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Classical conditioning involves involuntary behaviors learned through association. Pavlov's work with dogs demonstrated that a neutral stimulus could become a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an innate response. Key terms in classical conditioning include unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Cognitive processes and biological constraints can influence classical conditioning. Processes like acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination further describe classical conditioning.

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1: Classical Conditioning Part 1 • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism? 2. How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus? 1 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about Palov’s influence in the process of learning. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze Palov’s influence in the process of learning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with Palov’s influence in the process of learning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience e a r n i n g What does “relatively permanent” mean? How does experience change what we do? LO 5.1
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning What are some basic forms of learning? We Learn by Association This process is called conditioning There are two forms of conditioning: 1. Classical (Involuntary Behaviors) 2. Operant (Voluntary Behaviors) 3 =
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov • 1849-1936 • Russian physiologist • Discovered classical conditioning • Reflexes, stimuli & responses 5.2 How was classical conditioning first studied and what are the important elements?
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Pavlov’ Study 7 Behaviorists dislike Freudian Psychologists because behaviorists claim it is only through observable responses that we can describe and change human behavior.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Pavlov’ Study: Terminology Neutral Stimulus (NS)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response. Unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring.” Unconditioned response (UCR) - an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR) - learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Elements of Classical Conditioning CONDITIONED (learned) UNCONDITIONED (unlearned) STIMULUS RESPONSE STIMULUS RESPONSE
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning PAVLOV’S STUDY 10 Secondary or Higher Order Conditioning: Could pairing light with a bell cause the dog to salivate to the light alone? YES Stage 1: Unconditioned learning) Bell = No Response Food = Drool Stage 2 (Acquisition) Bell + Food = Drool Stage 3 (Conditioned learning) Bell = Drool •Bell- Neutral Stimulus (NS) •Food- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) •Drool (to the food)- Unconditioned response (UCR) •Bell- Conditioned Stimulus (CS) •Drool (to the bell)- Conditioned Response (CR)
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BASICS • Classical Conditioning (involuntary responses) • Acquisition – The initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place – In this process the conditioned stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus – The time between the two stimuli should only be half a second 11
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Involuntary Behaviors • Eye Blink • Pupil Dilation • Flinching • Salivating • Sweating • Heart Rate/Breathing • Immune System Response • Dry mouth • Reflexes • Fears/Emotions • Cravings • Arousal • Vomiting • Autistic Tics/Jerks 12
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Section 1: Test Your Knowledge A mouse will normally flinch after getting a mild shock. During conditioning, a red light is present right before the mild shock is given to the mouse. Soon, the mouse will freeze/flinch when the red light is present alone. NS= UCS= UR= CS= CR= Would the following process also work to condition the mouse: The mild shock is given to the mouse before the red light is present. Why or Why Not? 13
Learning Goal: 1. What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism? 2. How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus? 14 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about Palov’s influence in the process of learning. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze Palov’s influence in the process of learning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with Palov’s influence in the process of learning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
2: Classical Conditioning- Part II• Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination? 2. Do Cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning? 15 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Higher Order Conditioning • AKA- Second Order Conditioning: After a Conditioned Stimulus (CS1) has been established, another conditioned stimulus (CS2) can be added to induce the Conditioned Response (CR). 16 Example: Once the dog has been conditioned to drool to the sound of the bell, the dog can be conditioned again to drool to the sight of a ball using only the bell and no food.
