AGRO-246-full notes@agrounder.pdf crop production technology- Rabi

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MPKV, RAHURI
RCSM, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, KOLHAPUR
AGRONOMY SECTION
THEORY SYLLABUS
Semester : IV(New) Academic Year : 2019-20
Course No. : AGRO-246 Course Title : Crop Production Technology-II
(Rabi Crops)
Credits : 2(1+1)
Sr.No. Topics Weightage (%)
I Cereals
25
1 Wheat
2 Rabi Sorghum
3 Barley
4 Maize: i)Grain corn, ii)Sweet corn and iii)Baby corn
II Pulses
15
1 Chickpea
2 Lentil
3 Pea
4 French bean
III Oilseeds
25
1 Sunflower
2 Safflower
3 Mustard
4 Linseed
IV Sugar Crops
10
1 Sugarcane
2 Sugar beet
V Other Crops
10
1 Potato
2 Sweet Potato
3 Tobacco
VI Medicinal and aromatic crops
05
1 Mentha
2 Lemon grass
3 Citronella
VII Forage Crops
10
1 Lucerne
2 Berseem
3 Oat
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Above crops should be covered with botanical name, common name, geographical
distribution, origin, family, economic importance, botanical description, soil and climate, seeds
and sowing, varieties, manures and fertilizers, water management, weed management,
interculturing operations, crop rotation, pests and diseases, signs of maturity, harvesting,
threshing and yield.
Reference Books:
1. Hand Book of Agriculture, ICAR Publication, 2006.
2. Field Crops: Rajendra Prasad.
3. Modern technique of raising field crops – Chhidda Singh.
4. Introduction to spices, plantation crops, medicinal and Aromatic plants by: N. Kumar,
JBM Md.Abdul Khader, P. Rangaswami, I. Irulappan
5. Crop Management and Integrated Farming-S.C.Panda; Agrobios (India)
6. Theory and Digest Agronomy : S. S. Cheema, B.K. Dhaliwal and T.S. Sahota
7. Farm Productivity New Century, New Challenges: M.M. Hosmani, B.M. Chittapur and
H.B. Babalad.
8. Crop Production and Field Experimentation: V.G. Vaidya, K.R. Sahasrabuddhe and
V.S. Khuspe, Continental Prakashan, Pune.
9. Medicinal plants for health & Wealth by S.N. Das
10. Hand Book of medicinal plants by Bhattachargoe.
11. Cultivation of Medicinal & aromatic crops University Press. By: A.A. Farooqui & B.S.
Sreeramu.
12. Hand Book of Horticulture, ICAR Publication – 2006.
***
4 Maize
5 Sorghum

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THEORY NOTES INDEX
Sr.No. Crop Name Page No.
I Cereals
1. Wheat 4-14
2 Rabi Sorghum 15-22
3 Barley 23-28
4 Maize
i) Grain corn 29-35
ii) Sweet corn 36
iii) Baby corn 37
II Pulses
1 Chickpea 38-43
2 Lentil 44-46
3 Pea 47-49
4 French bean 50-52
III Oilseeds
1 Sunflower 53-58
2 Safflower 59-63
3 Mustard 64-68
4 Linseed 69-73
IV Sugar Crops
1 Sugarcane 74-90
2 Sugar beet 91-96
V Other Crops
1 Potato 97-104
2 Sweet Potato 105-107
3 Tobacco 108-124
VI Medicinal and aromatic crops
1 Mentha 125-128
2 Lemon grass 129-132
3 Citronella 133-135
VII Forage Crops
1 Lucerne 136-139
2 Berseem 140-142
3 Maize 143
4 Oat 144-146
5 Sorghum 147-148

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I-Cereals
Wheat
Botanical name : Triticum aestivum L
Common name : Gahu / Genhu
Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)
Genus : Triticum
The Scientist Percival (1921) recognized 18 Wheat Species, but out of that only a few
species are importance in Agriculture. In India only three species of wheat are cultivated &
economically important.
1. Triticum aestivum
2. Triticum durum
3. Triticum dicoccum
1. Triticum aestivum:-
It is also called as soft sarbati and bread wheat. According to Dinkale series (hexaploid) the
chromosome number is 42. It is good for chapatti making and bakery products. It is grown in
whole of North India, Central & South India. It is most important wheat species and total
cultivation area under this species is 87%
2. Triticum durum:-
It is also called as macaroni, hard and bansi wheat. According to Einkorn series (Tetraploid)
the chromosome number is 28. It is good for making suji, Kurdaya, Shevai, Semya and
sphagetti. It is grown only central & south India. Total cultivation area under this species is
12%
3. Triticum dicoccum:-
It is also called as Emmer, Wheat. It is locally called as khapali wheat. According to Einkom
series (Tetraploid) the chromosome no is 28.It is good for South Indian dish. “Uppumav” It
contain high protein. It is grown in T.N. A.P. M.S and Gujarat. Total cultivation area under this
species is 1%
Botany
Root System: Like other members of grass family, the root systems of wheat crop are of 2
kinds. Seminal root system and Crown root system.
Seminal root System: The seminal roots arise from the embryo at the time of seed germination
and absorb nutrients for the young seedlings. As plant growth progress, the seminal root system
gradually dies & is replaced by permanent root system.
Crown root system: Transitional zone between the root and shoot is called the crown. Roots
emerging from the crown are known as crown roots. Crown roots are formed near the soil
surface. Crown roots may penetrate into the soil to a depth of 2 meter. It occurs generally 21-
25 days after sowing. Crow root initiation is an important stage for irrigation.
Shoot System: Shoot system of wheat includes all parts of stem, leaves and inflorescence. A
stem and inflorescence may be called a culm.
Stem: It is erect, cylindrical and smooth. The nodes are solid, but internodes are hollow in most
of the wheat types & verities. In few verities of T. durum (macaroni) wheat’s the internodes
are completely filled with soft pith, which imparts resistance to insect and lodging. The Wheat
stem generally has 6 nods, the range being 5-7. The basal internode is the shortest and
subsequent internodes are progressively longer. Leaf sheaths cover the internodes to a certain

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extent. The length of the stem is 30-100 cm in dwarf wheat’s & 150-160 cm in tall wheat’s.
Stem length is also influenced by environment & soil fertility. The colour of stem is usually
cream or golden yellow but some verities also have purple system.
Leaf: - Leaf has two main parts the sheath and blade. The sheath forms tube round the stem.
In most of wheat’s leaf sheath has a thin upright membranous projection (Called Ligule) at its
upper end where it join the blade. At base of the blade is claw like appendages called ‘auricles’
Inflorescence: - The flowering portion of the wheat plant is called ‘ear’ or ‘head’, botanically
it is a spike. Spikelets are systematically arranged and distributed along a common axis. The
central zigzag axis is the rachis. The spikelets are born on alternate sides of the rachis, which
gives it a zigzag appearance.
Spikelet:- It is composed of flowers called florets. The number of florets in a spikelet may vary
from 1-5. The florets in each spikelet are enclosed by two glummes.
Florets:- The outer covering of a floret is made up of a lemma and a palea. The lemma enfolds
the palea near their attachment point. If an own is present it is attached to the lemma. Anthesis
takes place from 9am to 2pm. The crop is self, pollinated.
Grain:- Wheat grain is a caryopsis. It is oval in shape, one side is convex, while other is flat
and has a longitudinal furrow between the two protruding lobes. The grain length is from 3-
10mm & diameter is from 3-5mm. The tip of grain may have a turf of hair called the brush.
Wheat grain consists of an embryo, bran and endosperm.
Economic importance:
1. It is the most important staple food of half the population of the world and that of North
India.
2. In India, it is the second important food crop being next to rice and contributes to the
total grain production of the country to the extent of about 25%
3. About 80 to 85% of wheat consumption is in the form of chapatees (unleavened flat
bread).
4. Wheat grain contains starch, soluble sugars, cellulose and hemi-cellulose, fat, various
mineral like P and Fe, Vitamins (Thiamin, riboflavin and nicotinic acid) and most
important of all the proteins. Chiefly its gluten content and particularly the lysine
content of the proteins. The gluten content largely affects the quality of bread and
other pastry products.
5. It contains 11 to 14% proteins (Low protein below 8%, medium 8-12% and high
protein more than 12%)
6. Wheat is considered to be very important food grain because of its bread making
quality. Rawa or Suji, Sewaya etc are prepared out of the wheat flour especially from
T. durum & T. dicoccum because of their strong gluten.
7. Wheat straw is used for the manufacturing of hard boards and as a fodder for the cattle.
Origin and history:-
Wheat crop was being cultivated since over 8000 years (pre-historic time). The origin of T.
aestivum wheat (salt/bread/sarbati wheat) is adjoining Hindukush mountains in North West
India, South West Afghanistan and adjoining Southern Mountainous region of USSR. The T.
durum wheat (macaroni/hard) has probably their origin in Abyssinia

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Area and production: -The crop is cultivated as winter and spring season crop in the world.
Winter wheat is cultivated in cold countries like Europe,USA,Australia,Russia etc.where as
spring wheat is grown in Asia and some parts of the USA.
T he total area under wheat in the world was about 127 million hectares with an annual
production of about 731 million tonnes (2018).
India is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide in recent past(2019)in area
(14%of global area)and production(13.64% of world production) among the major wheat
producing countries of the world viz.,Russia, U.S.A, Canada, India, France and China.
Average productivity of wheat in India is 3371kg/ha (2019).It has significant share in
consumption of food basket with a 36%share in the total food grains produced from India.
T. aestivum (Bread) Wheat is grown throughout the country. While Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Hariyana, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and other eastern states exclusively
grow bread wheat, both bread wheat and macaroni wheat(T.durum) are grown in U.P.,
Rajastan, M.P., Gujarat, M.S. Karnataka and A.P. Emmer wheat (T.dicoccum) is grown on a
very limited area in Maharashtra(Khapli), Gujarat (Popatiya), Tamilnadu (Samba) and A.P.
(Ravva godhumalu).
In Maharashtra wheat is grown in all the district except kokan area under irrigated and
rainfed conditions.
Wheat Zones of India:
1. North Western Plain Zone.
2. North Eastern Plain Zone.
3. Central Zone.
4. Peninsular Zone.
5. The Northern hill Zone.
1. North Western Plain Zone:-
Consisting of the plains of Punjab, Hariyana, Jammu, Rajasthan, (except South-eastern portion)
and Western U.P. Sowing:-October-November, Crop season:- Irrigated, Harvesting :- March –
April, Rainfed:- October and – November, Harvesting:- April-May.
T. aestivum is exclusively grown, and it is the most Important of all the Zones.
2. North Eastern Plain Zone:-
Consisting of eastern U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh & Sikkim.
Sowing :- November – December. Harvesting:- March – April. T. aestivum is exclusively
grown.
3. Central Zone:-
Consisting of M.P., Gujarat, South eastern, Rajasthan (Kota & Udaipur division) part of U.P.
(Bundelkhand),
Sowing is from Mid October – October ending.Harvesting:- End of February to March.
Occasional frost in Narmada Valley particularly Tikamgarh area of U.P.
(1) 75% area rainfed (2) T. aestivum, T. durum area grown. In some area of Gujarat, T.
dicoccum is also cultivated.
4. Peninsular Zone: -
Consisting of Maharashtra, A.P., Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.T. aestivum, durum, & dicoccum
are generally grown of which T. durum is common in rainfed areas.

