AGRO-246-full notes@agrounder.pdf crop production technology- Rabi

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MPKV, RAHURI
RCSM, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, KOLHAPUR
AGRONOMY SECTION
THEORY SYLLABUS
Semester : IV(New) Academic Year : 2019-20
Course No. : AGRO-246 Course Title : Crop Production Technology-II
(Rabi Crops)
Credits : 2(1+1)
Sr.No. Topics Weightage (%)
I Cereals
25
1 Wheat
2 Rabi Sorghum
3 Barley
4 Maize: i)Grain corn, ii)Sweet corn and iii)Baby corn
II Pulses
15
1 Chickpea
2 Lentil
3 Pea
4 French bean
III Oilseeds
25
1 Sunflower
2 Safflower
3 Mustard
4 Linseed
IV Sugar Crops
10
1 Sugarcane
2 Sugar beet
V Other Crops
10
1 Potato
2 Sweet Potato
3 Tobacco
VI Medicinal and aromatic crops
05
1 Mentha
2 Lemon grass
3 Citronella
VII Forage Crops
10
1 Lucerne
2 Berseem
3 Oat
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Above crops should be covered with botanical name, common name, geographical
distribution, origin, family, economic importance, botanical description, soil and climate, seeds
and sowing, varieties, manures and fertilizers, water management, weed management,
interculturing operations, crop rotation, pests and diseases, signs of maturity, harvesting,
threshing and yield.
Reference Books:
1. Hand Book of Agriculture, ICAR Publication, 2006.
2. Field Crops: Rajendra Prasad.
3. Modern technique of raising field crops – Chhidda Singh.
4. Introduction to spices, plantation crops, medicinal and Aromatic plants by: N. Kumar,
JBM Md.Abdul Khader, P. Rangaswami, I. Irulappan
5. Crop Management and Integrated Farming-S.C.Panda; Agrobios (India)
6. Theory and Digest Agronomy : S. S. Cheema, B.K. Dhaliwal and T.S. Sahota
7. Farm Productivity New Century, New Challenges: M.M. Hosmani, B.M. Chittapur and
H.B. Babalad.
8. Crop Production and Field Experimentation: V.G. Vaidya, K.R. Sahasrabuddhe and
V.S. Khuspe, Continental Prakashan, Pune.
9. Medicinal plants for health & Wealth by S.N. Das
10. Hand Book of medicinal plants by Bhattachargoe.
11. Cultivation of Medicinal & aromatic crops University Press. By: A.A. Farooqui & B.S.
Sreeramu.
12. Hand Book of Horticulture, ICAR Publication – 2006.
***
4 Maize
5 Sorghum

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THEORY NOTES INDEX
Sr.No. Crop Name Page No.
I Cereals
1. Wheat 4-14
2 Rabi Sorghum 15-22
3 Barley 23-28
4 Maize
i) Grain corn 29-35
ii) Sweet corn 36
iii) Baby corn 37
II Pulses
1 Chickpea 38-43
2 Lentil 44-46
3 Pea 47-49
4 French bean 50-52
III Oilseeds
1 Sunflower 53-58
2 Safflower 59-63
3 Mustard 64-68
4 Linseed 69-73
IV Sugar Crops
1 Sugarcane 74-90
2 Sugar beet 91-96
V Other Crops
1 Potato 97-104
2 Sweet Potato 105-107
3 Tobacco 108-124
VI Medicinal and aromatic crops
1 Mentha 125-128
2 Lemon grass 129-132
3 Citronella 133-135
VII Forage Crops
1 Lucerne 136-139
2 Berseem 140-142
3 Maize 143
4 Oat 144-146
5 Sorghum 147-148

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I-Cereals
Wheat
Botanical name : Triticum aestivum L
Common name : Gahu / Genhu
Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)
Genus : Triticum
The Scientist Percival (1921) recognized 18 Wheat Species, but out of that only a few
species are importance in Agriculture. In India only three species of wheat are cultivated &
economically important.
1. Triticum aestivum
2. Triticum durum
3. Triticum dicoccum
1. Triticum aestivum:-
It is also called as soft sarbati and bread wheat. According to Dinkale series (hexaploid) the
chromosome number is 42. It is good for chapatti making and bakery products. It is grown in
whole of North India, Central & South India. It is most important wheat species and total
cultivation area under this species is 87%
2. Triticum durum:-
It is also called as macaroni, hard and bansi wheat. According to Einkorn series (Tetraploid)
the chromosome number is 28. It is good for making suji, Kurdaya, Shevai, Semya and
sphagetti. It is grown only central & south India. Total cultivation area under this species is
12%
3. Triticum dicoccum:-
It is also called as Emmer, Wheat. It is locally called as khapali wheat. According to Einkom
series (Tetraploid) the chromosome no is 28.It is good for South Indian dish. “Uppumav” It
contain high protein. It is grown in T.N. A.P. M.S and Gujarat. Total cultivation area under this
species is 1%
Botany
Root System: Like other members of grass family, the root systems of wheat crop are of 2
kinds. Seminal root system and Crown root system.
Seminal root System: The seminal roots arise from the embryo at the time of seed germination
and absorb nutrients for the young seedlings. As plant growth progress, the seminal root system
gradually dies & is replaced by permanent root system.
Crown root system: Transitional zone between the root and shoot is called the crown. Roots
emerging from the crown are known as crown roots. Crown roots are formed near the soil
surface. Crown roots may penetrate into the soil to a depth of 2 meter. It occurs generally 21-
25 days after sowing. Crow root initiation is an important stage for irrigation.
Shoot System: Shoot system of wheat includes all parts of stem, leaves and inflorescence. A
stem and inflorescence may be called a culm.
Stem: It is erect, cylindrical and smooth. The nodes are solid, but internodes are hollow in most
of the wheat types & verities. In few verities of T. durum (macaroni) wheat’s the internodes
are completely filled with soft pith, which imparts resistance to insect and lodging. The Wheat
stem generally has 6 nods, the range being 5-7. The basal internode is the shortest and
subsequent internodes are progressively longer. Leaf sheaths cover the internodes to a certain

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extent. The length of the stem is 30-100 cm in dwarf wheat’s & 150-160 cm in tall wheat’s.
Stem length is also influenced by environment & soil fertility. The colour of stem is usually
cream or golden yellow but some verities also have purple system.
Leaf: - Leaf has two main parts the sheath and blade. The sheath forms tube round the stem.
In most of wheat’s leaf sheath has a thin upright membranous projection (Called Ligule) at its
upper end where it join the blade. At base of the blade is claw like appendages called ‘auricles’
Inflorescence: - The flowering portion of the wheat plant is called ‘ear’ or ‘head’, botanically
it is a spike. Spikelets are systematically arranged and distributed along a common axis. The
central zigzag axis is the rachis. The spikelets are born on alternate sides of the rachis, which
gives it a zigzag appearance.
Spikelet:- It is composed of flowers called florets. The number of florets in a spikelet may vary
from 1-5. The florets in each spikelet are enclosed by two glummes.
Florets:- The outer covering of a floret is made up of a lemma and a palea. The lemma enfolds
the palea near their attachment point. If an own is present it is attached to the lemma. Anthesis
takes place from 9am to 2pm. The crop is self, pollinated.
Grain:- Wheat grain is a caryopsis. It is oval in shape, one side is convex, while other is flat
and has a longitudinal furrow between the two protruding lobes. The grain length is from 3-
10mm & diameter is from 3-5mm. The tip of grain may have a turf of hair called the brush.
Wheat grain consists of an embryo, bran and endosperm.
Economic importance:
1. It is the most important staple food of half the population of the world and that of North
India.
2. In India, it is the second important food crop being next to rice and contributes to the
total grain production of the country to the extent of about 25%
3. About 80 to 85% of wheat consumption is in the form of chapatees (unleavened flat
bread).
4. Wheat grain contains starch, soluble sugars, cellulose and hemi-cellulose, fat, various
mineral like P and Fe, Vitamins (Thiamin, riboflavin and nicotinic acid) and most
important of all the proteins. Chiefly its gluten content and particularly the lysine
content of the proteins. The gluten content largely affects the quality of bread and
other pastry products.
5. It contains 11 to 14% proteins (Low protein below 8%, medium 8-12% and high
protein more than 12%)
6. Wheat is considered to be very important food grain because of its bread making
quality. Rawa or Suji, Sewaya etc are prepared out of the wheat flour especially from
T. durum & T. dicoccum because of their strong gluten.
7. Wheat straw is used for the manufacturing of hard boards and as a fodder for the cattle.
Origin and history:-
Wheat crop was being cultivated since over 8000 years (pre-historic time). The origin of T.
aestivum wheat (salt/bread/sarbati wheat) is adjoining Hindukush mountains in North West
India, South West Afghanistan and adjoining Southern Mountainous region of USSR. The T.
durum wheat (macaroni/hard) has probably their origin in Abyssinia

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Area and production: -The crop is cultivated as winter and spring season crop in the world.
Winter wheat is cultivated in cold countries like Europe,USA,Australia,Russia etc.where as
spring wheat is grown in Asia and some parts of the USA.
T he total area under wheat in the world was about 127 million hectares with an annual
production of about 731 million tonnes (2018).
India is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide in recent past(2019)in area
(14%of global area)and production(13.64% of world production) among the major wheat
producing countries of the world viz.,Russia, U.S.A, Canada, India, France and China.
Average productivity of wheat in India is 3371kg/ha (2019).It has significant share in
consumption of food basket with a 36%share in the total food grains produced from India.
T. aestivum (Bread) Wheat is grown throughout the country. While Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Hariyana, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and other eastern states exclusively
grow bread wheat, both bread wheat and macaroni wheat(T.durum) are grown in U.P.,
Rajastan, M.P., Gujarat, M.S. Karnataka and A.P. Emmer wheat (T.dicoccum) is grown on a
very limited area in Maharashtra(Khapli), Gujarat (Popatiya), Tamilnadu (Samba) and A.P.
(Ravva godhumalu).
In Maharashtra wheat is grown in all the district except kokan area under irrigated and
rainfed conditions.
Wheat Zones of India:
1. North Western Plain Zone.
2. North Eastern Plain Zone.
3. Central Zone.
4. Peninsular Zone.
5. The Northern hill Zone.
1. North Western Plain Zone:-
Consisting of the plains of Punjab, Hariyana, Jammu, Rajasthan, (except South-eastern portion)
and Western U.P. Sowing:-October-November, Crop season:- Irrigated, Harvesting :- March –
April, Rainfed:- October and – November, Harvesting:- April-May.
T. aestivum is exclusively grown, and it is the most Important of all the Zones.
2. North Eastern Plain Zone:-
Consisting of eastern U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh & Sikkim.
Sowing :- November – December. Harvesting:- March – April. T. aestivum is exclusively
grown.
3. Central Zone:-
Consisting of M.P., Gujarat, South eastern, Rajasthan (Kota & Udaipur division) part of U.P.
(Bundelkhand),
Sowing is from Mid October – October ending.Harvesting:- End of February to March.
Occasional frost in Narmada Valley particularly Tikamgarh area of U.P.
(1) 75% area rainfed (2) T. aestivum, T. durum area grown. In some area of Gujarat, T.
dicoccum is also cultivated.
4. Peninsular Zone: -
Consisting of Maharashtra, A.P., Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.T. aestivum, durum, & dicoccum
are generally grown of which T. durum is common in rainfed areas.

