of this third layer cannot go out. For
0.01
0.1
1
10
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
mv
(ms=1)
humidity fraction
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
W/(m.K)
humidity fraction
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pushing of condensate should be used the pressure
over 200 kPa, but it is not real. The saturated steam
temperature at this pressure is of 133°C.
Next, after laboratory experiment the very high
permeability of the upper layer for water vapor is
presented, until 20 kg/day/m2
(2.3e-4 kg/s/m2
). It is
practically unreal value (corresponds to 1.5 kg/h
for average surface of human body of 1.8 m2
). For
comparison: the experimentally determined value
for very heavy physical work is 0.3-0.5 kg/h and
value of 0.7 kg/s is tolerable in terms of health.
Mentioned value is possible in labor, not during a
standard use in cold period of the year.
This undesirable and uncomfortable effect of
humidity condensation are masked by nets on
reverse side, where the condensed water is
absorbed (partially) or various ventilating apertures
are used as some ventilation of the inner volume.
By this way, the presented effect of impermeability
for wind is decreased and thermal losses are
increased.
Discussed case of three clothing layers was in the
next solved case [5] completed by air layers among
them. At a real clothing, those layers are not
constant, somewhere are zero. For the same
temperatures as above are solved two basic cases,
only.
1. Air layers are considered as rigid bodies
of defined thermal resistance, it means without any
natural airflow inside. In short gaps, separated by
zero thicknesses it could be corresponding to the
reality. The result is even temperature field after
the Fig. 16a, well corresponding to the simple case
on the Fig. 14.
2. Air layers are considered with natural air flows,
due to different air densities, depending on
different temperatures – some heat transfer in the
surroundings by convection is realized here.
Images of the temperature field are influenced by
defined boundary conditions, too, but their correct
definition is not known.
The Fig. 16b presents the temperature field, when
at the outlet up is defined lower temperature (i.e.
the air closed in this gap is not influenced by the
body temperature).
Fig. 16a: Temperature field in combined clothing
layer without air flows inside
The alternative on the Fig. 16c, when on the
same plane is defined higher temperature
(influenced by body temperature). The deformation
of the temperature field is given by boundary
condition on lower and upper end of the model,
which is influencing into some distance from the
border. It should be necessary to create much
higher model and to evaluate results in the middle
of its height.
Fig. 16b: Temperature field in combined clothing
layer with air flows in gaps inside, lower outlet
temperature
Fig. 16c: Temperature field in combined clothing
layer with air flows in gaps inside, higher outlet
temperature
For comparison the Fig. 17a shows temperature
profiles of all three cases a-b-c – depending on
boundary conditions the profiles are changing a
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little, but the character is the same, differences are
not too high. The combination of three clothing
layers and three air layers suppresses the
considerable temperature gradient for two layers as
on the Fig. 15.
Fig. 17a: Summary of temperature profiles from
previous cases
On the Fig. 17b the temperatures in individual
layers are differentiated by colors. Air layers (red)
of lower coefficient of heat conduction have higher
gradient of temperature decreasing, comparing with
textiles layers (blue, green, cyan), which have
higher coefficient of heat conduction in general.
The outer air (black) is defined here as rigid body,
without airflow, its temperature is constant.
Fig. 17b: Temperature profiles of individual layers
1.7 Conclusion:
During the cold period in the Central Europe,
the temperature on the reverse side of the thin
upper layer of clothing is practically identical with
the surrounding temperature. During physical
activity of testing person, both temperature and
relative humidity are high in the skin vicinity. At
small temperature drop of this air during its passing
through tested clothing combination practically in
every case the temperature is decreasing under its
dew point temperature and some air humidity is
condensed. However, the condensed water cannot
pass through outer membrane, which is
impermeable for liquid water and wind, the
thermally insulating layer becomes moist.
Thermally insulating parameters are worse, see the
Fig. 13 and more heat is going from the skin into
the surroundings. Partially, it could be an
advantage, because at hard work the body is better
chilled.
Presented very high values of water vapor
permeability, reached in laboratory, are not reached
in the practice, due to the existence of natural
physical laws. To have a conformity of laboratory
experiment and reality it should be to have outside
temperature 30°C approx., but in such case it is not
necessary to wear the recommended combination
of three layers - the first layer, only, is sufficient.
Similarly, the proclaimed advantage of high
water impermeability becomes the disadvantage at
practically unavoidable condensation of air
humidity at the reverse side of the clothing.
IV. POROUS VOLUME
Next cases solve the permeability of thick
layers, for instance blocks of insulating materials,
car seats etc., where the thickness must be
simulated as real value. Usually it can be supposed
the homogenous value of permeability in different
directions of this volume.
1.8 Permeability of bobbin winding
This case solves the pigment flow in the mass
of wound bobbin [7, 8]. The pressurized liquid is
flowing through the central cavity and then through
the wound yarn layer, which is of different
thickness, depending on both flow direction and
bobbin shape. For solved situation the model is
slightly modified – the continuous value of
permeability is replaced by system of partial
permeabilities among individual elementary
volumes in the permeable volume of the winding.