First-Order and Second-Order Conditioning First Order Conditioning. •Bell + meat = salivation. •Bell = Salivation. Second Order Conditioning (After first order conditioning has occurred) •Light + Bell = Salivation. •Light = Salivation.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Classical Conditioning • Extinction (Extinguished) – A stoppage of the conditioned response – May be learned or occur naturally • Spontaneous Recovery – After a resting period, sometimes the classically conditioned behavior reappears. “Old feelings” come back for no reason 18
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery Acquisition CS + US Extinction CS alone TRIALS Extinction CS alone Amount of spontaneous recovery Amount of spontaneous recovery REST TRIALS
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Generalization v. Discrimination • Generalization – The tendency to respond to similar stimuli in a like manner – Example: responding to a pit- bull and a dachshund in the same way • Discrimination – The learned ability to distinguish between two stimuli that are similar – Example: responding differently to a math and English test 20
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning GENERALIZATION & DISCRIMINATION CS during conditioning CS during conditioning
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Generalization and Discrimination Generalization • Something is so similar to the CS that you get a CR. Discrimination • Something so different to the CS so you do not get a CR.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning What have been some practical applications of classical conditioning? • Basis of Little Albert Experiment – Can help us understand anxiety disorders and devise treatment • Insight into drug abuse – Stay away from places where they once got high • Influences immune system response – People can be classically conditioned to boost or lower their immune system 23
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning? Cognitive Processes •Robert Rescorla – Sometimes called the contingency model of classical conditioning – showed that animals will learn better through classical conditioning if the UCS reliably predicts the CS – Point to remember: cognition also plays a role in classical conditioning 24 Rescorla extends Pavlov’s theory into the cognitive world
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Garcia and Koelling Study • Studied rats and how they make associations. • Some associations seem to be adaptive. CS UCS Learned Response Loud Noise Shock Fear Loud Noise Radiation (nausea) Nothing Sweet Water Shock Nothing Sweet Water Radiation (nausea) Avoid Water
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning? Biological Predispositions •The Garcia Effect – Sometimes referred to as Taste Aversion – Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. – A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound). – Used by ranchers in California to prevent wolves from eating sheep 26 John Garcia showed how some species may have a biological tendency to be conditioned if it aids in survival
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning • Little Baby Albert Study (1920) – Conducted by John B. Watson (Behaviorist) – Synopsis: Watson classically conditions a baby to fear a white rat. – Unintended Finding: Little Albert learns to generalize his fear of the white rat to other white, furry things (like Santa Claus beard, rabbits, and stuffed animals) 27 More on The Little Albert Study
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Other Examples of Biological Predispositions and Classical Conditioning • We have been classically conditioned to see the Color Red as sexual for biological reproduction – When women are ovulating or flirting they have more blood flow to their cheeks 28
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Section 2: Test Your Knowledge 1. An individual’s fear of dogs that is lost as the individual is exposed to dogs in a non-threatening situation is referred to by behaviorists as a fear that has been: A. Satiated B. Suppressed C. Repressed D. Extinguished E. Punished 2. Watson conditioned “Little Albert” to fear white rats by banging a hammer on steel bars as the child played with the white rat. Later it was discovered that Albert feared not only white rats, but also white stuffed animals. Albert’s fear can be attributed to: A.The law of effect B.Stimulus generalization C.Stimulus discrimination D.An overactive imagination 29
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Classical Conditioning Test Your Knowledge 30 For each scenario, identify the following: UCS: UCR: CS: CR: 1. Sam is 3 years old. One night his parents build a roaring fire in the family room fireplace. The fire spits out a large ember that his his arm and hurts a great deal. A week later when Sam’s parents clean out the fireplace, he starts crying and runs behind the couch. 2. Melanie is driving to work on a rainy highway when she notices that the brake lights of all the cars just ahead of her have come on. She hits her brakes but watches in horror as her car glides into a four-car pileup. She is shaken up by the accident. A month later, she is driving in the rain and tenses up every time she sees brake lights.
Learning Goal: 1. In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination? 2. Do Cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning? 31 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the terminology associated with classical conditioning and the biological constraints that affect the process, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
3: Operant Conditioning- Part I • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning? 2. How do different schedules of reinforcement affect behavior? 32 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the process of operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
The Law of Effect • Edward Thorndike (1912) • Locked cats in a cage • Behavior changes because of its consequences. • Rewards strengthen behavior. • If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken. • Called the whole process instrumental learning.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning B. F. Skinner (1940s) • Experimented with training pigeons in a Skinner Box • Believes that any person can be controlled based on the idea of behaviorism (leads him to write Walden II) • Expands on Thorndike’s work to create Operant Conditioning – Behavior is based on external factors (rewards and punishments) 34
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Operant Conditioning The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!!