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Sowing: October (Rainfed) November (irrigated) Harvesting:- February end.
5. Northern Hill Zone:-
Consisting of the hilly areas of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, U.P., West Bengal, Assam and
Sikkim. Sowing: October. Harvesting: - May – June.
Wheat plants remain practically dormant during cold months from November to March
and as the temperature rises in April, the crop starts growing. In the valley’s & high mountain
ranges wheat is grown in summer instead of winter. Here, it is sown in April – May and
harvested in September – October. Only T.aestivum is grown.
Soil:-
a. Well-drained loams and clayey loams are considered to be good for wheat.
b. Sandy loams and black soils also good.
c. Soil PH
should be 6.5 to 7.5
d. Below 5.1 and above 9 PH
crop completely fail.
e. Medium to heavy fertility and with good moisture retentive capacity are ideal for wheat.
Climate: -
a. It is a temperate crop but can be grown in tropical and Sub-tropical Zone.
b. Wheat requires cool, dry & clear weather.
c. Optimum temperature as low as 5-7ºC, as high as 26-28ºC.
d. Optimum temperature required at different stages of growth.
1. Germination : 22 - 25ºC.
2. Tillering : 16-20ºC.
3. Grain development : Less than 25ºC.
e. Hot and humid weather is harmful because it encourages rapid spread of fungus
diseases like – rusts.
f. Dry sunny days and cool nights result in dew formation that is very helpful for crop.
g. Average annual rainfall between 750-1600mm.
h. Extreme low temperature during grain filling stage result in damage due to frost.
i. Cold waves also affect crop very badly and result in the formation of shriveled seed.
Wheat is a long day (i.e. short night) plant. The duration of wheat depends upon
temperature & humidity during the growing period of the crop. In North India climate
is cool with high humidity (i.e. mini. Temperature 5-6ºC., Maxi. Temperature 20-25ºC.
and humidity 70-80%) On the contrary adverse is the situation in South India (i.e. mini.
Temp. 10-12ºC., Maxi. 30-32ºC. and humidity 50-70%) and hence the duration of crop
is less (110-120 days) in South India as compared to North India (140-160days)
Cultivation of Wheat:
There are there types of cultivation method of wheat.
a) Irrigated:
(i) Timely or normal sown:- sowing before 15th
November i.e. 1-15th
November.
(ii) Late sown:- sowing after 15th
November. But before 15th
December i.e. 16th
November – 15the December
b) Rain fed: Sowing of 2nd
fortnight of October i.e. 15-30th
October
c) Haveli Method of cultivation:

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It is adopted in the district of Jabalpur, Sagar and Mandla in M.P. where the soils are heavy
clays and the opportunities for monsoon cultivation are practically nil. Under such conditions
the control of weeds is achieved by bunding the fields and keeping the impounded standing
water during the entire monsoon period. The submerged weeds are then pulled out by hand and
late September or early October lets out the water. Within a fortnight or three weeks time the
land becomes workable and wheat seed is then directly drilled by one tyned country seed drill
called nari.
(A) Irrigated timely (Normal Sown condition)
Preparatory tillage:-
Wheat requires a fine friable and compact seedbed. There should be neither clods nor dust like
mulch. For better penetration of roots, deep ploughing is essential. Land is ploughed
immediately after the harvest of previous crop to a depth of 15-20cm, and clod crushing is done
followed by 3-4 harrowing. Collection of stubble, weed plants and other plant residues of
previous crops. Land is leveled properly so as to facilitate uniform distribution of irrigation
water.
If any green manuring crop is grown during Kharif,it should be buried in the soil by
ploughing at 50% flowering of green manuring crop. Then land is prepared for sowing. If land
is keep fallow during kharif the frequent harrowings are given in view to kept land free of
weeds & to conserve the moisture in the soil.
Seeds and sowing:-
Time of Sowing:
First fortnight of November is the optimum time of sowing. There is progressive
decrease in the yield when sowing is delayed beyond the optimum time of sowing. On an
average the reduction in the yield is about 2.5 q/ha. Due to every successive fortnight delay in
sowing after 15th
November.
Choice of variety:
While selecting the variety for sowing, soil type, response to the fertilizer and resistance
to diseases should be considered.
The varieties suitable for normal/timely sowing under irrigated conditions are – HD-2189,
NIAW-301 (Tymbak), NIDW-295, (Godawari), MACS-6122 , NIAW-917
(Tapovan),NIAW-1994 (Samadhan)
Seed Treatment:-
The use of healthy and disease free seed is essential for the successful crop of wheat. It is
necessary to protect crop from seed born fungal disease. Seed should be purchased from a
reliable source. Always use certified seed. If seed is not treated (1) treat it with vitavax or
thiram @ of 2.5 g/Kg of seed. This treatment will check the damage from flag smut, foot rot
and wilt diseases (2) solar heat treatment:- Loose smut (3) For Nitrogen fixation wheat seed
should be treated with Azotobactor biofertilizer @ 250g/10Kg of seed.
Seed Rate:
For getting maximum yield, keep optimum plant population 20-22 lakh/ha use seed rate
100Kg/ha. For bold seeded and shy tillering varieties use 125Kg seed/ha.
Sowing:
The sowing of wheat should be carried out when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. If
sufficient (25-50mm) precipitation is received at least one week before sowing, then pre-

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soaking irrigation is not required. If there is no rainfall then one pre-soaking irrigation needs
to be given before sowing.
Spacing:-
Sowing is done by two bowl seed drill with the spacing of 22.5cm
Depth of sowing:
Seed should be sown at the depths varying from about 3-5cm for easy emergence. The dwarf
or Mexican wheat varieties (double & triple dwarf) posses short coleoptile length and if sown
deep is unable to come out of soil surface and ultimately affects the stand of crop adversely
due to faulty germination and production of less no. of tillers.
(i) Depth less than 5cm for dwarf Mexican varieties.
(ii) For Niphad varieties – 6-8cm depth.
Direction of sowing:
During winter period, the direction of the sun over India is South – South – East to West-
North-West and if sowing is done North-South direction it would allow maximum interception
of sunlight and promote a vigorous growth, will result in higher yields.
After sowing, seed is covered by working with a harrow or plank. Saras/Strips (7.5 to
25m x 3m size) are prepared with the help of sara yanta, by considering the slope of land for
giving irrigation conveniently and uniformly.
Manures and fertilizers:
Wheat crop yielding about 50 quintals grains removes 100-150: 70-80: 125-150Kg/ha
of NPK, respectively from soil.
Before last harrowing 25to 30CL of FYM (12 to 15t/ha) compost is applied. RDF is
120:60:40kg NPK/ha. Half the quantity of N and full dose of P205 and K20 is given at the time
of sowing and remaining half dose of ‘N’ is given at the time of first irrigation i.e. 18 to 21days
after sowing.
Irrigation management:-
Normally 5 to 6 irrigations are required to wheat crop. First irrigation should be given 18 to 21
days after sowing and further irrigation interval should be kept 18-20 days i.e. 3 weeks in
medium black soils. Two to three extra irrigations are required for light soils. Wheat crop
requires sufficient moisture in the soil during the critical physiological growth stages of the
crop.
Critical growth stages Days after sowing
1. Crown root initiation (CRI) 18-21
2. Tillering 40-42
3. Flowering 60-65
4. Early dough / grain formation stage 90-95
If there is limited water supply:
1. For one irrigation – at 42 days after sowing (i.e. at tillering stage)
2. For two irrigations – at 21 DAS and 65 DAS (i.e. at CRI & flowering)
3. For 3 irrigations – at 21, 42 and 65 DAS. (i.e at CRI, tillering and flowering stage)
Total water requirement of wheat crop is 40 ha cm. At each turn 7 ha.cm water is sufficient.
CRI stage is considered at the most critical stage for irrigation.

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The appropriate IW: CPE ratio for an irrigation in wheat ranges between 0.7 and 0.9.
However, from the operational point of view, this method has limited applicability because
CPE measurement is beyond the means of a common farmer.
Interculturing:
Weeds emerge with the crop and if it is not controlled in the early stages of crop growth
it may cause reduction in the yield varying from 30-70% depending on the intensity and stage
of weed infestation.
Wheat field is generally observed both dicot & monocot weeds. The major dicot weeds
are chenopodium album (chandan bathua), melilotus Indica (Senji), chandwel. Monocot weeds
include- Phalaris minor (canary grass), Avena fatua (wild oat), cyperus rotundas (Lavala) and
cynodon dactylon (Hariyali or doob).
Two weeding and one hoeing are given to control the weeds. However, now a days it
has become difficult due to labour cost and unavailability of labour.
Chemical weed Control:-
Most common and effective herbicide to kill all broad – leaved weeds, (dicot weeds) in
wheat field is 2,4-D. It is available in market under different trade names viz., Bladex G,
Weedar, Bladex C, Weedone, Tafacide, Fernoxozne (Sodium salt power). It is sprayed @
1.25kg a.i./ha in 500 to 600 liters of water in wheat field 32-35 DAS. When 2,4-D is sprayed
between 25-30 days the ears of wheat have been found to suffer from malformation.
To control broad and narrow leaves weeds like phalaris minor (Canary grass), wild oats
canbe controlled by post emergence application of isoproturon @ 1.25Kg a.i/ha in 600 to 800
liters of water within 32-35 DAS.
For control of Phalaris minor and other broad leaved weeds application of
sulphosulphuron (Leader) 75% WG @ 0.025kg a.i/ha in 500-700 liters of water within 25-30
DAS
Pre emergence spray of pendimethalin (Stomp) 30% EC at the rate of 1.00Kg a.i/ha in
600 to 800 liters of water 0-3 days after sowing is also very effective for control of many annual
grasses and some broad leaved weeds.
We can also under take the spraying of 2% urea for the better development of luster of
the grain along with the pesticides.
Harvesting and Threshing:-
Sings of maturity:
1. Generally wheat crop matures 110-120 days after sowing
2. Leaves and stem turn yellow
3. Plants become fairly dry and brittle
4. Grains become hard
5. The proper stage for harvesting is when about 15% moisture in grains
6. To avoid loss in yield crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe
Harvesting:
Harvesting should be done early in the morning to avoid shattering of grains (e.g. NIAW-301,
NI-5439). Harvesting is normally done manually by cutting the plant close to the ground with
serrate edged sickles and tied in small bundles. Then transport of bundles in threshing yard. It
is dried for 3-4 days.
Threshing and Winnowing:-

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Threshing is done by trampling wheat plants under the feet of bullocks or mechanical thresher.
Winnowing is done and grains are cleaned. Grains are dried in hot and bright sunlight about 2-
3 days and stored it properly.
Now a days Combine harvester machine is used for harvesting wheat crop. With this
machine harvesting, threshing and winnowing is carried out at a time.
Yield:- Average yield of timely/normal sown wheat crop is 45-50 Q/ha
*Potential yield of wheat crop is 88 Q/ha.
Ex.Total plant population 22 lakhs/ha. Two spikes/plant.
22 lakhs plants x 2 spikes/plant = 44 lakhs spikes.
Weight of grain /spike - 2gram,
44 lakhs spikes x 2 grams, seed weight = 88 Q/ha.
Irrigated late sown:-
When the crops like sugarcane (Ratoon) and cotton (irrigated) are taken during kharif.
Under such conditions, the farmers desire to grow second crop of wheat after harvesting of
previous one. It is difficult to under take the sowing of second crop of wheat in time i.e. before
15th
November due to :-
(i) Late harvesting of previous crops and
(ii) Time required for the land preparation.
Preparation of land:- Same as like timely sown wheat crop.
The following points should be considered while undertaking the cultivation of wheat
under late sown conditions.
1. Choice of variety
2. Use of more seed rate
3. Reduction in the spacing and dose of fertilizer application.
4. Time of sowing.
1. Choice of variety:
The variety that gives better yield even under late sown conditions should be selected.
Variety: - HD – 2610, NIAW – 34, NI-5439, AKAW-2997-16(Sharad), NIDW-
15(Panchawati). NIAW-1415-Phule Netrawati-require less number of irrigations.
2. Use of more seed rate:
Under late sown conditions, wheat does not get favourable climatic conditions and
hence less tillering is observed. In order to maintain the plant population the seed rate should
be more as compared to normal/timely sowing i.e. 125-150 kg/ha.
3. Reduction in the spacing and dose of fertilizer application:
Under late sown conditions, the spacing of sowing is reduced to 18cm. between the
rows so also the fertilizer dose is also reduced to 80: 40 : 40 kg NPK/ha. At the time of sowing
½ dose of N and full dose of P and K should be given. Remaining half dose of ‘N’ should be
given at 1st
irrigation.
4. Time of sowing:
After 15th
November but before 15th
December. Sowing after 15th
December is not economical.
Yield: - Average yield of late sown wheat is – 35 to 40 Q/ha
All other cultivation practices remain the same as in case of timely sowing.
Cultivation of wheat under rainfed condition:

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The rainfed wheat is mainly grown on stored moisture in the soil and soil moisture is
the limiting factor in the cultivation of wheat under rainfed conditions. The stand of crop
depends upon the rainfall received during the monsoon and subsequent rains received during
the growth period of the crop.
Soil: Medium to heavy fertile soils with good moisture retentive capacity is ideal for the
cultivation of wheat under rainfed conditions.
Preparation of Land:
Land is ploughed by one deep ploughing followed by frequent (3-4) harrowing. Harrowing is
carried out after every receipt of showers in view to conserve the moisture in the soil. 5-10 CL
(2.5-5 t/ha) of FYM/ compost is added in the soil before last harrowing.
Seeds and sowing:
Second fortnight of October is the optimum time of the sowing the wheat under rainfed
conditions.
Spacing: Sowing is done by two bowled seed drill at 22.5cm apart.
Depth of sowing: Under rainfed conditions seed is sown in the moist zone which may be about
8 to 10cm depth.
Seed rate: 75 to 100Kg/ha
Choice of variety:- Varieties suitable for cultivation under rainfed conditions should be
selected
N-59, MACS-9, MACS-1967, N-5439, N-8223, NIDW-15 (Panchawati), AKDW-2997-16
(Sharad), AKAW-4627 .
Varitety suitable for rainfed condition: NIDW-15 (Panchawati), Varitety suitable for rainfed
condition:
Manures & Fertilizers:-
5-10 CL (2.5-5t/ha) FYM/Compost is applied before last harrowing.
40Kg N + 20Kg P205/ha. Entire doss of N and P205 is given at the time of sowing.
Yield:- 10 – 12 Q.ha
Other cultivation practices like, seed treatment, interculturing, harvesting and threshing remain
same as like timely sown conditions.
Rotations & Intercropping:-
If double cropping If there crop following rotations
Kharif Rabi Generally followed
Mung Wheat Kharif Rabi Summer
Soyabean Wheat
G.nut Wheat Paddy Wheat Mung
Sunhemp Wheat Groundnut Wheat Groundnut
Paddy/sorghum/ Bajra Wheat Soyabean Wheat Groundnut
Cotton Wheat
Sugarcane ratoon Wheat
Intercropping
Common intercropping with wheat are mustard, sarson, safflower, linseed, barley,
gram, wheat + gram practice followed in M.P. 2/3 + 1/3

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Mixed cropping is practiced in rainfed cultivation of wheat with a view to safeguard
the crop stand from unfavourable growing conditions.
Wheat is grown as a intercrop in sugarcane. The crops like safflower and gram are
grown as an intercrops in wheat.
❖ Pusa-4 is awnless wheat variety
❖ Dr. Borlaug, scientist had developed the wheat varities and he had done more
research on wheat crop.
Diseases:-
Wheat crop is infested with, rusts, alternaria, leaf blight, loose smut, karnal buft and powdery
mildew.t
Rust: Rust is a major disease in wheat crop.Wheat is infested by brown yellow and black rusts.
Brown and Yellow rusts are major diseases in North West part of the country, where as black
rust is severe in southern, central & eastern parts of India.
Control measures:-
1. Grow rust resistance varieties.
2. Spray 0.2% Zineb or Dithane M-45 and 0.1% sandovit (Sticker) as soon as pustules
appear. 2nd
and 3rd
spray may be repeated with an interval of 10-15 days.
Loose Smut:- Control measures:- (i) growing loose smut resistant varieties, (ii) treating seed
with vitavex @ 2.5g per kg of seed before sowing (iii) uprooting the infected plants, burying it
underground or burning it.
Insect Pests:- Wheat crop is attacked by Termites, Army worms, Aphids and rodents.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of Mexican wheat (Timely sown) with following
points.
a) Ecology of crop b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutritional requirements d) Irrigation management e) Harvesting and yield
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of late sown wheat on following points.
1. Choice of variety 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Manures and fertilizers 4. Irrigation 5. Harvesting.
3. A group of cultivators want to grow wheat after sugarcane- Advice them on the
following aspects.
1. Preparation of land and choice of variety 2. Seeds and sowing
3. Irrigation management 4. Fertilizers requirement and harvesting.
4. A farmer desired to grow wheat after harvesting of groundnut JL-24, Advice him on
the following aspects of cultivation of wheat
1. Seed bed preparation 2. Choice of variety
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Manure and fertilizer requirement
5. Irrigation management
5. Write in detail on the cultivation of the rainfed-sown wheat on following points.
1. Soil & preparation of land 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Choice of variety 4. Manures & fertilizer
5. After care.
6. Describe in brief the cultivation of wheat on following aspects.
1. Ecology 2. Sowing and seed rate

14
3. Critical stages for irrigation 4. Fertilizer management
5. Weed management 6. Interculturing
7. Write in detail about the cultivation of wheat with following points.
1. Ecology 2. Seeds & sowing 3. Growth & development
4. Cropping System 5. Irrigation requirement.
Write short notes on
1. Wheat species 2. Wheat Zones of India
3. Ecology of Wheat.
Give reasons:
1. Mexican dwarf wheat varieties are sown to a shallow depth.
2. The average yield of wheat is low in Maharashtra
3. It is necessary to irrigate wheat in its crown root initiation stage.
4. Wheat sowing should be done in north- south direction.
***

15
2. Rabi Sorghum (Jowar) Great Millet
Botanical name :- Sorghum bicolor L. Moench
Family: Gramineae/ Poaceae
Genus:- Sorghum
Tribe:- Andropogoneae
Sorghum is one of the fourth major food grains of the world. Millions of people in Africa
and Asia depend on Sorghum as the staple food. Besides grain it also provides good quality
fodder for the live stock. It is commonly known as the “great millet” due to larger size of grain
among millets and vast area under it.
- Sorghum is also known as “camel crop” due to its drought resistance capacity
- It grows well on variety of soil.
Origin and History:-
Cultivated Sorghum probably originated in East Central Africa, in or near Ethiopia or Sudan.
The word sorghum is derived from the Latin word “sargo’ which means rising above i.e.
growing taller than other millets.
The races of sorghum are believed to have been spread from Africa to India. They have
been in cultivation since very remote times in China and Manchuria. Sir George Watt (1893)
pointed out there was no specific Sanskrit name for sorghum. It is there fore supposed that
sorghum reached India in 1500BC.
Area and Production:
Among the sorghum growing countries India rank first in acreage but second in production
USA being the largest producer in the world. The other important sorghum growing countries
are China, Nigeria, Australia, Sudan and Argentina.
The highest area under sorghum i.e. 42% is in Maharashtra followed by Karnataka, A.P.
& M.P with 11 to 14% and Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu & U.P. 4 to 6%. The remaining
states have small area.
The Maharashtra ranks first in production followed by M.P. Karnataka and A.P. In
Maharashtra sorghum is grown in all districts except coastal districts of Thane, Raigad &
Ratnagiri. Dhule, Nazik, Nagar, Pune, Solapur, Satara, Sangli, Aurangabad, Parbhani, Beed,
Osmanabad & Chandrapur districts have large area under under rabi sorghum.
Cultivation of Rabi Sorghum under Dryland farming.
In M.S. Rabi Sorghum is the most important crop of drought prone areas. Sorghum growing
important districts of drought prone area are Solapur, Ahmednagar and Pune. These districts
occupy 2/3 area of rabi Sorghum out of total area of Maharashtra state and yields are low due
to :-
1. Sorghum is grown under dry farming conditions with low and erratic rainfall.
2. Improper selection of land
3. Non-use of Chemical fertilizers.
4. Traditional methods of sorghum cultivation.
5. Non-use of improved varieties of sorghum

16
Botany: -
Chromosome No. : - 2n=20 i.e. 10 pairs.
Root System:-
The roots of the plant are superficial & fibrous. Adventitious roots emerge from the immediate
upper nodes and provide anchorage to the stem as it grows and becomes top heavy due to the
development of terminal head.
Stem:-
Stem or culm is solid, though the center may become spongy, with spaces in the pith. The
thickness of the stem at base varies from 1-5cm in diameter. The height of plant varies between
0.5m to 5m and is broader at the base and narrower at the upper end. The number of nodes
differ with varieties but in general the stems are made up of 7-18 nodes & internodes. There is
a groove on the internodes except on peduncle. The grooves are arranged alternately from one
side to another on each successive internode. Stem of sorghum may be quite juicy & sweet or
pithy & with very little juice. Fodder varieties are more juicy & sweeter than grain varieties.
Leaves:-
The leaf arises from each node and is about 30 to 135cm long and 1.5 – 13cm broad. The
number of leaves on the main stem varies from 7 to 24 according to variety. The arrangement
of leaves on the stem is usually alternate in two ranks on opposite sides of stem.
Inflorescence:-
The inflorescence of sorghum is a panicle. The panicles are commonly known as ‘heads’ and
vary a great deal in size ranging from 7.5 to 50cm in length & 4-20cm in width. It is a loose or
compact, having many primary branches borne on a hairy axis bearing paired spikelets. There
are two flowers in fertile spikelet, the lower sterile and upper fertile. Average panicle/head
contains about 45 g. of seed. The crop is cross pollinated to the extent of 95%, the seed is white
to dull white in colour. It is a short day plant.
Sorghum plants start synthesizing (HCN) Hydro cyanic acid from germination up to 8
weeks and it is harmful if young green stalks are fed to cattle. It is quite safe to feed green
fodder sorghum when it is in flag leaf stage.
Economic Importance:
1. It is fourth most important world cereal following wheat, rice & maize.
2. It is a staple food crop of the drier parts of tropical Africa, India & China.
3. The grain flour is used for preparation of rottees and brewing.
4. Ear heads of some sweet varieties Wani, Gulbhendi, Dagadi and Phule uttara are baked
on fire and eaten as ‘Hurda’.
5. The grain of some varieties is popped & consumed as pop grain.
6. The dry stalks and leaves called kadbi are used as fodder for cattle or also grown for
green fodder purpose.
7. Grain is also used for manufacturing starch, syrup, glucose, sugar tablets, oil, gluten &
a poultry feed.
8. It contains protein 9 to 11%
9. Sweet sorghum stalks are used for preparation of jaggery.