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Sowing: October (Rainfed) November (irrigated) Harvesting:- February end.
5. Northern Hill Zone:-
Consisting of the hilly areas of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, U.P., West Bengal, Assam and
Sikkim. Sowing: October. Harvesting: - May – June.
Wheat plants remain practically dormant during cold months from November to March
and as the temperature rises in April, the crop starts growing. In the valley’s & high mountain
ranges wheat is grown in summer instead of winter. Here, it is sown in April – May and
harvested in September – October. Only T.aestivum is grown.
Soil:-
a. Well-drained loams and clayey loams are considered to be good for wheat.
b. Sandy loams and black soils also good.
c. Soil PH
should be 6.5 to 7.5
d. Below 5.1 and above 9 PH
crop completely fail.
e. Medium to heavy fertility and with good moisture retentive capacity are ideal for wheat.
Climate: -
a. It is a temperate crop but can be grown in tropical and Sub-tropical Zone.
b. Wheat requires cool, dry & clear weather.
c. Optimum temperature as low as 5-7ºC, as high as 26-28ºC.
d. Optimum temperature required at different stages of growth.
1. Germination : 22 - 25ºC.
2. Tillering : 16-20ºC.
3. Grain development : Less than 25ºC.
e. Hot and humid weather is harmful because it encourages rapid spread of fungus
diseases like – rusts.
f. Dry sunny days and cool nights result in dew formation that is very helpful for crop.
g. Average annual rainfall between 750-1600mm.
h. Extreme low temperature during grain filling stage result in damage due to frost.
i. Cold waves also affect crop very badly and result in the formation of shriveled seed.
Wheat is a long day (i.e. short night) plant. The duration of wheat depends upon
temperature & humidity during the growing period of the crop. In North India climate
is cool with high humidity (i.e. mini. Temperature 5-6ºC., Maxi. Temperature 20-25ºC.
and humidity 70-80%) On the contrary adverse is the situation in South India (i.e. mini.
Temp. 10-12ºC., Maxi. 30-32ºC. and humidity 50-70%) and hence the duration of crop
is less (110-120 days) in South India as compared to North India (140-160days)
Cultivation of Wheat:
There are there types of cultivation method of wheat.
a) Irrigated:
(i) Timely or normal sown:- sowing before 15th
November i.e. 1-15th
November.
(ii) Late sown:- sowing after 15th
November. But before 15th
December i.e. 16th
November – 15the December
b) Rain fed: Sowing of 2nd
fortnight of October i.e. 15-30th
October
c) Haveli Method of cultivation:

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It is adopted in the district of Jabalpur, Sagar and Mandla in M.P. where the soils are heavy
clays and the opportunities for monsoon cultivation are practically nil. Under such conditions
the control of weeds is achieved by bunding the fields and keeping the impounded standing
water during the entire monsoon period. The submerged weeds are then pulled out by hand and
late September or early October lets out the water. Within a fortnight or three weeks time the
land becomes workable and wheat seed is then directly drilled by one tyned country seed drill
called nari.
(A) Irrigated timely (Normal Sown condition)
Preparatory tillage:-
Wheat requires a fine friable and compact seedbed. There should be neither clods nor dust like
mulch. For better penetration of roots, deep ploughing is essential. Land is ploughed
immediately after the harvest of previous crop to a depth of 15-20cm, and clod crushing is done
followed by 3-4 harrowing. Collection of stubble, weed plants and other plant residues of
previous crops. Land is leveled properly so as to facilitate uniform distribution of irrigation
water.
If any green manuring crop is grown during Kharif,it should be buried in the soil by
ploughing at 50% flowering of green manuring crop. Then land is prepared for sowing. If land
is keep fallow during kharif the frequent harrowings are given in view to kept land free of
weeds & to conserve the moisture in the soil.
Seeds and sowing:-
Time of Sowing:
First fortnight of November is the optimum time of sowing. There is progressive
decrease in the yield when sowing is delayed beyond the optimum time of sowing. On an
average the reduction in the yield is about 2.5 q/ha. Due to every successive fortnight delay in
sowing after 15th
November.
Choice of variety:
While selecting the variety for sowing, soil type, response to the fertilizer and resistance
to diseases should be considered.
The varieties suitable for normal/timely sowing under irrigated conditions are – HD-2189,
NIAW-301 (Tymbak), NIDW-295, (Godawari), MACS-6122 , NIAW-917
(Tapovan),NIAW-1994 (Samadhan)
Seed Treatment:-
The use of healthy and disease free seed is essential for the successful crop of wheat. It is
necessary to protect crop from seed born fungal disease. Seed should be purchased from a
reliable source. Always use certified seed. If seed is not treated (1) treat it with vitavax or
thiram @ of 2.5 g/Kg of seed. This treatment will check the damage from flag smut, foot rot
and wilt diseases (2) solar heat treatment:- Loose smut (3) For Nitrogen fixation wheat seed
should be treated with Azotobactor biofertilizer @ 250g/10Kg of seed.
Seed Rate:
For getting maximum yield, keep optimum plant population 20-22 lakh/ha use seed rate
100Kg/ha. For bold seeded and shy tillering varieties use 125Kg seed/ha.
Sowing:
The sowing of wheat should be carried out when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. If
sufficient (25-50mm) precipitation is received at least one week before sowing, then pre-

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soaking irrigation is not required. If there is no rainfall then one pre-soaking irrigation needs
to be given before sowing.
Spacing:-
Sowing is done by two bowl seed drill with the spacing of 22.5cm
Depth of sowing:
Seed should be sown at the depths varying from about 3-5cm for easy emergence. The dwarf
or Mexican wheat varieties (double & triple dwarf) posses short coleoptile length and if sown
deep is unable to come out of soil surface and ultimately affects the stand of crop adversely
due to faulty germination and production of less no. of tillers.
(i) Depth less than 5cm for dwarf Mexican varieties.
(ii) For Niphad varieties – 6-8cm depth.
Direction of sowing:
During winter period, the direction of the sun over India is South – South – East to West-
North-West and if sowing is done North-South direction it would allow maximum interception
of sunlight and promote a vigorous growth, will result in higher yields.
After sowing, seed is covered by working with a harrow or plank. Saras/Strips (7.5 to
25m x 3m size) are prepared with the help of sara yanta, by considering the slope of land for
giving irrigation conveniently and uniformly.
Manures and fertilizers:
Wheat crop yielding about 50 quintals grains removes 100-150: 70-80: 125-150Kg/ha
of NPK, respectively from soil.
Before last harrowing 25to 30CL of FYM (12 to 15t/ha) compost is applied. RDF is
120:60:40kg NPK/ha. Half the quantity of N and full dose of P205 and K20 is given at the time
of sowing and remaining half dose of ‘N’ is given at the time of first irrigation i.e. 18 to 21days
after sowing.
Irrigation management:-
Normally 5 to 6 irrigations are required to wheat crop. First irrigation should be given 18 to 21
days after sowing and further irrigation interval should be kept 18-20 days i.e. 3 weeks in
medium black soils. Two to three extra irrigations are required for light soils. Wheat crop
requires sufficient moisture in the soil during the critical physiological growth stages of the
crop.
Critical growth stages Days after sowing
1. Crown root initiation (CRI) 18-21
2. Tillering 40-42
3. Flowering 60-65
4. Early dough / grain formation stage 90-95
If there is limited water supply:
1. For one irrigation – at 42 days after sowing (i.e. at tillering stage)
2. For two irrigations – at 21 DAS and 65 DAS (i.e. at CRI & flowering)
3. For 3 irrigations – at 21, 42 and 65 DAS. (i.e at CRI, tillering and flowering stage)
Total water requirement of wheat crop is 40 ha cm. At each turn 7 ha.cm water is sufficient.
CRI stage is considered at the most critical stage for irrigation.

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The appropriate IW: CPE ratio for an irrigation in wheat ranges between 0.7 and 0.9.
However, from the operational point of view, this method has limited applicability because
CPE measurement is beyond the means of a common farmer.
Interculturing:
Weeds emerge with the crop and if it is not controlled in the early stages of crop growth
it may cause reduction in the yield varying from 30-70% depending on the intensity and stage
of weed infestation.
Wheat field is generally observed both dicot & monocot weeds. The major dicot weeds
are chenopodium album (chandan bathua), melilotus Indica (Senji), chandwel. Monocot weeds
include- Phalaris minor (canary grass), Avena fatua (wild oat), cyperus rotundas (Lavala) and
cynodon dactylon (Hariyali or doob).
Two weeding and one hoeing are given to control the weeds. However, now a days it
has become difficult due to labour cost and unavailability of labour.
Chemical weed Control:-
Most common and effective herbicide to kill all broad – leaved weeds, (dicot weeds) in
wheat field is 2,4-D. It is available in market under different trade names viz., Bladex G,
Weedar, Bladex C, Weedone, Tafacide, Fernoxozne (Sodium salt power). It is sprayed @
1.25kg a.i./ha in 500 to 600 liters of water in wheat field 32-35 DAS. When 2,4-D is sprayed
between 25-30 days the ears of wheat have been found to suffer from malformation.
To control broad and narrow leaves weeds like phalaris minor (Canary grass), wild oats
canbe controlled by post emergence application of isoproturon @ 1.25Kg a.i/ha in 600 to 800
liters of water within 32-35 DAS.
For control of Phalaris minor and other broad leaved weeds application of
sulphosulphuron (Leader) 75% WG @ 0.025kg a.i/ha in 500-700 liters of water within 25-30
DAS
Pre emergence spray of pendimethalin (Stomp) 30% EC at the rate of 1.00Kg a.i/ha in
600 to 800 liters of water 0-3 days after sowing is also very effective for control of many annual
grasses and some broad leaved weeds.
We can also under take the spraying of 2% urea for the better development of luster of
the grain along with the pesticides.
Harvesting and Threshing:-
Sings of maturity:
1. Generally wheat crop matures 110-120 days after sowing
2. Leaves and stem turn yellow
3. Plants become fairly dry and brittle
4. Grains become hard
5. The proper stage for harvesting is when about 15% moisture in grains
6. To avoid loss in yield crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe
Harvesting:
Harvesting should be done early in the morning to avoid shattering of grains (e.g. NIAW-301,
NI-5439). Harvesting is normally done manually by cutting the plant close to the ground with
serrate edged sickles and tied in small bundles. Then transport of bundles in threshing yard. It
is dried for 3-4 days.
Threshing and Winnowing:-