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box) 36
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box) 37
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Shaping & Chaining 38 Shaping Rewarding behaviors as they get closer and closer to the desired goal through successive approximations Examples: •Pigeons turning in circles •Learning to putt in golf •Learning to write your name Chaining Linking multiple complex behaviors together through shaping to achieve a final result Examples: •Having a chicken complete an obstacle course •Making a sandwich •Teaching a dog to get a soda from the fridge
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Ping Pong Pigeons
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Chaining…
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Reinforcers • A reinforcer is anything that INCREASES a behavior. Positive Reinforcement: • The addition of something pleasant. Negative Reinforcement: • The removal of something unpleasant. • Two types of NR • Escape Learning • Avoidance Learning (Getting kicked out of class versus cutting class)
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Positive or Negative? Putting your seatbelt on. Studying for a test. Having a headache and taking an aspirin. Faking sick to avoid AP Psych class. Breaking out of jail. Getting a kiss for doing the dishes.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Other Types of Reinforcement • Primary Reinforcer – Satisfies a biological need (food, warmth) • Secondary Reinforcer – Learned reinforcer (money, applause) • Continuous Reinforcer – Reinforcers behavior every time it occurs – Leads to rapid acquisition and rapid extinction • Partial Reinforcer – Reinforcement occurs after some, but not all responses – More resistant to extinction 43
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Reinforcement Schedules How often to you give the reinforcer? • Every time or just sometimes you see the behavior.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Ratio Schedules (set number) Fixed Ratio • Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses. Variable Ratio • Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. • Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Ration- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Interval Schedules (time) Fixed Interval • Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. Variable Interval • Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. • Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Schedules of Reinforcement 47 Which are most resistant to extinction?
Token Economy • Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given. • They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers) • Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.
Premack Principle • You have to take into consideration the reinforcers used. • Is the reinforcer wanted….or at least is it more preferable than the targeted behavior. Red Robin’s Whiskey River Veggie burger might be a great positive reinforcer for me, but it would not work well on a carnivore.
Learning Goal: 1. What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning? 2. How do different schedules of reinforcement affect behavior? 50 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the process of operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with operant conditioning and how reinforcement effects behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
4: Operant Conditioning- Part II • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. How does punishment affect behavior? 51 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how punishment affects behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how punishment affects behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how punishment affects behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
Punishment Meant to decrease a behavior. Positive Punishment • Addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) • Removal of something pleasant. Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Punishment 53
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment • Negative Reinforcement – Used to INCREASE a behavior in the future. – Example: You fail your psychology test, so your parents nag you until you study. Your parent’s goal: to get you to increase your performance and study time. • Punishment – Used to DECREASE a behavior from reoccurring. – Example: You do poorly on your psychology test, so your parents take away your cell phone. Your parent’s goal: to stop you from doing other things that distract you and lead to performing poorly on tests in the future. 54 Ask Yourself: What is the ultimate goal of the the conditioning- To Increase or decrease the behavior? Ask Yourself: What is the ultimate goal of the the conditioning- To Increase or decrease the behavior?
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Effects of Punishment • Results in unwanted fears • Conveys no information to organism • Cause a person to avoid situations or other people • Causes unwanted behavior to reappear in absence of punisher • Causes aggression towards the agent of punishment • Increases depression • Lowers Self-esteem • Teaches punishment through modeling 55
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning 56 “Pavlovian” “Skinnerian”
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Keys to Operant Conditioning • Provide immediate and clear feedback • Reinforcers and punishers should be presented as close in time to response as possible • Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent • Biologically predisposed behaviors are more easily reinforced than non-predisposed behaviors. • Feedback must follow subject’s behavior, not precede it! 57
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning • Acquisition • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Generalization • Discrimination If I wanted to reinforce my son’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances. Identify the following….
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Section 4: Test Your Knowledge Reinforcement and Punishment And Scheduling Practice 59
Learning Goal: How does punishment affect behavior? 60 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how punishment affects behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how punishment affects behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how punishment affects behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
5: Operant Conditioning- Part III (cognitive learning) • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning? 61 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Cognition and Operant Conditioning  Cognitive Map  mental representation of the layout of one’s environment  Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it  Latent Learning  learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Latent Leaning • Edward Toleman • Three rat experiment. • Latent means hidden. • Sometimes learning is not immediately evident. • Rats needed a reason to display what they have learned.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Latent Learning & Cognitive Maps (E.C. Toleman) • Cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman, 1930) • Rats can learn by “sight-seeing” their maze • Example: Learning the cognitive map of your car’s controls 64
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Biological Predispositions • Animals will learn behaviors they are biological predisposed to faster than behaviors that do not come naturally. – Example: A dog will learn to fetch slippers faster than they will learn to climb a tree. 65 Piggy Bank Experiment and “Instinctual drift” Pigs can learn to push things with their snouts easily, but it takes training to get them to learn to pick things up (like wooden coins) in their mouth and they will eventually revert back to pushing with their snouts.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Insight Learning • Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees. • Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience.