17
Cultivation practices for rainfed sorghum.
Ecological Factors (Soil & Climate):-
Soil.
1. Medium to deep soils, which are moisture retentive well drained & fertile.
2. Depth of soil should be more than 45cm
3. It should have good water holding capacity.
4. Soil pH 5.5 to 8.5
Climate.
1. Sorghum is purely a tropical crop and suited to areas of moderate rainfall.
2. It thrives well in the regions having mean temperature of over 27ºC
3. The average temperature during the growing season should be 21ºC to 32ºC, however,
many varieties can stand a minimum temperature of 10-16 & maximum of 40O
C
4. It is a drought resistant crop & hence ideal crop for the cultivation in regions, which
depend entirely upon rainfall.
5. It regulates transpiration and remains dormant during the period of drought and starts
active growth when the moisture status of the soil improves.
6. It can be grown in areas receiving 350 to 1000mm rainfall.
7. Excessive soil moisture as well as prolonged drought is harmful for the crop growth.
Preparation of land:
Sorghum crop requires firm and compact seedbed for root initiation & early growth of the crop.
Land is prepared by giving 3 to 4 harrowing. In dry farming, ploughing once in three
years is recommended to keep down the growth of weeds such as cynodon dactylon (Hariali),
Cyprus rotundas (Lavala/nut grass) & to minimize the cost of production.In light to medium
soil every year ploughing is essential.
The rabi sorghum is generally grown after Green gram/Black gram, or keeping the land
fallow during kharif. If, it is to be sown after green gram/black gram the land is prepared by
giving 2-3 harrowing or it is fallow about 3 harrowing are sufficient.
Seeds and sowing:-
Seed treatment:-
1. The seed is treated with 30% brine (salt) solution for control of ergot disease.
2. Seed is treated with 300 mesh fine sulphur @ 4g/kg of seed for the control of grain
& loose smut disease.
3. Seed is treated with Thiram 3 g/kg of seed for control of Head smut disease.
4. Seed is treated with carbofurom @ 100g /kg of seed, as a preventive measure
against stem fly attack at initial stage of the crop growth.
5.The seed of sorghum may be treated with Azotobactor culture and PSB each with
@ 250g/10kg of seed for increasing ‘N’ fixation.
Time of Sowing: The optimum time of sowing rabi sorghum is 15th
September to 15th
October.
Seed rate: Variety:- 10Kg/ha Hybrid:- 8kg/ha
Method of sowing: Rabi sorghum crop commonly sown by drilling (Line sowing)
method.

18
Spacing:- Row to row 45cm & plant to plant 15cm.For sowing two bowled seed drill is used.
Due to two bowled seed drill seed and fertilizers can be sown simultaneously at a time. Seed
should be sown at less than 5cm depth. Seed should be placed in the moist zone.
Plant population:- Varieties-1.48 lakhs/ha and Hybrid sorghum 1.20 to 1.35
lakhs/ha.
Manures and fertilizers:-
Hybrid and improved varieties of rabi sorghum gives good response to fertilizers. The
experiments conducted on rainfed condition were received 10 to 15% grain yield due to
application of 1kg ‘N’
(i) Rainfed: - FYM/Compost @ 5 tonnes/ha is applied before last harrowing.
(ii) Irrigated: - FYM / Compost @ 10 tonns/ha.
Soil Type
Fertilizers Kg/ha
Rainfed Irrigated
N P K N P K
Light 25 - - - - -
Medium 40 20 - 80 40 40
Heavy 60 30 - 100 50 50
In rainfed conditions all quantity of N & P is given at the time of sowing by drilling.
In irrigated conditions half quantity of N & full quantity of P & K is given at the time
of sowing by drilling. Remaining half dose of ‘N’ is applied 30 days after sowing as a top
dressing.
Inter culturing:
a) Thinning:- The 1st
thinning is carried out 10-12 days after sowing & 2nd
thinning is carried
out 20 days after sowing and to maintain the desired plant population.
b) Weeding & hoeing:- Generally 1-2 weeding & 3 hoeing are given to the rabi sorghum crop.
Crop should be keep weed free up to 30 to 40 days from sowing.
The first hoeing is done when the crop is of 3 weeks old with a slit blade hoe and 2nd
hoeing is done 5 weeks after sowing with an entire blade hoe. 3rd
hoeing is done 8 weeks of
crop age with toothed blade hoe. At the time of 3rd
hoeing the thread /rope is tied to hoe. Due
to thread /rope tying soil is put near the root & it help for retention of rainwater. And better
aeration to sorghum crop.
The hoeing operation helps in controlling weeds to some extent and to conserve the
moisture in the soil by formation of natural mulch. In between two hoeing one hand weeding
is given to the crop to control the weed growth.
Chemical weed control:- Atrazine @ 1-2kg a.i./ha in 500 litter of water as pre-emergence
spray has been very effective in control the broad-leaves weeds. 2,4-D (2,4- dichlorophenoxy
acetic acid) @ 1-1.5 kg a.i./ha in 500 liter of water as post-emergence spray 3-4 weeks after
sowing.
1. Preplant soil application of Fenac or 2,3,6–TBA reduces parasitism by striga.
2. Use of Attazine as a pre-emergence spray in combination with 2, 4-D,
3. Striga litura (witch weed) is the common parasite weed on sorghum crop. For
controlling striga weed-spraying of 2, 4-D @ 1 kg a.i./ha has been found more effective.
Applied 2, 4-D twice from 2 weeks to 70 DAS.

19
Mechanical control: Destruction of striga weed before setting seeds by removal.
Reducing the reservoir of striga in the soil:- Trap cropping, crop rotation & use of
germination stimulants are effective measures in this direction.
Growing a susceptible crop & ploughing it under before striga establishment on it acts as trap
crop in certain situations.
Ethrel, Ethylene, Strigol are some stimulants for germinating striga seeds. Use of these
stimulants is aimed to induce germinating of striga & destroy by ploughing.
Crop rotation:- Cotton, Groundnut, Cowpea, Pigeon pea, soybean, dolichos, velvet beans are
some of such crops and cultivation of these crop in rotation with sorghum has been found to
reduce the striga population.
However, because of limitations in application & loss of a season in the process, this
has not been widely practiced. Other approaches for controlling striga include good
management, biological control & resistance breeding.
Irrigation schedule:-
The rabi sorghum grown as irrigated crop required about 39 to 41 ha cm water.
The crop is irrigated by preparing saras of 8 to 10m length & 2 to 3m breadth according to
slope of land.
Sr.
No.
Critical growth stage
Days
From
sowing
Rainfed Irrigated
Protective
irrigation
Medium
soil
Heavy
soil
One Two
1. Grand growth or vegetative
phase
28-30 - ✓ ✓ ✓
2 Boot stage (Heading) or
Flag leaf stage
50-55
60
DAS
✓ ✓ ✓
3. Flowering Stage 70-75 - - ✓ ✓
4. Grain filling or dough stage 90-95 - - ✓ -
❖ Lack of soil moisture at this stage may reduce the yield to the extent of 60%
❖ At each irrigation 6 to 8ha cm water is applied.
According to soil moisture regime during rabi season irrigation at 50% depletion of available
soil water in 0 - 30cm soil layer was reported optimum (Patil et.al 1969, Kaliappa et.al. 1974)
According to IW/CPE ratios – 0.8 or 1.0 gave higher yields (Lomte et al 1988)
Dry land technology for rainfed rabi sorghum:-
1. Tillage:
Surface soil should be kept open for the entry of water through the soil. In heavy soil deep
ploughing once in 2 to 3 years has been extremely beneficial. In light to medium soil every
year ploughing is essential. Tillage is major component of storage efficiency in soils with high
water holding capacity.
2. Use of two bowl seed drill for sowing.
3. Hoeing:- Three hoeing are essential for controlling weeds and conserve the moisture into
the soil. Due to hoeing breaking the capillaries at soil and hence avoids cracking of soil surface.
4. Mulching:-

20
Evaporation can be reduce by covering the soil surface with organic residues, straw,
grass, stalks of red gram. Due to obstructing the solar radiation falling in the ground,
evaporation losses reduced. Apply 5 tonnes/ha organic mulch in between two crop lines 15
DAS. Due to use of mulch saving of 25 to 30mm soil moisture and increase 30 to 40% crop
yield.
5. Protective Irrigation:- i) If one irrigation available apply at flag leaf stage i.e. at 60 DAS.
(ii) If two irrigation available apply 1st
at grand growth stage (28-30DAS) & 2nd
at flage leaf
stage.
6. Foliar application of fertilizer:- Spraying of 2% urea fertilizer on crop leaves. Add 2Kg
urea in 100 liter of water. It increases the function of leaves and helps for absorption of moisture
from soil.
7. Use of anti transpirants: - These are materials which decrease water loss from leaves by
reducing the size or number of stomatal openings leading to decreased rate of water vapour
diffusion from leaf surfaces. e.g. Kaolin, white colour, chalk dust @ 8%
8. Reduce plant population/ha: - If drought period increase the plants compete for moisture
& nutrient. Due to this condition yield of crop reduced. To overcome this problem reduce the
plant population/ha and maintain plant population up to 90,000 to
1, 00,000/ha.
9. Reduce No. of leaves/plant: - In drought situation there is loss of water through leaves by
transpiration. For decreasing transpiration, reduce number of leaves from lower site of plant
and keep 4 to5 leaves upper site of plant.
Crop rotation and mixed cropping:-
Kharif Rabi
Green gram - Sorghum
Black Gram - Sorghum
Soybean - Sorghum
Groundnut - Sorghum
Mixed Cropping:- Sorghum + Safflower
Sorghum + Gram
Sorghum + Sunflower
Intercropping:- (i) Sorghum + Sunflower (ii) Sorghum + Linseed In different row proportion.
Harvesting:
a) Signs of maturity:- Generally crop is ready for harvest 110-125 days after sowing i.e. 4
months.
i) Yellowing & drying of older leaves
ii) General yellowing of peduncle
iii) Grains cease developing & gaining in dry weight
iv) When the grains reach the hard dough stage or when moisture % of the grains
drop below 25%
v) Grains give cracking sound when crushed under teeth
vi) In case of hybrid Sorghum do not wait for stalks & leaves to dry because plant
appear green even after the crop is mature.
In rainfed Sorghum generally, crop harvested by uprooting the whole plant & cutting the ear
heads after from the plants.