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Threshing is done by trampling wheat plants under the feet of bullocks or mechanical thresher.
Winnowing is done and grains are cleaned. Grains are dried in hot and bright sunlight about 2-
3 days and stored it properly.
Now a days Combine harvester machine is used for harvesting wheat crop. With this
machine harvesting, threshing and winnowing is carried out at a time.
Yield:- Average yield of timely/normal sown wheat crop is 45-50 Q/ha
*Potential yield of wheat crop is 88 Q/ha.
Ex.Total plant population 22 lakhs/ha. Two spikes/plant.
22 lakhs plants x 2 spikes/plant = 44 lakhs spikes.
Weight of grain /spike - 2gram,
44 lakhs spikes x 2 grams, seed weight = 88 Q/ha.
Irrigated late sown:-
When the crops like sugarcane (Ratoon) and cotton (irrigated) are taken during kharif.
Under such conditions, the farmers desire to grow second crop of wheat after harvesting of
previous one. It is difficult to under take the sowing of second crop of wheat in time i.e. before
15th
November due to :-
(i) Late harvesting of previous crops and
(ii) Time required for the land preparation.
Preparation of land:- Same as like timely sown wheat crop.
The following points should be considered while undertaking the cultivation of wheat
under late sown conditions.
1. Choice of variety
2. Use of more seed rate
3. Reduction in the spacing and dose of fertilizer application.
4. Time of sowing.
1. Choice of variety:
The variety that gives better yield even under late sown conditions should be selected.
Variety: - HD – 2610, NIAW – 34, NI-5439, AKAW-2997-16(Sharad), NIDW-
15(Panchawati). NIAW-1415-Phule Netrawati-require less number of irrigations.
2. Use of more seed rate:
Under late sown conditions, wheat does not get favourable climatic conditions and
hence less tillering is observed. In order to maintain the plant population the seed rate should
be more as compared to normal/timely sowing i.e. 125-150 kg/ha.
3. Reduction in the spacing and dose of fertilizer application:
Under late sown conditions, the spacing of sowing is reduced to 18cm. between the
rows so also the fertilizer dose is also reduced to 80: 40 : 40 kg NPK/ha. At the time of sowing
½ dose of N and full dose of P and K should be given. Remaining half dose of ‘N’ should be
given at 1st
irrigation.
4. Time of sowing:
After 15th
November but before 15th
December. Sowing after 15th
December is not economical.
Yield: - Average yield of late sown wheat is – 35 to 40 Q/ha
All other cultivation practices remain the same as in case of timely sowing.
Cultivation of wheat under rainfed condition:

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The rainfed wheat is mainly grown on stored moisture in the soil and soil moisture is
the limiting factor in the cultivation of wheat under rainfed conditions. The stand of crop
depends upon the rainfall received during the monsoon and subsequent rains received during
the growth period of the crop.
Soil: Medium to heavy fertile soils with good moisture retentive capacity is ideal for the
cultivation of wheat under rainfed conditions.
Preparation of Land:
Land is ploughed by one deep ploughing followed by frequent (3-4) harrowing. Harrowing is
carried out after every receipt of showers in view to conserve the moisture in the soil. 5-10 CL
(2.5-5 t/ha) of FYM/ compost is added in the soil before last harrowing.
Seeds and sowing:
Second fortnight of October is the optimum time of the sowing the wheat under rainfed
conditions.
Spacing: Sowing is done by two bowled seed drill at 22.5cm apart.
Depth of sowing: Under rainfed conditions seed is sown in the moist zone which may be about
8 to 10cm depth.
Seed rate: 75 to 100Kg/ha
Choice of variety:- Varieties suitable for cultivation under rainfed conditions should be
selected
N-59, MACS-9, MACS-1967, N-5439, N-8223, NIDW-15 (Panchawati), AKDW-2997-16
(Sharad), AKAW-4627 .
Varitety suitable for rainfed condition: NIDW-15 (Panchawati), Varitety suitable for rainfed
condition:
Manures & Fertilizers:-
5-10 CL (2.5-5t/ha) FYM/Compost is applied before last harrowing.
40Kg N + 20Kg P205/ha. Entire doss of N and P205 is given at the time of sowing.
Yield:- 10 – 12 Q.ha
Other cultivation practices like, seed treatment, interculturing, harvesting and threshing remain
same as like timely sown conditions.
Rotations & Intercropping:-
If double cropping If there crop following rotations
Kharif Rabi Generally followed
Mung Wheat Kharif Rabi Summer
Soyabean Wheat
G.nut Wheat Paddy Wheat Mung
Sunhemp Wheat Groundnut Wheat Groundnut
Paddy/sorghum/ Bajra Wheat Soyabean Wheat Groundnut
Cotton Wheat
Sugarcane ratoon Wheat
Intercropping
Common intercropping with wheat are mustard, sarson, safflower, linseed, barley,
gram, wheat + gram practice followed in M.P. 2/3 + 1/3

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Mixed cropping is practiced in rainfed cultivation of wheat with a view to safeguard
the crop stand from unfavourable growing conditions.
Wheat is grown as a intercrop in sugarcane. The crops like safflower and gram are
grown as an intercrops in wheat.
❖ Pusa-4 is awnless wheat variety
❖ Dr. Borlaug, scientist had developed the wheat varities and he had done more
research on wheat crop.
Diseases:-
Wheat crop is infested with, rusts, alternaria, leaf blight, loose smut, karnal buft and powdery
mildew.t
Rust: Rust is a major disease in wheat crop.Wheat is infested by brown yellow and black rusts.
Brown and Yellow rusts are major diseases in North West part of the country, where as black
rust is severe in southern, central & eastern parts of India.
Control measures:-
1. Grow rust resistance varieties.
2. Spray 0.2% Zineb or Dithane M-45 and 0.1% sandovit (Sticker) as soon as pustules
appear. 2nd
and 3rd
spray may be repeated with an interval of 10-15 days.
Loose Smut:- Control measures:- (i) growing loose smut resistant varieties, (ii) treating seed
with vitavex @ 2.5g per kg of seed before sowing (iii) uprooting the infected plants, burying it
underground or burning it.
Insect Pests:- Wheat crop is attacked by Termites, Army worms, Aphids and rodents.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of Mexican wheat (Timely sown) with following
points.
a) Ecology of crop b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutritional requirements d) Irrigation management e) Harvesting and yield
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of late sown wheat on following points.
1. Choice of variety 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Manures and fertilizers 4. Irrigation 5. Harvesting.
3. A group of cultivators want to grow wheat after sugarcane- Advice them on the
following aspects.
1. Preparation of land and choice of variety 2. Seeds and sowing
3. Irrigation management 4. Fertilizers requirement and harvesting.
4. A farmer desired to grow wheat after harvesting of groundnut JL-24, Advice him on
the following aspects of cultivation of wheat
1. Seed bed preparation 2. Choice of variety
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Manure and fertilizer requirement
5. Irrigation management
5. Write in detail on the cultivation of the rainfed-sown wheat on following points.
1. Soil & preparation of land 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Choice of variety 4. Manures & fertilizer
5. After care.
6. Describe in brief the cultivation of wheat on following aspects.
1. Ecology 2. Sowing and seed rate

14
3. Critical stages for irrigation 4. Fertilizer management
5. Weed management 6. Interculturing
7. Write in detail about the cultivation of wheat with following points.
1. Ecology 2. Seeds & sowing 3. Growth & development
4. Cropping System 5. Irrigation requirement.
Write short notes on
1. Wheat species 2. Wheat Zones of India
3. Ecology of Wheat.
Give reasons:
1. Mexican dwarf wheat varieties are sown to a shallow depth.
2. The average yield of wheat is low in Maharashtra
3. It is necessary to irrigate wheat in its crown root initiation stage.
4. Wheat sowing should be done in north- south direction.
***

15
2. Rabi Sorghum (Jowar) Great Millet
Botanical name :- Sorghum bicolor L. Moench
Family: Gramineae/ Poaceae
Genus:- Sorghum
Tribe:- Andropogoneae
Sorghum is one of the fourth major food grains of the world. Millions of people in Africa
and Asia depend on Sorghum as the staple food. Besides grain it also provides good quality
fodder for the live stock. It is commonly known as the “great millet” due to larger size of grain
among millets and vast area under it.
- Sorghum is also known as “camel crop” due to its drought resistance capacity
- It grows well on variety of soil.
Origin and History:-
Cultivated Sorghum probably originated in East Central Africa, in or near Ethiopia or Sudan.
The word sorghum is derived from the Latin word “sargo’ which means rising above i.e.
growing taller than other millets.
The races of sorghum are believed to have been spread from Africa to India. They have
been in cultivation since very remote times in China and Manchuria. Sir George Watt (1893)
pointed out there was no specific Sanskrit name for sorghum. It is there fore supposed that
sorghum reached India in 1500BC.
Area and Production:
Among the sorghum growing countries India rank first in acreage but second in production
USA being the largest producer in the world. The other important sorghum growing countries
are China, Nigeria, Australia, Sudan and Argentina.
The highest area under sorghum i.e. 42% is in Maharashtra followed by Karnataka, A.P.
& M.P with 11 to 14% and Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu & U.P. 4 to 6%. The remaining
states have small area.
The Maharashtra ranks first in production followed by M.P. Karnataka and A.P. In
Maharashtra sorghum is grown in all districts except coastal districts of Thane, Raigad &
Ratnagiri. Dhule, Nazik, Nagar, Pune, Solapur, Satara, Sangli, Aurangabad, Parbhani, Beed,
Osmanabad & Chandrapur districts have large area under under rabi sorghum.
Cultivation of Rabi Sorghum under Dryland farming.
In M.S. Rabi Sorghum is the most important crop of drought prone areas. Sorghum growing
important districts of drought prone area are Solapur, Ahmednagar and Pune. These districts
occupy 2/3 area of rabi Sorghum out of total area of Maharashtra state and yields are low due
to :-
1. Sorghum is grown under dry farming conditions with low and erratic rainfall.
2. Improper selection of land
3. Non-use of Chemical fertilizers.
4. Traditional methods of sorghum cultivation.
5. Non-use of improved varieties of sorghum

16
Botany: -
Chromosome No. : - 2n=20 i.e. 10 pairs.
Root System:-
The roots of the plant are superficial & fibrous. Adventitious roots emerge from the immediate
upper nodes and provide anchorage to the stem as it grows and becomes top heavy due to the
development of terminal head.
Stem:-
Stem or culm is solid, though the center may become spongy, with spaces in the pith. The
thickness of the stem at base varies from 1-5cm in diameter. The height of plant varies between
0.5m to 5m and is broader at the base and narrower at the upper end. The number of nodes
differ with varieties but in general the stems are made up of 7-18 nodes & internodes. There is
a groove on the internodes except on peduncle. The grooves are arranged alternately from one
side to another on each successive internode. Stem of sorghum may be quite juicy & sweet or
pithy & with very little juice. Fodder varieties are more juicy & sweeter than grain varieties.
Leaves:-
The leaf arises from each node and is about 30 to 135cm long and 1.5 – 13cm broad. The
number of leaves on the main stem varies from 7 to 24 according to variety. The arrangement
of leaves on the stem is usually alternate in two ranks on opposite sides of stem.
Inflorescence:-
The inflorescence of sorghum is a panicle. The panicles are commonly known as ‘heads’ and
vary a great deal in size ranging from 7.5 to 50cm in length & 4-20cm in width. It is a loose or
compact, having many primary branches borne on a hairy axis bearing paired spikelets. There
are two flowers in fertile spikelet, the lower sterile and upper fertile. Average panicle/head
contains about 45 g. of seed. The crop is cross pollinated to the extent of 95%, the seed is white
to dull white in colour. It is a short day plant.
Sorghum plants start synthesizing (HCN) Hydro cyanic acid from germination up to 8
weeks and it is harmful if young green stalks are fed to cattle. It is quite safe to feed green
fodder sorghum when it is in flag leaf stage.
Economic Importance:
1. It is fourth most important world cereal following wheat, rice & maize.
2. It is a staple food crop of the drier parts of tropical Africa, India & China.
3. The grain flour is used for preparation of rottees and brewing.
4. Ear heads of some sweet varieties Wani, Gulbhendi, Dagadi and Phule uttara are baked
on fire and eaten as ‘Hurda’.
5. The grain of some varieties is popped & consumed as pop grain.
6. The dry stalks and leaves called kadbi are used as fodder for cattle or also grown for
green fodder purpose.
7. Grain is also used for manufacturing starch, syrup, glucose, sugar tablets, oil, gluten &
a poultry feed.
8. It contains protein 9 to 11%
9. Sweet sorghum stalks are used for preparation of jaggery.