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Overjustification Effect • Intrinsic Motivation: Motivated by internal drive (Doing things because they interest you) • Extrinsic Motivation: Motivated by outside forces (Doing things to get a reward or avoid punishment) • Overjustification Effect: If you are rewarded for something you already enjoy doing, and then the reward is removed, you will lose your intrinsic motivation. 67 How do you develop intrinsic motivation? Reward behaviors will “good job” or reward behaviors like “best effort” or “most improved”
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Practical Applications for Operant Conditioning: Biofeedback A system of recording, amplifying and providing feedback about subtle physiologica l changes. Helps alleviate headaches, hypertension and anxiety 68
Learning Goal:? 1. Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning? 69 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
6: Learning by Observation • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? 2. What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? 70 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning. addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Learning Through Observation • Observational Learning • Learning by watching others • Modeling • The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior • Animals and humans can learn through observation • Mirror Neurons • Located in frontal lobe next to motor cortex • “Monkey see - Monkey do” • In humans, mirror neurons may help with: • Language • Empathy • Feelings/emotions 71
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Observational Learning • Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll • We learn through modeling behavior from others. • Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Bandura’s Study 73 How would you summarize the results of the Bobo doll study?
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Bandura’s Study • QUESTION: Do you think watching violence on TV increases violent behavior? • Bobo Doll Study • Experiments on modeling what is seen on TV • We are especially likely to imitate people we see as familiar to us. • Pro-Social Models • People who exhibit nonviolent behaviors and promote emotional understanding • Works better when actions and words are consistent 74
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Reel World to Real Word Violence • More violence on TV is correlated with more fights in school (Gentile, 2004) • More aggressive acts are committed by those who watch more violent TV (Eron et al, 1987) • White South Africans were introduced to TV in 1975, since then the homicide rate has doubled (Centerwall, 1989) • People who view violence in TV and Video Games tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. 75
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Review: Mini FRQ Emma, a seven-year-old, is playing softball for the first time. She is learning how to hit the ball with the bat. Describe how the following terms contribute to her hitting the ball. •Extrinsic Motivation •Shaping •Observational Learning •Frontal Lobe 76
ElementsControl SchedulesPunish ObserveInsightHelplessCognitiveModify ReinforceOperantEmotionsClassicalLearning Review: Mini FRQ- Answers • Extrinsic Motivation • Rewards from outside source • Pressure from parents or teammates • Shaping • Learning in stages • First learns the grip, then the stance, then the position of the bat OR first learns to hit off a tee, then a slow pitch, then a fast pitch • Observational Learning • Learns by watching others bat (mimics other’s behavior) • Frontal Lobe • Mirror neurons- neurons that allow her to immitate others body position and movements • Motor cortex will help her swing the bat by controlling body movement. 77
Learning Goal: 1. What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? 2. What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? 78 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning. addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how learning is enabled by mirror neurons and the impact of prosocial and antisocial modelIng on learning, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!

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Aguiar ap learning 2014 2015 copy

Editor's Notes

  • #3 Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Nature’s most important gift to us may be our adaptability—our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with ever-changing experiences. Humans and other animals learn by association; our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence. The events linked in associative learning may be two stimuli (as in classical condition- ing) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). If a stimulus occurs repeatedly, a response may diminish; in such cases, the organism habituates. In observational learning, we learn from viewing others’ experiences.
  • #7 Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist (person who studies the workings of the body) who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs. Classical conditioning - learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex. Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands automatically start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. This is a normal reflex (involuntary response) in both animals and humans. The food causes a particular reaction, the salivation. A stimulus can be defined as any object, event, or experience that causes a response, the reaction of an organism. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the food is the stimulus and salivation is the response.
  • #10 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response. Unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring.” Unconditioned response (UCR) - an involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned means “learned.” A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR) - learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
  • #11 Pavlov explored the phenomenon we call classical conditioning, in which organisms learn to associate stimuli and thus anticipate events. This laid the foundation for John B. Watson’s behaviorism, which held that psychology should be an objective science that studied only observable behavior. Pavlov would repeatedly present a neutral stimulus (such as a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (US), such as food, which triggered the unconditioned response (UR) of salivation. After several repetitions, the tone alone (now the conditioned stimulus [CS]) began triggering a conditioned response (CR), salivation. Unconditioned means “unlearned”; conditioned means “learned.” Thus, a UR is an event that occurs naturally in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically triggers the unlearned response. A CS is an originally neutral stimulus that, through learning, comes to be associated with some unlearned response. A CR is the learned response to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.