21
In irrigated sorghum harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant close to the ground with
sharp sickle. In Hybrid sorghum first ear heads are cut & then plants are harvested by cutting.
After cutting or pulling of plants, they are allowed to dry in the field for 2 to 3 days and
then stalks are tied in small bundles and carried to the threshing yard. Earheads are separated
& again dried in sunlight.
Threshing:-
The earheads are trampled (Threshed) under the feet of bullocks. Some time stone roller
is used for threshing purpose. Now a days power thresher cum winnowers is available for
threshing & cleaning the grains. Threshed material is winnowed against natural wind or by
using winnowing fan and grains are cleaned, dried and stored.
Yield:
Main produce i.e. grain :- Rainfed:- 15 to 20 quintals/ha
Irrigated:- Variety 30 to 35 Q/ha
Hybrid:- 45 to 50 Q/ha
By produce(Stover) i.e. Kadbi:- Rainfed:- The grain to kadbi ratio is 1:2
i.e. 30 to 40 Q/ha
Irrigated:- (i) Variety:- The grain to kadbi ratio is 1:2.5 to 3
i.e. 90 to 105 Q/ha
(ii) Hybrid:- The grain to stover ratio is 1:1 i.e. 50Q/ha.
Irrigated crop:-
All the cultivation practices to be followed are same as like rainfed except soil requirements,
preparation of land, manuring & and irrigation
Soil:-
Irrigated sorghum is grown on variety of soils; however, the best growth is obtained in clay
loams with well drained. It tolerates saline & alkaline conditions of the soil to some extent &
can also thrive in soil with medium acidity up to pH 5.5
Preparation of land:-
The land is ploughed immediately after the harvest of the previous crop with mould board
plough to a depth of 15 to 20 cm. followed by 2-3 cross harrowing.
Varieties :
1. Rainfed:-
1. Light Soil (Depth up to 30cm) :- Selection – 3 & Phule mauli (RSLG-262) Phule
anuradha (RSV-458)
2. Medium Soil:- (Depth upto 60cm) Phule mauli (RSLG-262, Phule chitra (SPV – 1546)
Phule Suchitra CSV-14R, Parbhani moti (SPV – 1411), Maldandi – 35-1
3. Heavy soil (Depth above 60cm):- Improved variety:- Vasudha – (RSV-423), Phule
Yashoda (SPV-1359), Phule Revati, CSV-18, PKV Kranti
Hybrid: CSH-15-CSH-19,CSV-18
2.Irrigated:-
Phule yashoda, Vasudha, CSV-22, CSV-18, CSH-15., CSH-19.
For hurda purpose:- Phule uttara, Wani, Gulbhendi, Dagadi, Phule Madhur

22
Old varieties:-Motichur, Kalbhondi, Tamad bhondi, Saoner, Ramkel, NJ-164, NJ-156,
Aispuri, PJ-4R, Satpani, Khedi 2-2-10, Khedi BK-1-10 POP grain:- Kawali
Pests and Diseases:-
Insect Pests:
1. Shoot Fly:- Can be avoided by adjusting the planting time – late in the rabi soil
application of phorate 10G @ 1.5 kg a.i/ha at the time of sowing.
2. Shoot borer:- Removal of the stubbles immediately after the harvest of the crop
prevent carryover. Application of Cabaryl 4G or Endosalphan 4G in the whorls @ 8 &
12 Kg/ha at 20 & 35 days after emergence is recommended.
3. Shoot bug 4. Army worm 5. Mite 6.Midge fly7. Head bug 8.Hairy catter pillars.
Diseases:-Grain & loose smut, grain molds, sorghum downy mildew, ergot, charcoal rot,
rust.
Question Bank
1 Elaborate the following points of cultivation of rabi sorghum under rainfed
condition. (limited source of irrigation water).
1. Selection of variety (Genotype selection) 2. seeds and sowing
3. intercultivation 4. Manure & fertilizer
5. Critical growth stages with reference to its irrigation requirements
2 Elaborate the following points of rabi sorghum cultivation under irrigated
conditions.
1. Ecological factors 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Varieties and Hybrids 4. Fertilizer management
5. Pre and post sowing moisture conservation practices
3 Advice a farmer on the cultivation of rabi sorghum under the facilities for the
protective irrigation.
4 Advice a farmer in drought prone area regarding cultivation of rabi sorghum
under dry land conditions on the points.
1. Selection and preparation of land 2. Seeds and Sowing
3. Manure and fertilizers application 4. Intecultivation
5. Critical growth stages with reference to its irrigation requirements.
2. Write short note on:- 1. Ecology of Sorghum 2. Sorghum poisoning
3. Crop rotations and intercropping in rabi Sorghum.
3. Give reasons:
1. Feeding of young sorghum plants to cattle up to flowering is harmful.
2. Productivity of sorghum is low in rabi season as compared to kharif.
3. Rabi sorghum yields are low in Maharashtra
4. Frequent inter tillage operations are recommended for dry land rabi crops.
5. Advance sowing of Rabi sorghum is found to be beneficial.
***
3. Barley

23
Botanical Name:- Hordeum Vulgare.
Famiy:- Graminaeae / Poaceae
Tribe:- Hordea
Common name:- Satu
Similar to wheat, Barley is also one of the oldest cultivated crops. In India barley is an
important cereal crop in winter after wheat. Its Sanskrit name is ‘Yava’is mentioned in Veda
and used in religious ceremonies.
Classification of barley:-
Aberg & wiebe (1946) classified all the cultivated barley varieties into three distinct species
based on number of rows of grain & their arrangement.
1. Two rowed barley – Hordeum distichum L.
2. Six rowed barley – Hordeum vulgare L.(most commonly cultivated type)
3. Irregular barley – Hordeum irregulare E.Aberg and wiebe
1. Two rowed type:- In this species only the medium spikelets are fertile and sets grain.
Generally each spike produces 15-30 kernels (grains)
2. Six rowed type:- In this species all the three spikelets at each node of the spike are
fertile. The spikelets are in six distinct rows and arranged at a uniform distance around
the tough rachis. All these spikelets produce grains. About 25-60 grains (kernels) are
usually produced on each spike. It is most commonly cultivated species in the world.
3. Irregular type:- In this species central florets are fertile, where as the lateral florets are
reduced to rachilla. Chromosome No.:- 2n = 14
Barely is believed to be originated from Southeast Asia and Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
It is introduced in India around 3000 BC from Middle East region. The important barley
growing countries are Russia, Canada, France, Spain, UK, Germany, Turkey, Australia,
Morocco, USA, Ethiopia, China & India.
It is cultivated on a large scale in eastern U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan and M.P. Uttar Pradesh (largest producer of barley in India) alone produces
nearly half of India’s total Production of barley. In Maharashtra very negligible area is under
this crop.
Economic Importance:-
1. Grains have 8-10% protein, good amount of carbohydrates (74%), minerals, vitamin B-
Complex and 1.3% Fat.
2. It is mostly used in the feed industry and brewing.
3. Barley grains are mostly used for malting.
4. Grain is used mostly as “sattu” (roasted and ground barley flour mixed in sugar &
water),dalia,halwa and barley pops.
5. Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections such
as flavored drinks, some baked goods, biscuits.
6. Malt syrup is also used utilized for making candies, medicines, & in textile Industry.
7. Barley is highly digestible as it contains very low gluten and barley chappati is very
palatable
8. It is also used as a feed for livestock.
9. Grains are also used as feed for pigs & poultry birds.

24
10. Barley may be taken as green fodder after 60 days of sowing.
Botanical Description:
Roots:-It consists of shallow & deep roots. The shallow root arise near the soil surface &
spread out laterally about 15-30cm. almost at right angles to the tillers. The deep roots extend
up to 0.75 to 150cmdeep in the soil.
Stem (Culm):-The stem is cylindrical and possessed 5 to 7 hollow internodes separated by
solid nodes, at which the leaves arise. The usual numbers of tillers per plant varies from 2-5.
Leaves:-Leaves arise from nodes of the stem and are borne alternately on opposite sides of the
stem. Each leaf consists of sheath, blade, ligule & auricle. The leaves of barley are usually
broader and of lighter green colour than wheat. The surface of leaf is rough. Two-rowed
barley’s have narrower leaves than six-rowed barley.
Inflorescence:-It is called spike or head. The spike at the top of the stem consists of spikelets
attached at the nodes of a zigzag rachis. Each spiklet has two glumes and a floret. Three
spikelets are attached at each node of the rachis.
Kernel (Grain):- The grain of barley is a caryopsis consisting of lemma, palea & a rachilla. In
most of the barley verities the lemma & palea adhere to the caryopsis.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Barley thrives best on well-drained, fertile light to medium loams. On heavier ls, it has
tendency to lodge. Being a salt tolerant crop, it can grow well even in salt-effected soils, during
the early phases of the reclamation of these soil. It gives higher yields than wheat and other
cereal crops on moderately saline-alkali soils. Soil pH range is 6.5 to 7.8.
Climate:
It requires cool climate. It is a winter (rabi) season crop. It is grown successfully in sub-
tropical and tropical region. It requires a mean daily temperature of about 12ºC to 15ºC during
the growing season & about 30ºC during ripening & maturity. Higher temperature coupled with
dry winds during later stages of crop result in poor grain filling & chaffy seeds, resulting in
lower yield and poor quality grains.
Barley crop has low water requirement than wheat crop. It is highly drought- tolerant
and can be grown with lesser soil moisture. An annual average rainfall of 400-500mm (40-
50cm) will result in increased yield. Even a well distributed and assured rainfall of as low as
200-250mm (20-25cm) is sufficient for realizing a good crop in rainfed conditions. It is
basically a long day plant. Thus a light period of 10-12 hrs during vegetative growth and 12-
14 hours during reproductive growth would be ideal.
Preparation of land:-
It requires less cultivation than wheat. In Northern India, the land is ploughed once with iron
plough or 4 to 5 times with deshi plough to get the desired. It requires a good seed bed.
The saline- alkali land should be prepared, planked and left undisturbed for about a
week before sowing. So that the salt move from the lower soil layers to the upper soil zone and
root zone becomes relatively free from the salts.
Verities:-
1. Hulled varieties :- Ratna, Jyoti, Kailas, Vija, RS-6
2. Huskless Varieties:- Karan – 3, 16 (Nilam), Amber.
3. Malting varieties:- C-138, RS-6, RD-57, RD-137, Clipper, Ambor.

25
4. Salt tolerant varieties:- Karan-16, Karan – 18, 19, Jyoti Karan-3, 4, Ambor, Azad,
Ratna, Bilara, Vijay
5. Suitable for hilly areas:- Kailash, Himani, Dolma, N.P. 100, NP- 13, 21, 103
6. Other varieties:- BHS-46, BG-105, BG-25, BH-39, DL-36, 70,85, HBL-3, IB-65, K-
226,257, 287, K-141,169,252, P-103, PL-56, Rajkiran, RD-31, 117, 137, RDB-1.
Seeds & Sowing:-
Time of Sowing:-
1. Timely irrigated sowing:- Middle of October to middle of November.
2. Irrigated late sown:- Up to middle of December
3. Rainfed sown:- 2nd
fortnight of October
Late/delayed sowings reduce the grain yield per unit area & produce poor quality grain not
suitable for malting.
Seed Treatment:-
a. Seed is soaked in cold water over night at normal temperature for better
germination. Rainfed & saline soils.
b. Seed is treated with 1:1 mixture of Thiram + Bavistin or Vitavex @ 2.5g/Kg of
seed may be used for an effective control of loose smut & covered smut &
controlling seed born diseases.
Seed Rate:- i)Irrigated normal/timely sowing:- 75-80kg/ha
ii) Irrigated late sowing:- 100-120kg/ha
iii)Rainfed sowing:- 80-100kg/ha, for saline soils – 100kg/ha
Spacing & depth of Sowing:-
a. Irrigated normal sowing- 22.5cm, 4to5cm
b. Irrigated late sowing:- 20cm, 4 to 5cm
c. Rainfed sowing:- 22.5cm, 6 to 8cm
Method of Sowing:- Drilling with two bowl seed drill
Manures of fertilizers:-
Rainfed crop:-
Well decomposed FYM @ 8-10 tonnes/ha mixed in soil at the time of last harrowing.
Irrigated crop:- FYM@ 10-15 t/ha
Fertilizer:
N P K
i) Rainfed crop: 30-40kg, 20Kg 20Kg
ii) Irrigated timely crop 60-80kg 30kg 30kg
iii) Late sown crop 60-80kg 30kg 30kg
For rainfed crop entire dose of N, P205 and K20 is given at the time of sowing.
For irrigated crop split application of half the dose of ‘N’ & full dose, of P2O5 & K2O
at sowing time & the remain half dose of ‘N’ with the first irrigation as a top dressing is
advantageous.
Excess ‘N’ affects the malting & brewing quality of grain adversely. Superphosphate
helps to neutralize its deleterious effects.
Water Management
Total water requirement of barley crop is 35-36 ha. cm. Generally it needs 2 to 3 irrigations.
One or two extra irrigation are required on sandy soils.