The standard code [9] enables to use spatial
„porous volume“, too.
The Fig. 18 presents streamlines incoming
along the bobbin axis, further through the
perforated wall of bobbin core and further through
the permeable wound volume in the free
surroundings. Modelled as axis-symmetrical case,
therefore the one-half is presented here, with axis
of symmetry situated down.
Fig. 18: Streamlines in the permeable winding
Next Fig. 19 presents the relevant pressure field
and the Fig. 20 presents the velocity field (the scale
is suppressed here, to get fine differentiation of the
flow in permeable winding).
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
m3/h
kPa
1-měkká
4
7
11
13-tvrdá
It is visible that considerable part is flowing out
as short-circuit across the face of winding on
minimum radius, although streamlines make here
the bend of 180° practically. To be sure, that the
dyeing will be uniform in the whole volume, it is
necessary to suppress such short-circuit flow, for
instance by applying of impermeable partition
along the winding face. Otherwise, it should be to
prolong the dyeing time, to get uniform dyeing in
the whole volume, but in such case, the output is
lower.
Fig. 19: Pressure field in the volume of winding –
flow from the axis to the periphery
Fig. 20: Velocity field in the volume of winding –
flow from the axis to the periphery (suppressed
scale)
Fig. 21: Permeability of measured bobbin samples
(1 = soft, 13 = hard)
Flow numerical simulation in permeable layer
indicates that uneven coloring of individual
bobbins can be caused by differently stiff
(permeable) winding of each bobbin, too – for
instance by uneven tension of wound yarn. In
addition to that, the uneven coloring of volume of
individual bobbin can be found, too. At very short
coloring time, the uneven flow intensity through
individual elements of bobbin volume can affect on
uneven coloring of material.
The Fig. 21 shows different measured
permeability characteristics V = f (Δp) for soft (1)
– medium (7) - hard (13) bobbin, given by small-
medium-high tension of wound yarn. The different
volume flow through wound bobbins can be used
as parameter of different stiffness [7].
1.9 Permeability of thick foam layer
Car seats are manufactured from various
perforated foams, for instance on the Fig. 22 of
different size and pitch of continuous holes, blind
grooves etc., see [15] etc, – in the next text marked
as F0 (foam only), F1-F2-F3 (as different
perforated foams).
Fig. 22: Example of perforated and grooved foam
Fig. 23: Inversed and recalculated permeability
characteristic in semi-logarithmic scale
On the Fig. 23, using semi-logarithmic scale, it
is visible that measured permeability of the full
foam F0 is of two orders lower than for perforated
foams F1-F2-F3 in general and simulated
„permeability“ of simple hole of various diameter
is of next three orders higher.
As an illustration, next serial of Figures
presents details of the flow field in several cross
sections of solved volume of perforated foam. In
general, the absolute majority of the air (99%)
flows through continuous holes and very low
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01
pressure
diff. (Pa)
air permeability (m/s)
F0
F1
F2
F3
6mm
12mm
18mm
ideal.
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volume, only, flows through the foam. Therefore,
for better displaying of flow details in the foam
volume the suppressed scales are used here.
It is possible to state that the foam volume
serves as a soft cushion, only, and its permeability
is realized mostly through holes. It is in the
compliance with general theory – let us to imagine
that the foam volume consists from many flow
resistances in parallel, some of them of low value
(holes) and some of them of high value (foam),
some of them of any value between (foam +
groove).
The inlet pressure on the Fig. 24 penetrates into
blind grooves and stops at the grooves bottom. In
continuous holes, the pressure value is very low,
because is changed into kinetic energy of the flow.
The main flow on the Fig. 25 is through
continuous holes, the maximum velocity value of
2.1 m/s corresponds to the theoretical value for
defined pressure difference of 3 Pa. The flow
through foam volume is very low, on the image of
the full scale without any visible details.
Fig. 24: Pressure field in axial cross section
Fig. 25: Velocity field in axial cross section
To display details of the previous Fig. 25 it is
necessary to use suppressed scale, order of 10-4
m/s, see the Fig. 26. The flow stops at the grooves
bottom and slightly is penetrating in the foam
volume. The simulation of such full geometry can
explain flow details in permeable and perforated
foam volume.
Fig. 26: Velocity field in axial cross section
(suppressed scale)
The next Fig. 27 presents the velocity field on
the inlet plane of the foam, with suppressed scale
again. It is visible, that quick flows through
continuous holes induce some flow in the narrow
adjacent volume of foam just along holes surfaces.
Fig. 27: Velocity field at foam inlet plane
In the Fig. 28 there is presented the velocity
field at the inlet plane of grooves. The suitable
scale of low velocities is used again, to display just
the field in grooves. There are visible local maxima
in larger cross sections (T-junctions);finer
meshingcould repair individual irregularities.