17
Cultivation practices for rainfed sorghum.
Ecological Factors (Soil & Climate):-
Soil.
1. Medium to deep soils, which are moisture retentive well drained & fertile.
2. Depth of soil should be more than 45cm
3. It should have good water holding capacity.
4. Soil pH 5.5 to 8.5
Climate.
1. Sorghum is purely a tropical crop and suited to areas of moderate rainfall.
2. It thrives well in the regions having mean temperature of over 27ºC
3. The average temperature during the growing season should be 21ºC to 32ºC, however,
many varieties can stand a minimum temperature of 10-16 & maximum of 40O
C
4. It is a drought resistant crop & hence ideal crop for the cultivation in regions, which
depend entirely upon rainfall.
5. It regulates transpiration and remains dormant during the period of drought and starts
active growth when the moisture status of the soil improves.
6. It can be grown in areas receiving 350 to 1000mm rainfall.
7. Excessive soil moisture as well as prolonged drought is harmful for the crop growth.
Preparation of land:
Sorghum crop requires firm and compact seedbed for root initiation & early growth of the crop.
Land is prepared by giving 3 to 4 harrowing. In dry farming, ploughing once in three
years is recommended to keep down the growth of weeds such as cynodon dactylon (Hariali),
Cyprus rotundas (Lavala/nut grass) & to minimize the cost of production.In light to medium
soil every year ploughing is essential.
The rabi sorghum is generally grown after Green gram/Black gram, or keeping the land
fallow during kharif. If, it is to be sown after green gram/black gram the land is prepared by
giving 2-3 harrowing or it is fallow about 3 harrowing are sufficient.
Seeds and sowing:-
Seed treatment:-
1. The seed is treated with 30% brine (salt) solution for control of ergot disease.
2. Seed is treated with 300 mesh fine sulphur @ 4g/kg of seed for the control of grain
& loose smut disease.
3. Seed is treated with Thiram 3 g/kg of seed for control of Head smut disease.
4. Seed is treated with carbofurom @ 100g /kg of seed, as a preventive measure
against stem fly attack at initial stage of the crop growth.
5.The seed of sorghum may be treated with Azotobactor culture and PSB each with
@ 250g/10kg of seed for increasing ‘N’ fixation.
Time of Sowing: The optimum time of sowing rabi sorghum is 15th
September to 15th
October.
Seed rate: Variety:- 10Kg/ha Hybrid:- 8kg/ha
Method of sowing: Rabi sorghum crop commonly sown by drilling (Line sowing)
method.

18
Spacing:- Row to row 45cm & plant to plant 15cm.For sowing two bowled seed drill is used.
Due to two bowled seed drill seed and fertilizers can be sown simultaneously at a time. Seed
should be sown at less than 5cm depth. Seed should be placed in the moist zone.
Plant population:- Varieties-1.48 lakhs/ha and Hybrid sorghum 1.20 to 1.35
lakhs/ha.
Manures and fertilizers:-
Hybrid and improved varieties of rabi sorghum gives good response to fertilizers. The
experiments conducted on rainfed condition were received 10 to 15% grain yield due to
application of 1kg ‘N’
(i) Rainfed: - FYM/Compost @ 5 tonnes/ha is applied before last harrowing.
(ii) Irrigated: - FYM / Compost @ 10 tonns/ha.
Soil Type
Fertilizers Kg/ha
Rainfed Irrigated
N P K N P K
Light 25 - - - - -
Medium 40 20 - 80 40 40
Heavy 60 30 - 100 50 50
In rainfed conditions all quantity of N & P is given at the time of sowing by drilling.
In irrigated conditions half quantity of N & full quantity of P & K is given at the time
of sowing by drilling. Remaining half dose of ‘N’ is applied 30 days after sowing as a top
dressing.
Inter culturing:
a) Thinning:- The 1st
thinning is carried out 10-12 days after sowing & 2nd
thinning is carried
out 20 days after sowing and to maintain the desired plant population.
b) Weeding & hoeing:- Generally 1-2 weeding & 3 hoeing are given to the rabi sorghum crop.
Crop should be keep weed free up to 30 to 40 days from sowing.
The first hoeing is done when the crop is of 3 weeks old with a slit blade hoe and 2nd
hoeing is done 5 weeks after sowing with an entire blade hoe. 3rd
hoeing is done 8 weeks of
crop age with toothed blade hoe. At the time of 3rd
hoeing the thread /rope is tied to hoe. Due
to thread /rope tying soil is put near the root & it help for retention of rainwater. And better
aeration to sorghum crop.
The hoeing operation helps in controlling weeds to some extent and to conserve the
moisture in the soil by formation of natural mulch. In between two hoeing one hand weeding
is given to the crop to control the weed growth.
Chemical weed control:- Atrazine @ 1-2kg a.i./ha in 500 litter of water as pre-emergence
spray has been very effective in control the broad-leaves weeds. 2,4-D (2,4- dichlorophenoxy
acetic acid) @ 1-1.5 kg a.i./ha in 500 liter of water as post-emergence spray 3-4 weeks after
sowing.
1. Preplant soil application of Fenac or 2,3,6–TBA reduces parasitism by striga.
2. Use of Attazine as a pre-emergence spray in combination with 2, 4-D,
3. Striga litura (witch weed) is the common parasite weed on sorghum crop. For
controlling striga weed-spraying of 2, 4-D @ 1 kg a.i./ha has been found more effective.
Applied 2, 4-D twice from 2 weeks to 70 DAS.

19
Mechanical control: Destruction of striga weed before setting seeds by removal.
Reducing the reservoir of striga in the soil:- Trap cropping, crop rotation & use of
germination stimulants are effective measures in this direction.
Growing a susceptible crop & ploughing it under before striga establishment on it acts as trap
crop in certain situations.
Ethrel, Ethylene, Strigol are some stimulants for germinating striga seeds. Use of these
stimulants is aimed to induce germinating of striga & destroy by ploughing.
Crop rotation:- Cotton, Groundnut, Cowpea, Pigeon pea, soybean, dolichos, velvet beans are
some of such crops and cultivation of these crop in rotation with sorghum has been found to
reduce the striga population.
However, because of limitations in application & loss of a season in the process, this
has not been widely practiced. Other approaches for controlling striga include good
management, biological control & resistance breeding.
Irrigation schedule:-
The rabi sorghum grown as irrigated crop required about 39 to 41 ha cm water.
The crop is irrigated by preparing saras of 8 to 10m length & 2 to 3m breadth according to
slope of land.
Sr.
No.
Critical growth stage
Days
From
sowing
Rainfed Irrigated
Protective
irrigation
Medium
soil
Heavy
soil
One Two
1. Grand growth or vegetative
phase
28-30 - ✓ ✓ ✓
2 Boot stage (Heading) or
Flag leaf stage
50-55
60
DAS
✓ ✓ ✓
3. Flowering Stage 70-75 - - ✓ ✓
4. Grain filling or dough stage 90-95 - - ✓ -
❖ Lack of soil moisture at this stage may reduce the yield to the extent of 60%
❖ At each irrigation 6 to 8ha cm water is applied.
According to soil moisture regime during rabi season irrigation at 50% depletion of available
soil water in 0 - 30cm soil layer was reported optimum (Patil et.al 1969, Kaliappa et.al. 1974)
According to IW/CPE ratios – 0.8 or 1.0 gave higher yields (Lomte et al 1988)
Dry land technology for rainfed rabi sorghum:-
1. Tillage:
Surface soil should be kept open for the entry of water through the soil. In heavy soil deep
ploughing once in 2 to 3 years has been extremely beneficial. In light to medium soil every
year ploughing is essential. Tillage is major component of storage efficiency in soils with high
water holding capacity.
2. Use of two bowl seed drill for sowing.
3. Hoeing:- Three hoeing are essential for controlling weeds and conserve the moisture into
the soil. Due to hoeing breaking the capillaries at soil and hence avoids cracking of soil surface.
4. Mulching:-

20
Evaporation can be reduce by covering the soil surface with organic residues, straw,
grass, stalks of red gram. Due to obstructing the solar radiation falling in the ground,
evaporation losses reduced. Apply 5 tonnes/ha organic mulch in between two crop lines 15
DAS. Due to use of mulch saving of 25 to 30mm soil moisture and increase 30 to 40% crop
yield.
5. Protective Irrigation:- i) If one irrigation available apply at flag leaf stage i.e. at 60 DAS.
(ii) If two irrigation available apply 1st
at grand growth stage (28-30DAS) & 2nd
at flage leaf
stage.
6. Foliar application of fertilizer:- Spraying of 2% urea fertilizer on crop leaves. Add 2Kg
urea in 100 liter of water. It increases the function of leaves and helps for absorption of moisture
from soil.
7. Use of anti transpirants: - These are materials which decrease water loss from leaves by
reducing the size or number of stomatal openings leading to decreased rate of water vapour
diffusion from leaf surfaces. e.g. Kaolin, white colour, chalk dust @ 8%
8. Reduce plant population/ha: - If drought period increase the plants compete for moisture
& nutrient. Due to this condition yield of crop reduced. To overcome this problem reduce the
plant population/ha and maintain plant population up to 90,000 to
1, 00,000/ha.
9. Reduce No. of leaves/plant: - In drought situation there is loss of water through leaves by
transpiration. For decreasing transpiration, reduce number of leaves from lower site of plant
and keep 4 to5 leaves upper site of plant.
Crop rotation and mixed cropping:-
Kharif Rabi
Green gram - Sorghum
Black Gram - Sorghum
Soybean - Sorghum
Groundnut - Sorghum
Mixed Cropping:- Sorghum + Safflower
Sorghum + Gram
Sorghum + Sunflower
Intercropping:- (i) Sorghum + Sunflower (ii) Sorghum + Linseed In different row proportion.
Harvesting:
a) Signs of maturity:- Generally crop is ready for harvest 110-125 days after sowing i.e. 4
months.
i) Yellowing & drying of older leaves
ii) General yellowing of peduncle
iii) Grains cease developing & gaining in dry weight
iv) When the grains reach the hard dough stage or when moisture % of the grains
drop below 25%
v) Grains give cracking sound when crushed under teeth
vi) In case of hybrid Sorghum do not wait for stalks & leaves to dry because plant
appear green even after the crop is mature.
In rainfed Sorghum generally, crop harvested by uprooting the whole plant & cutting the ear
heads after from the plants.