26
Critical growth stages for irrigations:-
1. Tillering Stage:-25-30 DAS (Active tillering)
2. Flowering Stage – 60-65 DAS (Flag leaf / booting)
3. Grain filling stage:- 80-85 DAS (Milking)
- If only one irrigation is available it should be given at active tillering stage/tillering –
25-30 DAS
- It two irrigations are available-: First is given at active tillering stage 25-30 DAS,
Second is given at flowering stage – 60-65 DAS
On highly alkali – Saline soils, frequent light irrigation gives better results than a fewer heavy
irrigation.
Interculturing
Weed Management
Same weeds observed as like wheat crop. A good cultural practice like one hoeing and one
hand weeding after first irrigation at 25-30 DAS gives effective control
Chemical weed control: weed control practices similar to wheat.
Crop rotations:-
Depending on the assured rainfall or irrigation facility it can be grown the sequential cropping
system due to barley is short duration crop.
Cereal-cereal system Legume-cereal system Other Crops system
Rice-Barley Pigeonpea-Barley Cotton-Barley
Mize – Barley Mungbean –Barley Sunhemp-Barley
Pearlmille – Barley Black gram-barley Potato-Barley
Sorghum-Barley Cowpea –Barley Sugar cane-Barley
Soybean-Barley
Groundnut – Barley
In addition, barley is also suitable for mixed or intercropping with rabi crops like Pea, chickpea,
mustard, rapeseeds, linseed & lentil.
Pests & Diseases:-Insects pests:- Termites & Aphids.
Diseases:- Leaf spots, powdery mildew, Rusts:- Yellow, Black, Smuts:- loose, covered.
Signs of maturity:-
1. Plants turn yellow and dry up.
2. Grains become hard.
3. Moisture content drops around 18-20%
4. Plants become brittle & rigid
5. Stem-breaks down with slight pressure
6. Fast winds make plants lean & lodge
Harvesting:-
Barley crop matures 15-20 days earlier than wheat crop i.e. about –85-90days. Any delay in
harvest results in shattering of ears & loss of grains. The crop is harvested by cutting at ground
level by using sharp sickle.

27
It should be harvested in the morning hours before the spikes become too dry and fragile for
handling. Tied in bundles. Now a days crop is harvested by combine harvester.
After harvesting the crop, it is dried 4 – 5 days on threshing yard.
Threshing:- It is done by trampling under the feet of bullocks. It also threshed with threshing
machine. Then winnowing is done. Again dry the grains in sunlight up to 12% moisture. Then
bagging & store the grains properly.
If the grains are to be used for malting production of beverages etc., care must be taken
during threshing that grains should not be injured or ‘skinned’ otherwise quality of beer or
whisky gets spoiled.
Yield:-Rainfed:- 8-10 Q/ha; Irrigated:- Grains 20-25 Q/ha
Straw – 60-80 Q/ha
High yielding varieties – 40-50 Q/ha, Straw – 120 to 150 Q/ha.
Malting
Barley is the most commonly malted grain as it has a high enzyme content to convert their own
starch to sugar.
Malting is the process of controlling the germination of cereal grains under certain controlled
conditions favorable for sprouting and drying in huge kilns for the desired color and
specification. Before malting selection of raw barley with uniform size, low protein and high
starch e content in the grains is important. There are three stages involved in malting barley.
Steeping (Soaking)
Steeping is the first stage of malting. Steeping has two sub-stages, wet steeping and air rests.
Wet steeping -where seeds are soaked in water just enough time for the seeds to begin
sprouting and has taken about 42-46% moisture by weight. Soaking is generally for 24-48
hrs. Then water is drained and the grains are put to rest this is an air rest. The moisture
content in the malt will determine its color. The more the moisture content the darker is the
extraction of the malt.
Germination
The second stage of barley malting is germination. After the steeping the seeds are spread out
on malting beds and allowed to germinate. Germination is controlled by a specific
temperature and by maintaining the moisture content. The germination stage takes around 3-5
days and inspected to ensure that all the seeds are sprouting and modifying uniformly.
Drying and Kilning(Drying and roasting)
Once the seeds are uniformly germinated, they are immediately dried to restrict the sprouting
process . Drying the seeds, stops the sprouting process and further enzymatic activities. It is
done running with hot air 20 0
C for 20hrs and moisture content is 4-5%. The grain at this
point of time is called “green malt”. Maintaining a specific temperature while drying the
grains is also an important factor during the process. The entire drying process takes about a
day or two. Kilning is the final process that roasting the green malt to develop its final desired
character and flavor. This process involves regular stirring of the malts for a more uniform
final product. This malt is then put through a machine known as a deculmer; to remove small
rootlets emerged during germination. The final product varies in colour from very pale to
amber, to chocolate brown. It is stored in a cool and dry place until it is actually used for
brewing or other uses.

28
Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections
such as flavored drinks, some baked goods, biscuits and sweet meals.
Question Bank
Write Short notes on:-
1. Climatic requirements of barley
2. Irrigation in Barley
3. Malting in Barley
Give Reasons:
1. Barley is preferred in place of wheat under rainfed conditions.
Ans. Barley has low water requirement than wheat and being drought resistant barley
suits area with scanty rainfall than wheat.
2. Light and frequent irrigation requirement for barley grown under saline and alkaline
conditions.
Ans. On highly alkaline and saline soils frequent light irrigation gives better results
than a fewer heavy irrigation.
3. Mostly barley is grown as preceding crop on residual soil fertility.
Ans. High soil fertility may results in lodging of crop therefore barley is mostly
cultivated as preceding crop in crop rotation and often fertilized grown on residual
soil fertility.
Fill in the blanks:-
1. Botanical name of Six row barley is Hordeum vulgare.
2. Recommended seed rate of barley is 80-100Kg/ha.
3. Hordeum distichum is the botanical name of two row types barley.
4. In barley if one irrigation is available it should be applied at tillering stage (25-30 DAS).
5. Barley is salt tolerant crop hence suitable in sodic and saline soils.
***
4. Maize- i) Grain Corn
Botanical Name:- Zea mays
Famiy:- Graminaeae / Poaceae
Common name:- maka,makai

29
Maize is important cereal of the world after wheat and rice. Maize is one of the efficient
species of crop domesticated by the man. Among cereals, the productivity of maize is the
highest.(4.7t/ha) as compared to rice(3.7t/ha)and wheat (2.5t/ha).
Classification of maize:-
The maize was classified by Sturtevant in 1899 into seven groups /types based on the
endosperm of kerenels.They are .
Sr.
No.
Common
name
Botanical name Kerenel Characteristics Other name/uses
1 Pod corn Zea mays turnicate kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk,
ear formed is also enclosed in husk.
cow corn, forage
corn and husk
corn.
It is not
commercially
cultivated.
2 Pop corn Zea mays everta): The kernels are small and posses a
higher percentage of hard
endosperm starch. Ability to pop is
due to expansion of moisture in
each starch grain due to application
of heat.
3 Flint
Corn
Zea mays indurate The kernel consist of endosperm
with soft starch in the entre and
completely enclosed by a very hard
outer layer. Kerenels shrink
uniformly as they mature.
4 Dent
corn
(Zea mays indentata): The kernels having depression or
dent in the crown due to shrinkage
during ripening in a deposit of soft
starch at the crown.
most widely
cultivated corn.
5 Flour
corn
Zea mays amylacea The kernels almost contains of soft
starch with a very thin layer of hard
6starch on the sides.
soft corn
6 Sweet
corn
(Zea mays Saccharata Kernels are translucent, horney
and more or less wrinkled in
appearance when dry
Higher proportion
of sugar to starch
and hence sweeter
than other corns.
7 Waxy
corn
Zea mays certain Endosperm waxy adhesive Used in textile and
proper sizing

30
Fig.1. Types of Maize
Origin and History:-Origin of maize or corn is considered to be Southern Mexico and
Central America. It is first mention in 1492 when Columbus reached the American mainland
and his scouts brought to him the maize samples from the Islands of Cuba. There it was grown
as an important food crop about 2500 years before Columbus landed there.
It is introduced in India by Portuguese during 17th
centuary.However recent
evidences show the possibilities of its pre-Columbus introduction through the Atlantic –
Arabic trade route. Now it is being grown in USA, China, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, France,
South Africa, Russia, Rumania, Yugoslavia and India.
In India it is popular in Rabi season mostly in the Bihar, Parts of U.P. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Economic Importance:-
11. Grains have 10% protein, good amount of carbohydrates (70%), crude
fibre(2.3%).minerals(0.27%) and Ash(1.40).
12. Maize protein is known as Zein is deficient in tryptophane and lysine (essential amino
acids)
13. It is mainly consumed as food in various forms.
14. Green maize is used as succulent fodder.
15. Also used in poultry feed.
16. It is used in many industries as a raw material for number of products
viz.,starch,glucose, high fructose syrup, germ oil,germ meal,and gluten products,
,textile,paper,pharmaceuticals,organic chemicals,cosmetics and edible oil
Roots:-The root system of maize is deep and fibrous.
Shoot System:-Comprises stem, leaves (including leaf sheath and leaf blade) and
inflorescence. Maize is non –tillering crop.
Inflorescence: Maize is a monoecious plant having both male and female inflorescences on the
same plant. Male flowers are borne in a tassel at the top of the stem and female flowers are
borne inside the young cobs known as silking.
Kernel or Caryopsis: Maize kernel is one seeded fruit or caryopsis.

31
Fig.2
Growth and Development stages of maize:
1. Seedling stage: sprouting stage which comes about one week after sowing and plants
having 2-4 leaves at this stage.
2. Grand growth stage: this stage arrives about 35-45 DAS and plant is at knee height
stage. Plant needs first top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer application and manual or
mechanical intercultivation.
3. Tasseling stage: this is a flower initiation stage at which the tassel or male flowers
come out. It is terminal flowering generally formed at the apex after 14th
or 15th
leaves
have come out. Final top-dressing should be done at this stage.
4. Silking stage: this is known as cob initiation stage at which female flowers or cobs are
formed. This is auxiliary flowering and generally formed in the axis of 11th
to 13th
leaf.
5. Soft dough stage: also called as milky stage where grains start developing but do no
become hard. Silks on the cob remain partially green and covering of the cobs remain
green. This is the stage for using green tender cobs for table purpose.
6. Hard –dough stage: This is maturity stage at which leaves get dried completely and
become very brittle.cit is harvesting stage for grain purpose.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Deep, fertile rich in organic matter and well drained soils are most preferred for maize
cultivation. Soil should be medium textured with good water holding capacity(WHC).Loam or
silt loam soils with fair drainage and pH between 6.5 to 7.5 is most suitable soil for maize
cultivation.
Maize is very sensitive to water logging therefore care should be taken that no water
stagnation in the field for more than 4to 5hrs. As maize crop mainly grown in rainy season,
drainage should be provided.