Last Fig. 29 presents the velocity on surfaces of
continuous holes. Those values are not zero, as on
the rigid walls, because the walls are here
permeable a little and in the foam volume is any
low, but non-zero velocity. Real values of 0.3 – 0.7
m/s approx. are lower than maximum of axial
velocity, here of 1.3 m/s. On walls of peripheral
holes, there are visible higher values than in the
middle of the foam volume, probably due to some
influence of peripheral boundary condition, maybe
in the combination with relatively coarse mesh.
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Fig. 28: Velocity field at the inlet in grooves
Fig. 29: Velocity field at walls of continuous holes
For comparison with previous detailed models
the simple model of „foam cake“ was solved, too,
for both cases of F0 and F1. Their permeability
parameters were evaluated from measured values,
so for the perforated foam Fl it means some
average value. Therefore in such „cake“ model it is
not possible to see details of the flow field in holes,
grooves and foam as above, but the averaged flow,
only.
Fig. 30: Difference between measured and
simulated mass flow for foams F0 and F1
The comparison of measured and simulated
flows is presented on the Fig. 30. The differences
are 1-5%, only, which is fully comparable with
standard error of usual measuring devices (4%).
The reason of it could be the imprecision of
numerical simulation, coarse mesh etc. – not
examined more.
In the geometry of previous model is added thin
inlet textile layer, to separate the inlet plane (3 Pa)
from permeability plane (pressure jump) – in one
plane cannot be defined two different boundary
conditions. As the upper layer were used various
materials from [15], to represent low, middle and
high permeability. The main results are as follows.
Without added upper layer:
This case is solved to test the influence of
above mentioned thin volume, added between
boundary conditions „inlet“ and „porous jump“.
Results are similar to above mentioned basic case,
where the main air flow through holes (99%) and
negligible flow through the foam (1%).
The flow of such changed model is of 24%
higher. This difference is given probably by
another geometry and mesh of both compared
cases, of changed flow character etc. – not
examined more.
With added upper layer:
The added upper layer decreases the total flow,
first in holes. The flow through holes (both the
relative in % and the absolute in kg/s) is now
comparable with flow through the foam and so the
ratio foam + holes is changing from the ratio 46%
+ 54% to the ratio 30% + 70%, depending on the
permeability of used upper layer.
The relative flow through the foam is a little
higher (of some %), depending on the permeability
of used upper layer. However, the absolute value of
this flow and its change can be neglected.
For given geometries the flow through foam
volume represents typically 1% approx. of the total
flow, the absolute maximum is the flow through
continuous holes. Therefore, any changes of foam
permeability cannot influence the total permeability
of such combined case with grooves and holes. The
main influence on the total flow has here the flow
through continuous holes; the flow through foam
volume is negligible.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In individual sections, there are combined basic
principles and equations of fluid mechanics and
thermomechanics together with actual practical
applications. Basic principles are repeated and
more, real technical applications show, how such
simple theoretical principles become complicated
at the transition from simple one-dimensional case,
presented in textbooks into 3-dimensional reality,
which can be displayed using numerical simulation
of appropriate flow field. The substance of
assigned technical problem is often complex. So
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
3.5%
4.0%
4.5%
5.0%
0.18 0.58 1.08 1.28
simul.-
meas.
Pa
F0
F1
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the knowledge of fluid mechanics and
thermomechanics is not sufficient, often it is
necessary to use knowledge of other parts of
engineering – theory of kinematic, dynamic,
elasticity, materials and last but not least
mathematics, of course. The knowledge of used
technological procedures is an advantage, too.
Presented cases are not complete listing of
possible solutions and reached results, but typical
procedures, only.
Our practice confirmed that flow numerical
applications for cases from technical practice
brings several principal advantages:
1) Relative simple verification of fully new
hypothesis of the solution. Only this one, which
seems to be realizable, is then manufactured and
tested.
2) At actual systems is possible to find out the
reason of its wrong or insufficient function and
usually to propose suitable remedy.
3) It is possible to simulate the flow field in
small or inaccessible areas, where it is not possible
use any experimental procedures or sensors for
determination of needed values.
Some of the knowledge mentioned in references
are unique and actual. In any case, it is not any
complex bibliographical overview, relevant to
applications of fluid mechanics and
thermomechanics in textile machinery, textile
technologies and supporting areas, but only some
actual references on actual applications.
VI. Acknowledgements
Our acknowledgment is given to VUTS Liberec
– Center for Development in Machinery Research
for the support in the framework of the grant NPU-
LO1213, “National program of sustainability”,
granted by the Ministry of education, youth and
sports.
References
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textilních vrstev), Proc. of the Applic. of experiment.
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[2] R. Šubert, Evaluation of textiles permeability at higher
flow velocities (Hodnocení prodyšnosti textilií při
vyšších rychlostech proudění), dissertation KOD FT TU
Liberec, 2006
[3] A. Halasová, Contribution to evaluation of clothing
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vlastností první vrstvy oděvu), dissertation KOD FT
TUL, 2014
[13] M. H. Motawe, Factors affecting garment´s thermal
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