21
In irrigated sorghum harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant close to the ground with
sharp sickle. In Hybrid sorghum first ear heads are cut & then plants are harvested by cutting.
After cutting or pulling of plants, they are allowed to dry in the field for 2 to 3 days and
then stalks are tied in small bundles and carried to the threshing yard. Earheads are separated
& again dried in sunlight.
Threshing:-
The earheads are trampled (Threshed) under the feet of bullocks. Some time stone roller
is used for threshing purpose. Now a days power thresher cum winnowers is available for
threshing & cleaning the grains. Threshed material is winnowed against natural wind or by
using winnowing fan and grains are cleaned, dried and stored.
Yield:
Main produce i.e. grain :- Rainfed:- 15 to 20 quintals/ha
Irrigated:- Variety 30 to 35 Q/ha
Hybrid:- 45 to 50 Q/ha
By produce(Stover) i.e. Kadbi:- Rainfed:- The grain to kadbi ratio is 1:2
i.e. 30 to 40 Q/ha
Irrigated:- (i) Variety:- The grain to kadbi ratio is 1:2.5 to 3
i.e. 90 to 105 Q/ha
(ii) Hybrid:- The grain to stover ratio is 1:1 i.e. 50Q/ha.
Irrigated crop:-
All the cultivation practices to be followed are same as like rainfed except soil requirements,
preparation of land, manuring & and irrigation
Soil:-
Irrigated sorghum is grown on variety of soils; however, the best growth is obtained in clay
loams with well drained. It tolerates saline & alkaline conditions of the soil to some extent &
can also thrive in soil with medium acidity up to pH 5.5
Preparation of land:-
The land is ploughed immediately after the harvest of the previous crop with mould board
plough to a depth of 15 to 20 cm. followed by 2-3 cross harrowing.
Varieties :
1. Rainfed:-
1. Light Soil (Depth up to 30cm) :- Selection – 3 & Phule mauli (RSLG-262) Phule
anuradha (RSV-458)
2. Medium Soil:- (Depth upto 60cm) Phule mauli (RSLG-262, Phule chitra (SPV – 1546)
Phule Suchitra CSV-14R, Parbhani moti (SPV – 1411), Maldandi – 35-1
3. Heavy soil (Depth above 60cm):- Improved variety:- Vasudha – (RSV-423), Phule
Yashoda (SPV-1359), Phule Revati, CSV-18, PKV Kranti
Hybrid: CSH-15-CSH-19,CSV-18
2.Irrigated:-
Phule yashoda, Vasudha, CSV-22, CSV-18, CSH-15., CSH-19.
For hurda purpose:- Phule uttara, Wani, Gulbhendi, Dagadi, Phule Madhur

22
Old varieties:-Motichur, Kalbhondi, Tamad bhondi, Saoner, Ramkel, NJ-164, NJ-156,
Aispuri, PJ-4R, Satpani, Khedi 2-2-10, Khedi BK-1-10 POP grain:- Kawali
Pests and Diseases:-
Insect Pests:
1. Shoot Fly:- Can be avoided by adjusting the planting time – late in the rabi soil
application of phorate 10G @ 1.5 kg a.i/ha at the time of sowing.
2. Shoot borer:- Removal of the stubbles immediately after the harvest of the crop
prevent carryover. Application of Cabaryl 4G or Endosalphan 4G in the whorls @ 8 &
12 Kg/ha at 20 & 35 days after emergence is recommended.
3. Shoot bug 4. Army worm 5. Mite 6.Midge fly7. Head bug 8.Hairy catter pillars.
Diseases:-Grain & loose smut, grain molds, sorghum downy mildew, ergot, charcoal rot,
rust.
Question Bank
1 Elaborate the following points of cultivation of rabi sorghum under rainfed
condition. (limited source of irrigation water).
1. Selection of variety (Genotype selection) 2. seeds and sowing
3. intercultivation 4. Manure & fertilizer
5. Critical growth stages with reference to its irrigation requirements
2 Elaborate the following points of rabi sorghum cultivation under irrigated
conditions.
1. Ecological factors 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Varieties and Hybrids 4. Fertilizer management
5. Pre and post sowing moisture conservation practices
3 Advice a farmer on the cultivation of rabi sorghum under the facilities for the
protective irrigation.
4 Advice a farmer in drought prone area regarding cultivation of rabi sorghum
under dry land conditions on the points.
1. Selection and preparation of land 2. Seeds and Sowing
3. Manure and fertilizers application 4. Intecultivation
5. Critical growth stages with reference to its irrigation requirements.
2. Write short note on:- 1. Ecology of Sorghum 2. Sorghum poisoning
3. Crop rotations and intercropping in rabi Sorghum.
3. Give reasons:
1. Feeding of young sorghum plants to cattle up to flowering is harmful.
2. Productivity of sorghum is low in rabi season as compared to kharif.
3. Rabi sorghum yields are low in Maharashtra
4. Frequent inter tillage operations are recommended for dry land rabi crops.
5. Advance sowing of Rabi sorghum is found to be beneficial.
***
3. Barley

23
Botanical Name:- Hordeum Vulgare.
Famiy:- Graminaeae / Poaceae
Tribe:- Hordea
Common name:- Satu
Similar to wheat, Barley is also one of the oldest cultivated crops. In India barley is an
important cereal crop in winter after wheat. Its Sanskrit name is ‘Yava’is mentioned in Veda
and used in religious ceremonies.
Classification of barley:-
Aberg & wiebe (1946) classified all the cultivated barley varieties into three distinct species
based on number of rows of grain & their arrangement.
1. Two rowed barley – Hordeum distichum L.
2. Six rowed barley – Hordeum vulgare L.(most commonly cultivated type)
3. Irregular barley – Hordeum irregulare E.Aberg and wiebe
1. Two rowed type:- In this species only the medium spikelets are fertile and sets grain.
Generally each spike produces 15-30 kernels (grains)
2. Six rowed type:- In this species all the three spikelets at each node of the spike are
fertile. The spikelets are in six distinct rows and arranged at a uniform distance around
the tough rachis. All these spikelets produce grains. About 25-60 grains (kernels) are
usually produced on each spike. It is most commonly cultivated species in the world.
3. Irregular type:- In this species central florets are fertile, where as the lateral florets are
reduced to rachilla. Chromosome No.:- 2n = 14
Barely is believed to be originated from Southeast Asia and Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
It is introduced in India around 3000 BC from Middle East region. The important barley
growing countries are Russia, Canada, France, Spain, UK, Germany, Turkey, Australia,
Morocco, USA, Ethiopia, China & India.
It is cultivated on a large scale in eastern U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan and M.P. Uttar Pradesh (largest producer of barley in India) alone produces
nearly half of India’s total Production of barley. In Maharashtra very negligible area is under
this crop.
Economic Importance:-
1. Grains have 8-10% protein, good amount of carbohydrates (74%), minerals, vitamin B-
Complex and 1.3% Fat.
2. It is mostly used in the feed industry and brewing.
3. Barley grains are mostly used for malting.
4. Grain is used mostly as “sattu” (roasted and ground barley flour mixed in sugar &
water),dalia,halwa and barley pops.
5. Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections such
as flavored drinks, some baked goods, biscuits.
6. Malt syrup is also used utilized for making candies, medicines, & in textile Industry.
7. Barley is highly digestible as it contains very low gluten and barley chappati is very
palatable
8. It is also used as a feed for livestock.
9. Grains are also used as feed for pigs & poultry birds.

24
10. Barley may be taken as green fodder after 60 days of sowing.
Botanical Description:
Roots:-It consists of shallow & deep roots. The shallow root arise near the soil surface &
spread out laterally about 15-30cm. almost at right angles to the tillers. The deep roots extend
up to 0.75 to 150cmdeep in the soil.
Stem (Culm):-The stem is cylindrical and possessed 5 to 7 hollow internodes separated by
solid nodes, at which the leaves arise. The usual numbers of tillers per plant varies from 2-5.
Leaves:-Leaves arise from nodes of the stem and are borne alternately on opposite sides of the
stem. Each leaf consists of sheath, blade, ligule & auricle. The leaves of barley are usually
broader and of lighter green colour than wheat. The surface of leaf is rough. Two-rowed
barley’s have narrower leaves than six-rowed barley.
Inflorescence:-It is called spike or head. The spike at the top of the stem consists of spikelets
attached at the nodes of a zigzag rachis. Each spiklet has two glumes and a floret. Three
spikelets are attached at each node of the rachis.
Kernel (Grain):- The grain of barley is a caryopsis consisting of lemma, palea & a rachilla. In
most of the barley verities the lemma & palea adhere to the caryopsis.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Barley thrives best on well-drained, fertile light to medium loams. On heavier ls, it has
tendency to lodge. Being a salt tolerant crop, it can grow well even in salt-effected soils, during
the early phases of the reclamation of these soil. It gives higher yields than wheat and other
cereal crops on moderately saline-alkali soils. Soil pH range is 6.5 to 7.8.
Climate:
It requires cool climate. It is a winter (rabi) season crop. It is grown successfully in sub-
tropical and tropical region. It requires a mean daily temperature of about 12ºC to 15ºC during
the growing season & about 30ºC during ripening & maturity. Higher temperature coupled with
dry winds during later stages of crop result in poor grain filling & chaffy seeds, resulting in
lower yield and poor quality grains.
Barley crop has low water requirement than wheat crop. It is highly drought- tolerant
and can be grown with lesser soil moisture. An annual average rainfall of 400-500mm (40-
50cm) will result in increased yield. Even a well distributed and assured rainfall of as low as
200-250mm (20-25cm) is sufficient for realizing a good crop in rainfed conditions. It is
basically a long day plant. Thus a light period of 10-12 hrs during vegetative growth and 12-
14 hours during reproductive growth would be ideal.
Preparation of land:-
It requires less cultivation than wheat. In Northern India, the land is ploughed once with iron
plough or 4 to 5 times with deshi plough to get the desired. It requires a good seed bed.
The saline- alkali land should be prepared, planked and left undisturbed for about a
week before sowing. So that the salt move from the lower soil layers to the upper soil zone and
root zone becomes relatively free from the salts.
Verities:-
1. Hulled varieties :- Ratna, Jyoti, Kailas, Vija, RS-6
2. Huskless Varieties:- Karan – 3, 16 (Nilam), Amber.
3. Malting varieties:- C-138, RS-6, RD-57, RD-137, Clipper, Ambor.

25
4. Salt tolerant varieties:- Karan-16, Karan – 18, 19, Jyoti Karan-3, 4, Ambor, Azad,
Ratna, Bilara, Vijay
5. Suitable for hilly areas:- Kailash, Himani, Dolma, N.P. 100, NP- 13, 21, 103
6. Other varieties:- BHS-46, BG-105, BG-25, BH-39, DL-36, 70,85, HBL-3, IB-65, K-
226,257, 287, K-141,169,252, P-103, PL-56, Rajkiran, RD-31, 117, 137, RDB-1.
Seeds & Sowing:-
Time of Sowing:-
1. Timely irrigated sowing:- Middle of October to middle of November.
2. Irrigated late sown:- Up to middle of December
3. Rainfed sown:- 2nd
fortnight of October
Late/delayed sowings reduce the grain yield per unit area & produce poor quality grain not
suitable for malting.
Seed Treatment:-
a. Seed is soaked in cold water over night at normal temperature for better
germination. Rainfed & saline soils.
b. Seed is treated with 1:1 mixture of Thiram + Bavistin or Vitavex @ 2.5g/Kg of
seed may be used for an effective control of loose smut & covered smut &
controlling seed born diseases.
Seed Rate:- i)Irrigated normal/timely sowing:- 75-80kg/ha
ii) Irrigated late sowing:- 100-120kg/ha
iii)Rainfed sowing:- 80-100kg/ha, for saline soils – 100kg/ha
Spacing & depth of Sowing:-
a. Irrigated normal sowing- 22.5cm, 4to5cm
b. Irrigated late sowing:- 20cm, 4 to 5cm
c. Rainfed sowing:- 22.5cm, 6 to 8cm
Method of Sowing:- Drilling with two bowl seed drill
Manures of fertilizers:-
Rainfed crop:-
Well decomposed FYM @ 8-10 tonnes/ha mixed in soil at the time of last harrowing.
Irrigated crop:- FYM@ 10-15 t/ha
Fertilizer:
N P K
i) Rainfed crop: 30-40kg, 20Kg 20Kg
ii) Irrigated timely crop 60-80kg 30kg 30kg
iii) Late sown crop 60-80kg 30kg 30kg
For rainfed crop entire dose of N, P205 and K20 is given at the time of sowing.
For irrigated crop split application of half the dose of ‘N’ & full dose, of P2O5 & K2O
at sowing time & the remain half dose of ‘N’ with the first irrigation as a top dressing is
advantageous.
Excess ‘N’ affects the malting & brewing quality of grain adversely. Superphosphate
helps to neutralize its deleterious effects.
Water Management
Total water requirement of barley crop is 35-36 ha. cm. Generally it needs 2 to 3 irrigations.
One or two extra irrigation are required on sandy soils.