  • #12 Ask what involuntary responses humans have
  • #14 NS-Light UCS-shock UR-Flinch
  • #17 Higher order conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus from one conditioning procedure is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, often weaker, conditioned stimulus.
  • #19 Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
  • #20 Extinction - the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning). Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.
  • #21 Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli. Generalization can be adaptive because it extends a learned response to other stimuli in a given category, for example, fearing not only moving cars but also moving trucks and motorcycles. Discrimination has adaptive value because it limits our learned responses to appropriate stimuli, for example, fleeing from a guard dog but not from a guide dog.
  • #22 Stimulus generalization - the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination - the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
  • #25 Research indicates that, for many animals, cognitive appraisals are important for learning. That is, thoughts and perceptions are important to the conditioning process. For example, animals appear capable of learning when to expect an unconditioned stimulus. The more predictable the association between the CS and the US, the stronger the CR. For example, when repeatedly faced with traumatic events over which they have no control, people come to feel helpless, hopeless, and depressed. Psychologists call this passive resignation learned helplessness.
  • #28 Show homemade Watson Clip with actual footage.
  • #30 D, B
  • #31 # 1 US- Burn UR- Pain From Burn CS- Fireplace CR- Fear of Fire # 2 US- Car Accident UR- Fear, tensing after accident CS- Brake lights in rain CR- Tense feeling
  • #34 If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying results, then the response is strengthened. In other words: We keep doing something we find pleasurable. Thorndike conducted a series of famous experiments using a cat in a puzzle box. The hungry cat was locked in a cage next to a dish of food. The cat had to get out of the cage in order to get the food. Thorndike found that the amount of time required for the cat to get out of the box decreased over a series of trials. This amount of time decreased gradually; the cat did not seem to understand, suddenly, how to get out of the cage. This finding led Thorndike to assert that the cat learned the new behavior without mental activity but rather simply connected a stimulus and a response. Thorndike put forth the law of effect that states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. However, if the consequences of a behavior are unpleasant, the S-R connection will weaken and the likelihood of the behavior will decrease. He used the term instrumental learning to describe his work because he believed the consequence was instrumental in shaping future behaviors.
  • #35 Barrhus Francis Skinner; Show Video Clip of Skinner
  • #36 The two characteristics that help us distinguish the two forms of conditioning are the following: In classical conditioning, the organism learns associations between two stimuli, and its behavior is respondent, that is, automatic. In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its behavior and resulting events; the organism operates on the environment.
  • #37 Skinner developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. He explored the principles and conditions of learning through operant conditioning, in which behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Skinner used an operant chamber (Skinner box) in his pioneering studies with rats and pigeons.
  • #39 Chicken Training Clip; Ping Pong Clip In his experiments, Skinner used shaping, a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, guide an animal’s natural behavior toward a desired behavior. By rewarding responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations), and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors. Because nonverbal animals and babies can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discriminate. In such experiments, the stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement is referred to as the discriminative stimulus.
  • #40 Chicken Training Clip; Ping Pong Clip
  • #41 Chicken Training Clip; Ping Pong Clip
  • #42 A reinforcer is any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. Reinforcers can be positive (presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response) or negative (reducing or removing an unpleasant stimulus). Two kinds of reinforcement exist. Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something pleasant. Negative reinforcement refers to the removal of something unpleasant. For instance, if we give a rat in a Skinner box food when it presses a lever, we are using positive reinforcement. However, if we terminate a loud noise or shock in response to a press of the lever, we are using negative reinforcement. The latter example results in escape learning. Escape learning allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus; avoidance learning, on the other hand, enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether. Positive Reinforcement Giving something good to increase behavior Examples: Yummy Food Smile Good Grades, Stickers Wanted Hugs Negative Reinforcement Taking away something bad to increase behavior Examples: Annoying seatbelt man Stopping a nagging child/parent Stopping a headache by taking medicine Drug Use to relive withdrawal symptoms
  • #43 Seatbelt-negative Kiss for dishes-positive Faking sick-negative/avoidance learning Headache for asprin- negative Studying for a test-positive Breaking out of jail-negative Positive Reinforcement Giving something good to increase behavior Examples: Yummy Food Smile Good Grades, Stickers Wanted Hugs Negative Reinforcement Taking away something bad to increase behavior Examples: Annoying seatbelt man Stopping a nagging child/parent Stopping a headache by taking medicine Drug Use to relive withdrawal symptoms
  • #44 Start With Big-Bang Clip of Operant conditioning Primary reinforcers, such as food when we are hungry, are innately satisfying. Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers, such as cash, are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers, such as the enjoyment of watching late-night TV, offer immediate payback. Delayed reinforcers, such as a weekly paycheck, require the ability to delay gratification. When the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs, continuous reinforcement is involved. Learning is rapid but so is extinction if rewards cease. Partial (intermittent) reinforce- ment produces slower acquisition of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement, but the learning is more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses.