32
Climate: Maize is cultivated in many parts of the country throughout the year. It grows from
sea level to 3000 meter altitude.
It requires optimum temperature between 21o
C to 32o
C. Maize is C-4 group crop requires
warm weather and grown in wide range of climatic conditions. It needs bright sunny days
associated with optimum water and efficient irrigation. Favorable growth observed with an
intermittent sunlight and rain.
It is grown in an area receiving annual rainfall between 50-75cm.Also crop tolerate an annual
rainfall 250 to 400 cm provided drainage facility and no water stagnation.
.Preparation of land:-
One deep ploughing immediately after harvesting of kharif season crop. It needs two to four
harrowing in heavy soils. Whereas one light ploughing followed by planking is sufficient in
light soils. Generally furrows are prepared for Rabi season crop for better water use efficiency
and higher yields.
Seeds & Sowing:-
Time of Sowing:-
Optimum sowing time- End of October to mid of November. The crop is cultivated under
assured irrigation.
Seed Treatment:-
c. Maize seeds are treated with fungicides like Captan or Thiram or Emisan @2 to
3g/kg of seeds to control seed borne disease viz., leaf blight of maize.
d. Before sowing seed treatment with Azotobacter @250g/10of seeds should be
given.
Seed Rate:- 15 to 20 kg/ha
Spacing : 60-75 cm x 25-30cm
Sowing depth : 5-7cm
Method of sowing: Dibbling
Line sowing i.e. drilling with seed- drill,
Other methods: Sowing the seeds in furrows behind the country plough.
Hill sowing (3-4 seeds of corn at one place using corn planter)
Sowing direction: The crop in East (sun-rise) and west (sun set) direction resulted in higher
grain yield and production of healthier plants as there is least mutual shading of the plants. The
hybrid and composite varieties give pronounced response as they are most sensitive to shading
effects.
Planting density: 55,000 to 70,000 plants /ha. (Generally depends on the variety, season and
duration)
Grain Varieties:
Sr.No. Particulars Varieties
1 Hybrids (All India Maize Improvement
Project)
Ganga 1, Ganga 101, Deccan, Ranjeet,
VL-54, Himalayan123, Hi-starch,
Ganga 2, Ganga 3, Ganga 5.
i Long duration Hybrids(110-120 days) PHM-1,PHM-3,SeedTech-2324,Bio-
9681,MH-11,QPM-7

33
Ii Medium duration(100-110days) DHM-119,DHM-117,HM-10,HM-
8,HM-4,PHM-4,MCH-37,BIO-
9637,Rajarshi
iii Early maturity (90-100days) JH-3459,Pusa Hybrid-1,JK-2492
Iv Short duration(80-90days) Vivek-9,Vivek-21,Vivek-
27,VivekQPM-7
2 Composites(released in 1967 for the
first time in the world)
(seeds can be used for subsequent
sowing)
Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona
and Vijay. (Amber has highest yield
potential 50-55q/ha.)
i Nutrionally superior maize
composites(opaque 2 composites)
Shakti,Ratan Protina(Lysine rich
composites)
ii Long duration composites(110-
120days)
Prabhat,Shatak-9905
Iii Medium duration(100-110days) Karveer,Manjari,Navjyot
iv Early maturity(90-100days) Panchganga,Prakash,Kiran
v Short duration(80-90days) Vivek-Sankul
3 Popcorn varieties Amber popcorn,Jawahar popcorn-11
Manures of fertilizers:-
Organic Manures: Application of well decomposed compost @15-20tonnes/ha about 20 days
before sowing of the crop.
Sr.No Fertilizers N P K
Kg/ha
1 RDF 120 60 40
i. Basal dose 40 60 40
ii. I st top dressing(30DAS) 40 - -
iii. II nd top dressing(40-45DAS) 40 - -
2. Micro nutrients Zinc sulphate(in case of
deficiency occurs)
20-25
Water Management: Being cultivated in Rabi season assured irrigation is necessary. Total
water requirement of maize crop is 40-45 ha.cm. irrigation should be given at 10-12days
interval.
Critical growth stages for irrigations:-
4. Seedling Stage:-25-30 DAS
5. Knee height Stage: – 40-45 DAS
6. Flowering(Tasseling and silking stage):- 60-65 DAS
7. Grain filling stage:-75-80 DAS
Water logging is harmful to this crop; hence there should be drainage provision to avoid
water logging in the field.
Irrigation scheduling should be done in maize at 0.30mm CPE or on depletion of 25-30
percent available soil moisture depletion.

34
Interculturing:-
Thinning should be done by keeping one plant per hill within 15 days after emergence.
Earthing up helps to provide better anchorage to the crop and avoids lodging during the strong
winds in Rabi season.
Weed Management Pre emergence application of herbicide Atratop @ 2-2.5kg/ha should
done immediately after sowing to control weeds.
First hoeing/hand weeding between 2-3 weeks after emergence and second hoeing between 6-
7 weeks stage.
Intercropping: -Maize+ Safflower/Coriander/Fenugreek
Pests & Diseases:-Insects pests:-
1.Stem borer-Attacks the crop from seedling stage makes dead hearts.
Control measure:- Mix Phorate 10G in the soil @10kg/ha.
Spraying of Cabaryl 85%WP@1764/g/ha or Dimethoate 30%EC@ 660ml/ha in 500 to 1000
litres of water after 8-10days of emergence.
2.Shootfly:- on incidence of shootfly sparying of Dimethoate 30%EC@1155ml/ha in 500 to
1000 litres of water.
Diseases:- Leaf rust, Downy mildew, smut.
Signs of maturity:-The grain crop of maize harvested when
7. Cob sheath turns brownish,
8. Indigenous varieties- plants start yellowing and drying along with cob maturity, Plants
turn yellow and dry up.
9. Grains become hard.
10. Moisture content drops around 20%
11. In case of hybrid and composites plants may remain green at the time of full maturity
of cobs.
12. In case of hybrid and composites plants sheath becomes brown and loose,silks dry up
completely.
Harvesting:-
Two methods- 1.plucking of cobs: In this method only cobs are removed from standing plants
and piled up for one day and then spread to dry in bright sunlight. Stalks may used as green
fodder.
2. Stalk-Cutting- In this method, plants along with cobs are cut and piled up in shade. After
2-3 days of harvesting cobs are removed and dried. The dried plant stalk used for hay making.
Threshing (Shelling)-Removal of grains from maize ear/cobs. Common method is manual
(hand shelling).Now a days manually driven or mechanical/electrically driven shelling
machines are available to remove grains from the cobs. The left over cobs after shelling are use
as a fuel. Grains are dried well in bright sunshine and stored.
Yield:-Grain yield- 95-100 q/ha.
Whereas average yield in Indoganetic plains is 40q/ha and in Peninsular India about 50-70q/ha.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of grain maize with following points.
a) Ecology of crop b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutrient management d) Irrigation management e)

35
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of grain maize on following points.
1. Varieties 2. Seeds & sowing
3. Intercultivation 4. Harvesting and yield
3. Prepare a leaflet on grain maize cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Seeds and sowing
3. Weed management 4. Intercropping.
4. Write the cultivation practices of grain maize on following points.
1. Economic importance 2. Pests and disease management
3. Signs of maturity 4.Harvesting and yield
Write Short notes on:-
1. Types / classification of maize.
2. Growth stages of maize.
3. Harvesting and shelling in maize.
4. Composite varieties of grain maize.
5. Hybrid varieties of grain maize.
Give Reasons:
1. Earthing up is followed in rabi season maize cultivation.
1. Maize is monoecious /cross pollinated crop.
2. Male inflorescence in maize is called tassel and removal of tassel is called as
detasseling.
3. Female inflorescence in maize is known as silking and it is a cob initiation stage.
4. Maize protein is called as zein and deficient in essential amino acids viz., Tryptophan
and Lysine.
5 Lysine rich composite varieties of maize are called Opaque @composites.
***
4. Maize- i) Sweet Corn
B.N. Zea mays Saccharata
Common name –Sweet corn
Local name:Madhumaka
Kernels are translucent, horney and more or less wrinkled in appearance when dry.
Higher proportion of sugar to starch and hence sweeter than other corns.

36
Note: All cultivation practices are similar to that of Grain maize except following
points.
Varieties: - Hybrid varieties: HSC-(Hybrid Sweet Corn)-1.
Composites: Madhuri, Priya,Win-Orange
Harvesting and Yield:-
Sweet corns are harvested when silks on the top of cobs turns brown and partially dried. At
this stage grains are soft dough stage, sweet, bold and succulent suitable for table purpose.
Cobs are ready to harvest within 75-80days after sowing. Delayed harvesting in case of sweet
corn should be avoided.
Yield: Sweet corns (cob/ear yield) - 60-65 thousands cobs/ha
Green forage: 25-40 t/ha.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of sweet corn with following points.
a) Soil and climate b) Seeds and sowing
c) Nutrient management d) Irrigation management
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of sweet corn on following points.
1. Varieties 2. Intercultivation
3. Weed management 4. Harvesting and yield
3. Prepare a leaflet on sweet corn cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Economic importance
3. Stage of harvesting 4. Yield
1. Botanical name of sweet corn is Zea mays Saccharata
2. Sweet corn contains higher proportion of sugar to starch.
3. Sweet corn cobs are ready to harvest within 75-80days after sowing.
***
4. Maize- ii) Baby Corn
B.N.:- Zea mays
Common name: Young corn, cornlets or baby sweet corn
It is eaten as whole both raw and cooked.
It is short duration crop, within 70-75 days it is ready to harvest.

37
Baby corn is used in various forms in food preparation viz., soups, salads, stirred fries
steamed etc.
Baby corn has demand in urban areas, super markets throughout the year. Hence it is
remunerative short duration crop.
After harvesting economic yield (cobs), green foliage is used as green fodder for animals.
Note: All cultivation practices are similar to that of Grain maize except following points.
Varieties: - Hybrid varieties: H.M.-4.
Composites: V.L.Babycorn-1, V.L.78
Harvesting and Yield: - proper stage of harvesting and within time is very important in case
of bay corn otherwise it turns into mature cob. It is harvested as soon as the cob silk emerges
from cob tip. Baby corn cobs are hand-picked when it is tender, small and immature.
Harvesting of baby corn is carried out having length 4.5 to 10 cm (1.8–3.9 inch) and 0.7 to
1.7 cm (0.28–0.67 inch) in diameter.
Baby corn harvesting is completed within 70-75 days from sowing. Generally 3-4 cobs are
harvested from one plant (stalk).After harvesting sheath should be removed and well
packaging of baby corn should be done.
Yield: - Baby corn ears (cobs): 15-20q/ha
Green forage: - 30-35t/ha
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of baby corn with following points.
2. Prepare a leaflet on baby corn cultivated in rabi season on the following aspects.
1. Preparation of land 2. Varieties
3. Stage of harvesting 4. Yield
3. Write short notes on
1. Economic importance of baby corn,
2. Harvesting and yield of baby corn
***
II-Pulses
1.Chickpea (Gram/Bengal gram)
Botanical name:- Cicer arietinum L.
Family:- Leguminoceae. Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
Local name:- Harbhara, Chana.

38
India is a premier pulse growing country. The pulses are an integral part of the cropping
system of the farmers all over the country because these crops fit in well in the crop rotation
and crop mixtures.
Pulses are important constituents of the Indian diet and supply a major part of the
protein requirement. It is also source of vitamins viz., vit.-A, vit.-C (sprouted pulses), source
of minerals.
Pulses being leguminous has significance role in restoring soil fertility. Every plant act
as a mini fertilizer plant in itself. Pulses add 0.5-1.5 tonnes of organic matter to the soil. On an
average one hectare pulse crop adds about 15 to 35 kg nitrogen in the soil.
It has deep and extensive root system having better soil binding effect and highly
adaptive in dryland.
It also provides good quality cattle feed, green fodder and concentrates etc.
It helps to control weeds due to vigorous growth and canopy formation it suppress or
smother the weeds. Pulses being short duration crops, and highly adaptive it gives good
remuneration to farmers.
Chickpea is originated from South-west Asia i.e. countries lying to North-west India,
Afghanistan and Persia. According to De Candolle the chickpea is mentioned in Sanskrit which
indicates it is cultivated in India from a longer period than in any other country in the world.
It is grown in many countries like India, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Burma, Turkey, Iran, Egypt,
Mexico, Spain, China, Central and Southern Africa.
India is the largest producer of chickpea in the world, sharing of the world’s 70% and
67% of the total global area and production respectively.
In India gram is cultivated mainly as rainfed crop (68% area).Major chickpea growing
states are Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Maharashtra, U.P, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, , A.P, Karnataka and Gujarat.
Area and Production :-( Ref. ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur)
All India
Year Area(million ha) Production(million tonnes) Productivity(kg/ha)
2013-14 9.93 9.53 960
Maharashtra
2013-14 1820 1622 891
During 2017-18 chickpea production in India has been estimated to be about
11.23million tonnes which are 46% of the total pulse production.
1. Chickpea is most important rabi pulse crop of our country.
2. It is consumed in the form of dal, besan, crushed or whole grain, boiled or parched
roasted or cooked, salted or unsalted.
3. Many sweets are also prepared from gram.
4. Green foliage (Tops) as early stages are used as green vegetable.