26
Critical growth stages for irrigations:-
1. Tillering Stage:-25-30 DAS (Active tillering)
2. Flowering Stage – 60-65 DAS (Flag leaf / booting)
3. Grain filling stage:- 80-85 DAS (Milking)
- If only one irrigation is available it should be given at active tillering stage/tillering –
25-30 DAS
- It two irrigations are available-: First is given at active tillering stage 25-30 DAS,
Second is given at flowering stage – 60-65 DAS
On highly alkali – Saline soils, frequent light irrigation gives better results than a fewer heavy
irrigation.
Interculturing
Weed Management
Same weeds observed as like wheat crop. A good cultural practice like one hoeing and one
hand weeding after first irrigation at 25-30 DAS gives effective control
Chemical weed control: weed control practices similar to wheat.
Crop rotations:-
Depending on the assured rainfall or irrigation facility it can be grown the sequential cropping
system due to barley is short duration crop.
Cereal-cereal system Legume-cereal system Other Crops system
Rice-Barley Pigeonpea-Barley Cotton-Barley
Mize – Barley Mungbean –Barley Sunhemp-Barley
Pearlmille – Barley Black gram-barley Potato-Barley
Sorghum-Barley Cowpea –Barley Sugar cane-Barley
Soybean-Barley
Groundnut – Barley
In addition, barley is also suitable for mixed or intercropping with rabi crops like Pea, chickpea,
mustard, rapeseeds, linseed & lentil.
Pests & Diseases:-Insects pests:- Termites & Aphids.
Diseases:- Leaf spots, powdery mildew, Rusts:- Yellow, Black, Smuts:- loose, covered.
Signs of maturity:-
1. Plants turn yellow and dry up.
2. Grains become hard.
3. Moisture content drops around 18-20%
4. Plants become brittle & rigid
5. Stem-breaks down with slight pressure
6. Fast winds make plants lean & lodge
Harvesting:-
Barley crop matures 15-20 days earlier than wheat crop i.e. about –85-90days. Any delay in
harvest results in shattering of ears & loss of grains. The crop is harvested by cutting at ground
level by using sharp sickle.

27
It should be harvested in the morning hours before the spikes become too dry and fragile for
handling. Tied in bundles. Now a days crop is harvested by combine harvester.
After harvesting the crop, it is dried 4 – 5 days on threshing yard.
Threshing:- It is done by trampling under the feet of bullocks. It also threshed with threshing
machine. Then winnowing is done. Again dry the grains in sunlight up to 12% moisture. Then
bagging & store the grains properly.
If the grains are to be used for malting production of beverages etc., care must be taken
during threshing that grains should not be injured or ‘skinned’ otherwise quality of beer or
whisky gets spoiled.
Yield:-Rainfed:- 8-10 Q/ha; Irrigated:- Grains 20-25 Q/ha
Straw – 60-80 Q/ha
High yielding varieties – 40-50 Q/ha, Straw – 120 to 150 Q/ha.
Malting
Barley is the most commonly malted grain as it has a high enzyme content to convert their own
starch to sugar.
Malting is the process of controlling the germination of cereal grains under certain controlled
conditions favorable for sprouting and drying in huge kilns for the desired color and
specification. Before malting selection of raw barley with uniform size, low protein and high
starch e content in the grains is important. There are three stages involved in malting barley.
Steeping (Soaking)
Steeping is the first stage of malting. Steeping has two sub-stages, wet steeping and air rests.
Wet steeping -where seeds are soaked in water just enough time for the seeds to begin
sprouting and has taken about 42-46% moisture by weight. Soaking is generally for 24-48
hrs. Then water is drained and the grains are put to rest this is an air rest. The moisture
content in the malt will determine its color. The more the moisture content the darker is the
extraction of the malt.
Germination
The second stage of barley malting is germination. After the steeping the seeds are spread out
on malting beds and allowed to germinate. Germination is controlled by a specific
temperature and by maintaining the moisture content. The germination stage takes around 3-5
days and inspected to ensure that all the seeds are sprouting and modifying uniformly.
Drying and Kilning(Drying and roasting)
Once the seeds are uniformly germinated, they are immediately dried to restrict the sprouting
process . Drying the seeds, stops the sprouting process and further enzymatic activities. It is
done running with hot air 20 0
C for 20hrs and moisture content is 4-5%. The grain at this
point of time is called “green malt”. Maintaining a specific temperature while drying the
grains is also an important factor during the process. The entire drying process takes about a
day or two. Kilning is the final process that roasting the green malt to develop its final desired
character and flavor. This process involves regular stirring of the malts for a more uniform
final product. This malt is then put through a machine known as a deculmer; to remove small
rootlets emerged during germination. The final product varies in colour from very pale to
amber, to chocolate brown. It is stored in a cool and dry place until it is actually used for
brewing or other uses.

28
Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections
such as flavored drinks, some baked goods, biscuits and sweet meals.
Question Bank
Write Short notes on:-
1. Climatic requirements of barley
2. Irrigation in Barley
3. Malting in Barley
Give Reasons:
1. Barley is preferred in place of wheat under rainfed conditions.
Ans. Barley has low water requirement than wheat and being drought resistant barley
suits area with scanty rainfall than wheat.
2. Light and frequent irrigation requirement for barley grown under saline and alkaline
conditions.
Ans. On highly alkaline and saline soils frequent light irrigation gives better results
than a fewer heavy irrigation.
3. Mostly barley is grown as preceding crop on residual soil fertility.
Ans. High soil fertility may results in lodging of crop therefore barley is mostly
cultivated as preceding crop in crop rotation and often fertilized grown on residual
soil fertility.
Fill in the blanks:-
1. Botanical name of Six row barley is Hordeum vulgare.
2. Recommended seed rate of barley is 80-100Kg/ha.
3. Hordeum distichum is the botanical name of two row types barley.
4. In barley if one irrigation is available it should be applied at tillering stage (25-30 DAS).
5. Barley is salt tolerant crop hence suitable in sodic and saline soils.
***
4. Maize- i) Grain Corn
Botanical Name:- Zea mays
Famiy:- Graminaeae / Poaceae
Common name:- maka,makai

29
Maize is important cereal of the world after wheat and rice. Maize is one of the efficient
species of crop domesticated by the man. Among cereals, the productivity of maize is the
highest.(4.7t/ha) as compared to rice(3.7t/ha)and wheat (2.5t/ha).
Classification of maize:-
The maize was classified by Sturtevant in 1899 into seven groups /types based on the
endosperm of kerenels.They are .
Sr.
No.
Common
name
Botanical name Kerenel Characteristics Other name/uses
1 Pod corn Zea mays turnicate kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk,
ear formed is also enclosed in husk.
cow corn, forage
corn and husk
corn.
It is not
commercially
cultivated.
2 Pop corn Zea mays everta): The kernels are small and posses a
higher percentage of hard
endosperm starch. Ability to pop is
due to expansion of moisture in
each starch grain due to application
of heat.
3 Flint
Corn
Zea mays indurate The kernel consist of endosperm
with soft starch in the entre and
completely enclosed by a very hard
outer layer. Kerenels shrink
uniformly as they mature.
4 Dent
corn
(Zea mays indentata): The kernels having depression or
dent in the crown due to shrinkage
during ripening in a deposit of soft
starch at the crown.
most widely
cultivated corn.
5 Flour
corn
Zea mays amylacea The kernels almost contains of soft
starch with a very thin layer of hard
6starch on the sides.
soft corn
6 Sweet
corn
(Zea mays Saccharata Kernels are translucent, horney
and more or less wrinkled in
appearance when dry
Higher proportion
of sugar to starch
and hence sweeter
than other corns.
7 Waxy
corn
Zea mays certain Endosperm waxy adhesive Used in textile and
proper sizing

30
Fig.1. Types of Maize
Origin and History:-Origin of maize or corn is considered to be Southern Mexico and
Central America. It is first mention in 1492 when Columbus reached the American mainland
and his scouts brought to him the maize samples from the Islands of Cuba. There it was grown
as an important food crop about 2500 years before Columbus landed there.
It is introduced in India by Portuguese during 17th
centuary.However recent
evidences show the possibilities of its pre-Columbus introduction through the Atlantic –
Arabic trade route. Now it is being grown in USA, China, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, France,
South Africa, Russia, Rumania, Yugoslavia and India.
In India it is popular in Rabi season mostly in the Bihar, Parts of U.P. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Economic Importance:-
11. Grains have 10% protein, good amount of carbohydrates (70%), crude
fibre(2.3%).minerals(0.27%) and Ash(1.40).
12. Maize protein is known as Zein is deficient in tryptophane and lysine (essential amino
acids)
13. It is mainly consumed as food in various forms.
14. Green maize is used as succulent fodder.
15. Also used in poultry feed.
16. It is used in many industries as a raw material for number of products
viz.,starch,glucose, high fructose syrup, germ oil,germ meal,and gluten products,
,textile,paper,pharmaceuticals,organic chemicals,cosmetics and edible oil
Botanical Description:
Roots:-The root system of maize is deep and fibrous.
Shoot System:-Comprises stem, leaves (including leaf sheath and leaf blade) and
inflorescence. Maize is non –tillering crop.
Inflorescence: Maize is a monoecious plant having both male and female inflorescences on the
same plant. Male flowers are borne in a tassel at the top of the stem and female flowers are
borne inside the young cobs known as silking.
Kernel or Caryopsis: Maize kernel is one seeded fruit or caryopsis.

31
Fig.2
Growth and Development stages of maize:
1. Seedling stage: sprouting stage which comes about one week after sowing and plants
having 2-4 leaves at this stage.
2. Grand growth stage: this stage arrives about 35-45 DAS and plant is at knee height
stage. Plant needs first top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer application and manual or
mechanical intercultivation.
3. Tasseling stage: this is a flower initiation stage at which the tassel or male flowers
come out. It is terminal flowering generally formed at the apex after 14th
or 15th
leaves
have come out. Final top-dressing should be done at this stage.
4. Silking stage: this is known as cob initiation stage at which female flowers or cobs are
formed. This is auxiliary flowering and generally formed in the axis of 11th
to 13th
leaf.
5. Soft dough stage: also called as milky stage where grains start developing but do no
become hard. Silks on the cob remain partially green and covering of the cobs remain
green. This is the stage for using green tender cobs for table purpose.
6. Hard –dough stage: This is maturity stage at which leaves get dried completely and
become very brittle.cit is harvesting stage for grain purpose.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Deep, fertile rich in organic matter and well drained soils are most preferred for maize
cultivation. Soil should be medium textured with good water holding capacity(WHC).Loam or
silt loam soils with fair drainage and pH between 6.5 to 7.5 is most suitable soil for maize
cultivation.
Maize is very sensitive to water logging therefore care should be taken that no water
stagnation in the field for more than 4to 5hrs. As maize crop mainly grown in rainy season,
drainage should be provided.