  • #46 Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses Ratio (Response) Fixed-Ratio: Every time a response occurs People work harder Example: typist gets paid by the number of pages typed Variable-Ratio: Varies unpredictably The best system for keeping behavior active Example: Slot Machines
  • #47 fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time interval, and variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Reinforcement linked to number of responses produces a higher response rate than reinforcement linked to time. Variable (unpredictable) schedules produce more consistent responding than fixed (predictable) schedules. Interval (Time) Fixed-Interval: is ‘x’ in length Behavior occurs steadily over time Test every two weeks Variable-Interval: varies unpredictably Behavior depends on motivation, but best over time Waiting for a taxi cab
  • #48 Skinner’s laboratory pigeons produced these response patterns to each of four reinforcement schedules. (Reinforcers are indicated by diagonal marks.) For people, as for pigeons, reinforcement linked to number of responses (a ratio schedule) produces a higher response rate than reinforcement linked to amount of time elapsed (an interval schedule). But the predictability of the reward also matters. An unpredictable (variable) schedule produces more consistent responding than does a predictable (fixed) schedule. Schedule examples Getting $10 for every 5 A’s you earn Playing a slot machine Pop quizzes Frequent flyer programs Picking up your paycheck Calling in to win tickets on the radio Hitchhiking Speed traps Custodian cleaning the school Buying new shoes for every 5 pounds you lose Studying for our tests Watching football waiting for a
  • #54 Punishment attempts to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Punishment administers an undesirable consequence, for example, spanking (positive punishment) or withdrawing something desirable, such as taking away a favorite toy (negative punishment). Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement removes an aversive event (an annoying beeping sound) to increase the frequency of a behavior (fastening a seatbelt).
  • #63 Rats exploring a maze seem to develop a mental representation (a cognitive map) of the maze even in the absence of reward. Their latent learning becomes evident only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it.
  • #65 Video: Rat Maze Demonstration: go to commons area and have three students draw the room (proctors needed so no cheating occurs)
  • #67 Some learning occurs after little or no systematic interaction with our environment. For example, we may puzzle over a problem, and suddenly, the pieces fall together as we perceive the solution in a sudden flash of insight.
  • #68 Research indicates that people may come to see rewards, rather than intrinsic interest, as the moti- vation for performing a task. Again, this finding demonstrates the importance of cognitive process- ing in learning. By undermining intrinsic motivation—the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs. Extrinsic motivation is the desire to per- form a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment. A person’s interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to coerce but to signal a job well done.
  • #69 Biofeedback, a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, has been used successfully to enable people to treat tension headaches.
  • #72 Video: Chimp w/AK47, Chimp minds; Mirror Neurons Among higher animals, especially humans, learning does not occur through direct experience alone. Observational learning also plays a part. The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior is often called modeling. Mirror neurons, located in the brain’s frontal lobes, demon- strate a neural basis for observational learning. Our brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature.
  • #73 Bandura believes that we imitate because of reinforcements and punishments—those received by the model as well as by the imitator. By watching others, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are observing. We tend to imitate models that we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable.
  • #74 Video: Bobo Doll Study
  • #75 Video: Bobo Doll Study Prosocial models have prosocial effects. People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others. Models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. Exposed to a hypocrite, children tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the model does and saying what the model says.
  • #76 Research indicates that much violence shown on television goes unpunished, is portrayed as justified, and involves an attractive perpetrator. These conditions provide a recipe for a violence- viewing effect. However, correlational studies that link viewing violence with violent behavior do not indicate the direction of influence. Those who behave violently may enjoy watching violence on TV, or some third factor may cause observers both to behave violently and to prefer watching violent programs. To establish cause and effect, researchers have designed experiments in which some participants view violence and others do not. Later, given an opportunity to express violence, the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. In addition to imitating what they see, observers may become desensitized to brutality, whether on TV or in real life.