32
Climate: Maize is cultivated in many parts of the country throughout the year. It grows from
sea level to 3000 meter altitude.
It requires optimum temperature between 21o
C to 32o
C. Maize is C-4 group crop requires
warm weather and grown in wide range of climatic conditions. It needs bright sunny days
associated with optimum water and efficient irrigation. Favorable growth observed with an
intermittent sunlight and rain.
It is grown in an area receiving annual rainfall between 50-75cm.Also crop tolerate an annual
rainfall 250 to 400 cm provided drainage facility and no water stagnation.
.Preparation of land:-
One deep ploughing immediately after harvesting of kharif season crop. It needs two to four
harrowing in heavy soils. Whereas one light ploughing followed by planking is sufficient in
light soils. Generally furrows are prepared for Rabi season crop for better water use efficiency
and higher yields.
Seeds & Sowing:-
Time of Sowing:-
Optimum sowing time- End of October to mid of November. The crop is cultivated under
assured irrigation.
Seed Treatment:-
c. Maize seeds are treated with fungicides like Captan or Thiram or Emisan @2 to
3g/kg of seeds to control seed borne disease viz., leaf blight of maize.
d. Before sowing seed treatment with Azotobacter @250g/10of seeds should be
given.
Seed Rate:- 15 to 20 kg/ha
Spacing : 60-75 cm x 25-30cm
Sowing depth : 5-7cm
Method of sowing: Dibbling
Line sowing i.e. drilling with seed- drill,
Other methods: Sowing the seeds in furrows behind the country plough.
Hill sowing (3-4 seeds of corn at one place using corn planter)
Sowing direction: The crop in East (sun-rise) and west (sun set) direction resulted in higher
grain yield and production of healthier plants as there is least mutual shading of the plants. The
hybrid and composite varieties give pronounced response as they are most sensitive to shading
effects.
Planting density: 55,000 to 70,000 plants /ha. (Generally depends on the variety, season and
duration)
Grain Varieties:
Sr.No. Particulars Varieties
1 Hybrids (All India Maize Improvement
Project)
Ganga 1, Ganga 101, Deccan, Ranjeet,
VL-54, Himalayan123, Hi-starch,
Ganga 2, Ganga 3, Ganga 5.
i Long duration Hybrids(110-120 days) PHM-1,PHM-3,SeedTech-2324,Bio-
9681,MH-11,QPM-7

33
Ii Medium duration(100-110days) DHM-119,DHM-117,HM-10,HM-
8,HM-4,PHM-4,MCH-37,BIO-
9637,Rajarshi
iii Early maturity (90-100days) JH-3459,Pusa Hybrid-1,JK-2492
Iv Short duration(80-90days) Vivek-9,Vivek-21,Vivek-
27,VivekQPM-7
2 Composites(released in 1967 for the
first time in the world)
(seeds can be used for subsequent
sowing)
Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona
and Vijay. (Amber has highest yield
potential 50-55q/ha.)
i Nutrionally superior maize
composites(opaque 2 composites)
Shakti,Ratan Protina(Lysine rich
composites)
ii Long duration composites(110-
120days)
Prabhat,Shatak-9905
Iii Medium duration(100-110days) Karveer,Manjari,Navjyot
iv Early maturity(90-100days) Panchganga,Prakash,Kiran
v Short duration(80-90days) Vivek-Sankul
3 Popcorn varieties Amber popcorn,Jawahar popcorn-11
Manures of fertilizers:-
Organic Manures: Application of well decomposed compost @15-20tonnes/ha about 20 days
before sowing of the crop.
Sr.No Fertilizers N P K
Kg/ha
1 RDF 120 60 40
i. Basal dose 40 60 40
ii. I st top dressing(30DAS) 40 - -
iii. II nd top dressing(40-45DAS) 40 - -
2. Micro nutrients Zinc sulphate(in case of
deficiency occurs)
20-25
Water Management: Being cultivated in Rabi season assured irrigation is necessary. Total
water requirement of maize crop is 40-45 ha.cm. irrigation should be given at 10-12days
interval.
Critical growth stages for irrigations:-
4. Seedling Stage:-25-30 DAS
5. Knee height Stage: – 40-45 DAS
6. Flowering(Tasseling and silking stage):- 60-65 DAS
7. Grain filling stage:-75-80 DAS
Water logging is harmful to this crop; hence there should be drainage provision to avoid
water logging in the field.
Irrigation scheduling should be done in maize at 0.30mm CPE or on depletion of 25-30
percent available soil moisture depletion.

34
Interculturing:-
Thinning should be done by keeping one plant per hill within 15 days after emergence.
Earthing up helps to provide better anchorage to the crop and avoids lodging during the strong
winds in Rabi season.
Weed Management Pre emergence application of herbicide Atratop @ 2-2.5kg/ha should
done immediately after sowing to control weeds.
First hoeing/hand weeding between 2-3 weeks after emergence and second hoeing between 6-
7 weeks stage.
Intercropping: -Maize+ Safflower/Coriander/Fenugreek
Pests & Diseases:-Insects pests:-
1.Stem borer-Attacks the crop from seedling stage makes dead hearts.
Control measure:- Mix Phorate 10G in the soil @10kg/ha.
Spraying of Cabaryl 85%WP@1764/g/ha or Dimethoate 30%EC@ 660ml/ha in 500 to 1000
litres of water after 8-10days of emergence.
2.Shootfly:- on incidence of shootfly sparying of Dimethoate 30%EC@1155ml/ha in 500 to
1000 litres of water.
Diseases:- Leaf rust, Downy mildew, smut.
Signs of maturity:-The grain crop of maize harvested when
7. Cob sheath turns brownish,
8. Indigenous varieties- plants start yellowing and drying along with cob maturity, Plants
turn yellow and dry up.
9. Grains become hard.
10. Moisture content drops around 20%
11. In case of hybrid and composites plants may remain green at the time of full maturity
of cobs.
12. In case of hybrid and composites plants sheath becomes brown and loose,silks dry up
completely.
Harvesting:-
Two methods- 1.plucking of cobs: In this method only cobs are removed from standing plants
and piled up for one day and then spread to dry in bright sunlight. Stalks may used as green
fodder.
2. Stalk-Cutting- In this method, plants along with cobs are cut and piled up in shade. After
2-3 days of harvesting cobs are removed and dried. The dried plant stalk used for hay making.
Threshing (Shelling)-Removal of grains from maize ear/cobs. Common method is manual
(hand shelling).Now a days manually driven or mechanical/electrically driven shelling
machines are available to remove grains from the cobs. The left over cobs after shelling are use
as a fuel. Grains are dried well in bright sunshine and stored.
Yield:-Grain yield- 95-100 q/ha.
Whereas average yield in Indoganetic plains is 40q/ha and in Peninsular India about 50-70q/ha.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of grain maize with following points.
a) Ecology of crop b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutrient management d) Irrigation management e)

35
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of grain maize on following points.
1. Varieties 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Intercultivation 4. Harvesting and yield
3. Prepare a leaflet on grain maize cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Seeds and sowing
3. Weed management 4. Intercropping.
4. Write the cultivation practices of grain maize on following points.
1. Economic importance 2. Pests and disease management
3. Signs of maturity 4.Harvesting and yield
Write Short notes on:-
1. Types / classification of maize.
2. Growth stages of maize.
3. Harvesting and shelling in maize.
4. Composite varieties of grain maize.
5. Hybrid varieties of grain maize.
Give Reasons:
1. Earthing up is followed in rabi season maize cultivation.
1. Maize is monoecious /cross pollinated crop.
2. Male inflorescence in maize is called tassel and removal of tassel is called as
detasseling.
3. Female inflorescence in maize is known as silking and it is a cob initiation stage.
4. Maize protein is called as zein and deficient in essential amino acids viz., Tryptophan
and Lysine.
5 Lysine rich composite varieties of maize are called Opaque @composites.
***
4. Maize- i) Sweet Corn
B.N. Zea mays Saccharata
Common name –Sweet corn
Local name:Madhumaka
Kernels are translucent, horney and more or less wrinkled in appearance when dry.
Higher proportion of sugar to starch and hence sweeter than other corns.

36
Note: All cultivation practices are similar to that of Grain maize except following
points.
Varieties: - Hybrid varieties: HSC-(Hybrid Sweet Corn)-1.
Composites: Madhuri, Priya,Win-Orange
Harvesting and Yield:-
Sweet corns are harvested when silks on the top of cobs turns brown and partially dried. At
this stage grains are soft dough stage, sweet, bold and succulent suitable for table purpose.
Cobs are ready to harvest within 75-80days after sowing. Delayed harvesting in case of sweet
corn should be avoided.
Yield: Sweet corns (cob/ear yield) - 60-65 thousands cobs/ha
Green forage: 25-40 t/ha.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of sweet corn with following points.
a) Soil and climate b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutrient management d) Irrigation management
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of sweet corn on following points.
1. Varieties 2. Intercultivation
3. Weed management 4. Harvesting and yield
3. Prepare a leaflet on sweet corn cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Economic importance
3. Stage of harvesting 4. Yield
1. Botanical name of sweet corn is Zea mays Saccharata
2. Sweet corn contains higher proportion of sugar to starch.
3. Sweet corn cobs are ready to harvest within 75-80days after sowing.
***
4. Maize- ii) Baby Corn
B.N.:- Zea mays
Common name: Young corn, cornlets or baby sweet corn
It is eaten as whole both raw and cooked.
It is short duration crop, within 70-75 days it is ready to harvest.

37
Baby corn is used in various forms in food preparation viz., soups, salads, stirred fries
steamed etc.
Baby corn has demand in urban areas, super markets throughout the year. Hence it is
remunerative short duration crop.
After harvesting economic yield (cobs), green foliage is used as green fodder for animals.
Note: All cultivation practices are similar to that of Grain maize except following points.
Varieties: - Hybrid varieties: H.M.-4.
Composites: V.L.Babycorn-1, V.L.78
Harvesting and Yield: - proper stage of harvesting and within time is very important in case
of bay corn otherwise it turns into mature cob. It is harvested as soon as the cob silk emerges
from cob tip. Baby corn cobs are hand-picked when it is tender, small and immature.
Harvesting of baby corn is carried out having length 4.5 to 10 cm (1.8–3.9 inch) and 0.7 to
1.7 cm (0.28–0.67 inch) in diameter.
Baby corn harvesting is completed within 70-75 days from sowing. Generally 3-4 cobs are
harvested from one plant (stalk).After harvesting sheath should be removed and well
packaging of baby corn should be done.
Yield: - Baby corn ears (cobs): 15-20q/ha
Green forage: - 30-35t/ha
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of baby corn with following points.
a) Soil and climate b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutrient management d) Irrigation management
2. Prepare a leaflet on baby corn cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Varieties
3. Stage of harvesting 4. Yield
3. Write short notes on
1. Economic importance of baby corn,
2. Harvesting and yield of baby corn
***
II-Pulses
1.Chickpea (Gram/Bengal gram)
Botanical name:- Cicer arietinum L.
Family:- Leguminoceae. Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
Local name:- Harbhara, Chana.

38
India is a premier pulse growing country. The pulses are an integral part of the cropping
system of the farmers all over the country because these crops fit in well in the crop rotation
and crop mixtures.
Pulses are important constituents of the Indian diet and supply a major part of the
protein requirement. It is also source of vitamins viz., vit.-A, vit.-C (sprouted pulses), source
of minerals.
Pulses being leguminous has significance role in restoring soil fertility. Every plant act
as a mini fertilizer plant in itself. Pulses add 0.5-1.5 tonnes of organic matter to the soil. On an
average one hectare pulse crop adds about 15 to 35 kg nitrogen in the soil.
It has deep and extensive root system having better soil binding effect and highly
adaptive in dryland.
It also provides good quality cattle feed, green fodder and concentrates etc.
It helps to control weeds due to vigorous growth and canopy formation it suppress or
smother the weeds. Pulses being short duration crops, and highly adaptive it gives good
remuneration to farmers.
Chickpea is originated from South-west Asia i.e. countries lying to North-west India,
Afghanistan and Persia. According to De Candolle the chickpea is mentioned in Sanskrit which
indicates it is cultivated in India from a longer period than in any other country in the world.
It is grown in many countries like India, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Burma, Turkey, Iran, Egypt,
Mexico, Spain, China, Central and Southern Africa.
India is the largest producer of chickpea in the world, sharing of the world’s 70% and
67% of the total global area and production respectively.
In India gram is cultivated mainly as rainfed crop (68% area).Major chickpea growing
states are Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Maharashtra, U.P, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, , A.P, Karnataka and Gujarat.
Area and Production :-( Ref. ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur)
All India
Year Area(million ha) Production(million tonnes) Productivity(kg/ha)
2013-14 9.93 9.53 960
Maharashtra
2013-14 1820 1622 891
During 2017-18 chickpea production in India has been estimated to be about
11.23million tonnes which are 46% of the total pulse production.
Economic Importance:
1. Chickpea is most important rabi pulse crop of our country.
2. It is consumed in the form of dal, besan, crushed or whole grain, boiled or parched
roasted or cooked, salted or unsalted.
3. Many sweets are also prepared from gram.
4. Green foliage (Tops) as early stages are used as green vegetable.

39
5. Leaves consist of malic acid and citric acids or ‘Amb’ is collected from leaves, which
has medicinal value for stomach ache etc.
6. Gram grain contains about 17-21% proteins, 62% carbohydrates, 4-10% fat.
7. It is a rich source of Calcium, phosphorus, Iron) and Vit-B and vitamins C (green stage).
8. Soaked grain and husk are fed to horse and cattle as concentrate and roughage
respectively.
Chickpea classified in two groups.-In India both type chickpea varieties are grown.
1. Deshi or Brown Gram (Cicer arietienum):- Colour of seed ranges from yellow to dark
brown. Seed size is usually medium. Area under this group is 90%. Plants are small with
good branching ability. Grain shape is similar to chicken’s head with characteristic beak,
hence called chickpea.
2.Kabuli or White Gram:- (Cicer Kabulium)- seed colour is white, seed coat is pale cream
colour. Grains are bold & attractive. Yield potential of this group is poor as compared to Deshi
or brown gram. Plants are generally taller than Desi gram.
Botanical description of Plant:
Chickpea is a diploid species with 2n=16 chromosomes. It is a self pollinated crop.
a) Root system:- The plant has a deep tap root system with numerous lateral branches
that spread out in all directions in the upper layer of soils. There are numerous nodules
on roots. The Rhizobium bacteria present in these nodules fix up atmospheric nitrogen.
b) Stem:- Stems are branched, straight, erect and more or less ribbed. The no of primary
branches may vary from 1 to 10 depending on the varieties & growing conditions. Stem
is thick strong & woody. The height of plant may vary from 20 to 100cm
c) Leaves:- Leaves are pinnately compound. Leaves are located alternate on the branch &
consist of rachis & leaflets. Rachis length varies from 3 to 7 cm and each rachis supports
10-15 leaflets. Leaves are typically serrated. The entire surface of plant shoot, except
the flower is densely covered with fine hairs (trichomes)
d) Flowers:- The flowers are typical Papilionaceous. Generally, single flower is produced
on each node, however, twin flowers have also been found in some varieties. Petals are
generally purple in deshi type and white to beige to pale cream in kabuli type. Chickpea
produces profuse flower but only 20-30% flowers set pods. The number of pods/plant
may vary from 50 to 150 depending on genotypes and growing conditions. The number
of seeds/pod varies from 1 to 3.
Soil and Climate :
Soil: -
1. Gram is fertility restorative crop.
2. In North India, the crop is grown on light alluvial soil
3. In (Maharashtra) Deccan plateau and South India crop is cultivated on water retentive
clay loams and black cotton soils.
4. The best type of soil for chickpea is well drained and not too heavy.
5. It is unsuitable to the soils having pH more than 8.5. Suitable soil pH for gram growing
is -6.0 to 8.5 pH
Climate:
1. Gram is winter/cold season legume crop.
2. It required cool and dry climate.

40
3. It is best suited to the areas receiving low to moderate rainfall 60-100cm & mild cold
weather.
4. Severe cold is injurious and is very harmful
5. Cloudy weather and frost at flowering stage has adverse effect on pod formation.
Preparation of Land:- It is a hardy crop. Gram crop required clodded and rough seedbed.
Usually gram is sown as second crop after harvest of the Kharif crops. One ploughing after
harvest of previous crop followed by two harrowing are enough to prepare seedbed.
Seeds and sowing:-
1. Seed Treatment:-
a. Seed is treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed + Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed to control
seed born fungal diseases (wilt) OR seed is treated with Tricoderma@5gm/kg of
seed to control seed born fungal diseases (wilt)
b. The seed should be treated with Rhizobium and PSB each of culture @ 250g/10kg of
seed for increasing nitrogen fixation. It increase the crop Yield 10-15%
2. Time of Sowing:-
a. In the region where irrigation facilities are not available the proper time of sowing is
last week of September.
b. In the regions where irrigation facilities are available the optimum time of sowing is
mid October to mid November (i.e. 20th October to 10th
November)
c. Kabuli gram sown only in irrigated condition.
The considerable decline in yield was observed with the sowing beyond mid
November
3. Method of sowing:-
Crop is generally sown by drilling method with two bowl and four coulter seed drill or
by dropping the seeds behind plough furrow, particularly after the harvest of the
previous paddy crop.
Sowing is also done on ridges and furrows. Prepared the ridges and furrows at 90cm
width and dibbled two seeds at 10cm distance of both the sides of ridge.
4. Spacing:- 30cmx10cm
In heavy soil, (90cmx10cm) sowing is done by forming 90cm furrow and dibbling
done at 10 cm on both sides of the ridges
5. Depth of sowing:-
The seed should be placed 8-10cm deep because the shallow sown crop is more liable
to be damaged by wilt. Deep sowing also promotes better root development.
6. Plant Population.
With the spacing of 30 x 10cm2
the plant population is 3.25 to 3.50 lakh plants/ha
7. Seed rate:-
The seed rate varies with the test weight (seed size) of the seed. i.e. 60-100kg/ha. For
medium size seeds 65 to 70 kg/ha,
Large sized seeds -85 kg/ha. Bold seeds-100kg/ha.
Varieties of Gram:-
A) Deshi Gram:-
1. Rainfed:- Vijay, Phule G – 12, Digvijay, Vishal ,BDNG-797(Aakash),Phule
Vikram,PDKV(Kanchan)

41
2. Irrigated:- Vikas (PG-1) Vishwas (PG-5), Phule G-12, Vijay, Vishal, Digvijay,
Rajas,Saki -9596,Phule vikram,Phule vikrant,PDKV(Kanchan)
B) Kabuli Gram:- Virat, Vihar, P.K.V.-2, Shweta,Krupa,
Most of the varieties are wilt resistant varieities.
C) Old varieties of Gram:-
Chafa, N-59, N-31, Warangal, Halwa, Gulab, D-8, BDN-9-3, Annegiri.
Manures and Fertilizers:-
a) Manures:- 6 to 7 tonnes of FYM/ha
(b) Fertilizers:-
Crop Conditions
Fertilizers (Kg/ha)
N P K
Dry land (Rainfed) 12.5 25 00
Assured Rainfall 20 40 00
Irrigated
25 50 30
OR 125Kg DAP/hand 50kg MOP
Entire quantity of fertilizer should be given at the time sowing with two bowl seed drill. Top
dressing is not given to pulse crops. 2% Urea spraying is given at pod filling stage.
After care:-
From the weed control point of view first 4 to 5 weeks are critical. Gram crop is required 2
hoeing & 1 weeding. First hoeing is done 20 DAS, Second hoeing is done 30 DAS. Hoeing
should be carried out at vapsa condition. In between two hoeing one hand weeding is given. In
rainfed condition hoeing is useful for preventing cracks of the soil & conserving soil moisture.
Chemical weed control:-
1. Pre-emergence application of Nitrafen (TOKE-25) @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 600 liters of
water has been found to be effective. OR pendimethalin (stomp) @ 2.5litres /ha in 500
liters of water.
2. Post-emergence application of Quizalofop-ethyl (Targa super) @ 0.04 – 0.05 kg. a.i./ha
in 500 liters of water for excellent control of annual grasses.
Nipping in Gram:-
Nipping is the process of plucking of apical or terminal buds or tip from the main shoot.
Nipping in gram is generally carried out about 30-40 DAS (initiation of branching). The main
object of nipping is to stop the apical growth and promotes the lateral branching.which might
encourage vigorous plant growth and produce more number of branches, encourages more
flowering and yield per plant is increase. However, only the nipping is not beneficial to increase
the yield of gram. The advantage of nipping in gram to get green leafy vegetable to the farmer.
Green leafy vegetable dried in sunlight and used as vegetable through the year.
Collection of malic acid /‘Amb’ from Gram:-
When gram plants attain age of 50to 60 days, leaves secret malic acid, locally called as “Amb”.
The malic acid accumulates on the tip of the leaves, it dissolves in dews. The malic acid is
collected by running a muslin cloth over a gram plant in early morning and squeezing it in
bucket. The squeezed material contains 90 to 95% malic acid and 5 to 10% oxalic acid. About

42
5 to 7 liters of malic acid is collected from one hectare of a crop. It has medicinal value against
stomach disorders and blood purification.
Irrigation:-
Mostly gram is cultivated under rainfed, therefore light irrigation is to be given at the time of
sowing. Total water Requirement (WR) of chickpea is 25-30 ha.cm
It requires irrigation at
i) Branching-30-35DAS
ii) Flowering-40-45DAS
iii)Pod development -60-65DAS.
Branching and pod filling stages are most sensitive growth stages of chickpea for irrigation.
One irrigation in gram may increase the yield to the extent of 30% and if two are given
at two critical growth stages, yield increase is 60%.
Intercropping and mix cropping:-
Chickpea is taken as the mix crop in wheat, barley, linseed, safflower, or mustard and
also recommended as the intercrop in 6:3 row ratios with safflower or sorghum.
Pests and diseases: Pests- Cutworm and pod borers are the major pests of chickpea.
Control measures:-Spaying of Endosulfan 35EC@2ml/litres at 15days interval about two
applications are required.
Spraying of HaNPV/NPV during flowering @500ml/ha.
Diseases:- Wilt, blight and rust are the measure diseases of chickpea.
Control measures: 1.use resistant varieties.
3. Seed treatment with benlate and thiram (1:1) @ 2g/kg of seed.3.adoption of proper crop
rotation.
Harvesting and Yield:-Rainfed chickpea is harvested at 90-95days after sowing.
Irrigated chickpea requires 100-110days to harvest after sowing.
a. Signs of maturity:-
1. Leaves turn radish-brown colour and starts shedding.
2. Pods become yellowish brown and dry.
3. Generally crop is ready for harvesting 100 to 110 DAS.
b. Harvesting:-
Harvesting is done by cutting the plant close to the ground level with sharp sickle.
Harvesting should be done during morning hours. The crop is allowed to dry in sunlight on
threshing floor for about five to six days.
c. Threshing:-
Threshing is done either by beating the plants with sticks or by trampling under the feet of
bullocks. Threshing is also done with mechanical thresher.
Yield:-1. Rainfed: - 10-12 q/ha 2. Irrigated: - 25-30 q/ha.
---
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