39
5. Leaves consist of malic acid and citric acids or ‘Amb’ is collected from leaves, which
has medicinal value for stomach ache etc.
6. Gram grain contains about 17-21% proteins, 62% carbohydrates, 4-10% fat.
7. It is a rich source of Calcium, phosphorus, Iron) and Vit-B and vitamins C (green stage).
8. Soaked grain and husk are fed to horse and cattle as concentrate and roughage
respectively.
Chickpea classified in two groups.-In India both type chickpea varieties are grown.
1. Deshi or Brown Gram (Cicer arietienum):- Colour of seed ranges from yellow to dark
brown. Seed size is usually medium. Area under this group is 90%. Plants are small with
good branching ability. Grain shape is similar to chicken’s head with characteristic beak,
hence called chickpea.
2.Kabuli or White Gram:- (Cicer Kabulium)- seed colour is white, seed coat is pale cream
colour. Grains are bold & attractive. Yield potential of this group is poor as compared to Deshi
or brown gram. Plants are generally taller than Desi gram.
Botanical description of Plant:
Chickpea is a diploid species with 2n=16 chromosomes. It is a self pollinated crop.
a) Root system:- The plant has a deep tap root system with numerous lateral branches
that spread out in all directions in the upper layer of soils. There are numerous nodules
on roots. The Rhizobium bacteria present in these nodules fix up atmospheric nitrogen.
b) Stem:- Stems are branched, straight, erect and more or less ribbed. The no of primary
branches may vary from 1 to 10 depending on the varieties & growing conditions. Stem
is thick strong & woody. The height of plant may vary from 20 to 100cm
c) Leaves:- Leaves are pinnately compound. Leaves are located alternate on the branch &
consist of rachis & leaflets. Rachis length varies from 3 to 7 cm and each rachis supports
10-15 leaflets. Leaves are typically serrated. The entire surface of plant shoot, except
the flower is densely covered with fine hairs (trichomes)
d) Flowers:- The flowers are typical Papilionaceous. Generally, single flower is produced
on each node, however, twin flowers have also been found in some varieties. Petals are
generally purple in deshi type and white to beige to pale cream in kabuli type. Chickpea
produces profuse flower but only 20-30% flowers set pods. The number of pods/plant
may vary from 50 to 150 depending on genotypes and growing conditions. The number
of seeds/pod varies from 1 to 3.
Soil and Climate :
Soil: -
1. Gram is fertility restorative crop.
2. In North India, the crop is grown on light alluvial soil
3. In (Maharashtra) Deccan plateau and South India crop is cultivated on water retentive
clay loams and black cotton soils.
4. The best type of soil for chickpea is well drained and not too heavy.
5. It is unsuitable to the soils having pH more than 8.5. Suitable soil pH for gram growing
is -6.0 to 8.5 pH
Climate:
1. Gram is winter/cold season legume crop.
2. It required cool and dry climate.

40
3. It is best suited to the areas receiving low to moderate rainfall 60-100cm & mild cold
weather.
4. Severe cold is injurious and is very harmful
5. Cloudy weather and frost at flowering stage has adverse effect on pod formation.
Preparation of Land:- It is a hardy crop. Gram crop required clodded and rough seedbed.
Usually gram is sown as second crop after harvest of the Kharif crops. One ploughing after
harvest of previous crop followed by two harrowing are enough to prepare seedbed.
Seeds and sowing:-
1. Seed Treatment:-
a. Seed is treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed + Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed to control
seed born fungal diseases (wilt) OR seed is treated with Tricoderma@5gm/kg of
seed to control seed born fungal diseases (wilt)
b. The seed should be treated with Rhizobium and PSB each of culture @ 250g/10kg of
seed for increasing nitrogen fixation. It increase the crop Yield 10-15%
2. Time of Sowing:-
a. In the region where irrigation facilities are not available the proper time of sowing is
last week of September.
b. In the regions where irrigation facilities are available the optimum time of sowing is
mid October to mid November (i.e. 20th October to 10th
November)
c. Kabuli gram sown only in irrigated condition.
The considerable decline in yield was observed with the sowing beyond mid
November
3. Method of sowing:-
Crop is generally sown by drilling method with two bowl and four coulter seed drill or
by dropping the seeds behind plough furrow, particularly after the harvest of the
previous paddy crop.
Sowing is also done on ridges and furrows. Prepared the ridges and furrows at 90cm
width and dibbled two seeds at 10cm distance of both the sides of ridge.
4. Spacing:- 30cmx10cm
In heavy soil, (90cmx10cm) sowing is done by forming 90cm furrow and dibbling
done at 10 cm on both sides of the ridges
5. Depth of sowing:-
The seed should be placed 8-10cm deep because the shallow sown crop is more liable
to be damaged by wilt. Deep sowing also promotes better root development.
6. Plant Population.
With the spacing of 30 x 10cm2
the plant population is 3.25 to 3.50 lakh plants/ha
7. Seed rate:-
The seed rate varies with the test weight (seed size) of the seed. i.e. 60-100kg/ha. For
medium size seeds 65 to 70 kg/ha,
Large sized seeds -85 kg/ha. Bold seeds-100kg/ha.
Varieties of Gram:-
A) Deshi Gram:-
1. Rainfed:- Vijay, Phule G – 12, Digvijay, Vishal ,BDNG-797(Aakash),Phule
Vikram,PDKV(Kanchan)

41
2. Irrigated:- Vikas (PG-1) Vishwas (PG-5), Phule G-12, Vijay, Vishal, Digvijay,
Rajas,Saki -9596,Phule vikram,Phule vikrant,PDKV(Kanchan)
B) Kabuli Gram:- Virat, Vihar, P.K.V.-2, Shweta,Krupa,
Most of the varieties are wilt resistant varieities.
C) Old varieties of Gram:-
Chafa, N-59, N-31, Warangal, Halwa, Gulab, D-8, BDN-9-3, Annegiri.
Manures and Fertilizers:-
a) Manures:- 6 to 7 tonnes of FYM/ha
(b) Fertilizers:-
Crop Conditions
Fertilizers (Kg/ha)
N P K
Dry land (Rainfed) 12.5 25 00
Assured Rainfall 20 40 00
Irrigated
25 50 30
OR 125Kg DAP/hand 50kg MOP
Entire quantity of fertilizer should be given at the time sowing with two bowl seed drill. Top
dressing is not given to pulse crops. 2% Urea spraying is given at pod filling stage.
After care:-
From the weed control point of view first 4 to 5 weeks are critical. Gram crop is required 2
hoeing & 1 weeding. First hoeing is done 20 DAS, Second hoeing is done 30 DAS. Hoeing
should be carried out at vapsa condition. In between two hoeing one hand weeding is given. In
rainfed condition hoeing is useful for preventing cracks of the soil & conserving soil moisture.
Chemical weed control:-
1. Pre-emergence application of Nitrafen (TOKE-25) @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 600 liters of
water has been found to be effective. OR pendimethalin (stomp) @ 2.5litres /ha in 500
liters of water.
2. Post-emergence application of Quizalofop-ethyl (Targa super) @ 0.04 – 0.05 kg. a.i./ha
in 500 liters of water for excellent control of annual grasses.
Nipping in Gram:-
Nipping is the process of plucking of apical or terminal buds or tip from the main shoot.
Nipping in gram is generally carried out about 30-40 DAS (initiation of branching). The main
object of nipping is to stop the apical growth and promotes the lateral branching.which might
encourage vigorous plant growth and produce more number of branches, encourages more
flowering and yield per plant is increase. However, only the nipping is not beneficial to increase
the yield of gram. The advantage of nipping in gram to get green leafy vegetable to the farmer.
Green leafy vegetable dried in sunlight and used as vegetable through the year.
Collection of malic acid /‘Amb’ from Gram:-
When gram plants attain age of 50to 60 days, leaves secret malic acid, locally called as “Amb”.
The malic acid accumulates on the tip of the leaves, it dissolves in dews. The malic acid is
collected by running a muslin cloth over a gram plant in early morning and squeezing it in
bucket. The squeezed material contains 90 to 95% malic acid and 5 to 10% oxalic acid. About

42
5 to 7 liters of malic acid is collected from one hectare of a crop. It has medicinal value against
stomach disorders and blood purification.
Irrigation:-
Mostly gram is cultivated under rainfed, therefore light irrigation is to be given at the time of
sowing. Total water Requirement (WR) of chickpea is 25-30 ha.cm
It requires irrigation at
i) Branching-30-35DAS
ii) Flowering-40-45DAS
iii)Pod development -60-65DAS.
Branching and pod filling stages are most sensitive growth stages of chickpea for irrigation.
One irrigation in gram may increase the yield to the extent of 30% and if two are given
at two critical growth stages, yield increase is 60%.
Intercropping and mix cropping:-
Chickpea is taken as the mix crop in wheat, barley, linseed, safflower, or mustard and
also recommended as the intercrop in 6:3 row ratios with safflower or sorghum.
Pests and diseases: Pests- Cutworm and pod borers are the major pests of chickpea.
Control measures:-Spaying of Endosulfan 35EC@2ml/litres at 15days interval about two
applications are required.
Spraying of HaNPV/NPV during flowering @500ml/ha.
Diseases:- Wilt, blight and rust are the measure diseases of chickpea.
Control measures: 1.use resistant varieties.
3. Seed treatment with benlate and thiram (1:1) @ 2g/kg of seed.3.adoption of proper crop
rotation.
Harvesting and Yield:-Rainfed chickpea is harvested at 90-95days after sowing.
Irrigated chickpea requires 100-110days to harvest after sowing.
a. Signs of maturity:-
1. Leaves turn radish-brown colour and starts shedding.
2. Pods become yellowish brown and dry.
3. Generally crop is ready for harvesting 100 to 110 DAS.
b. Harvesting:-
Harvesting is done by cutting the plant close to the ground level with sharp sickle.
Harvesting should be done during morning hours. The crop is allowed to dry in sunlight on
threshing floor for about five to six days.
c. Threshing:-
Threshing is done either by beating the plants with sticks or by trampling under the feet of
bullocks. Threshing is also done with mechanical thresher.
Yield:-1. Rainfed: - 10-12 q/ha 2. Irrigated: - 25-30 q/ha.
---
Question Bank

43
1. Give the information on the cultivation of Bengal gram on the following Points:
1. Economic Importance 2. Seed bed preparation
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Improved varieties
2. Prepare a leaflet on the cultivation of chickpea.
3. Prepare a package of practices for gram on the following points.
1. Land preparation 2. After care
3. Manures and fertilizers 4. Irrigation management.
4. Write the cultivation practices for gram on the following points.
1. Soil and climate 2. Varieties
3. Plant protection 4. Harvesting and yield
Write short notes on:-
a) Nipping
b) Collection of ‘Amb’ /malic acid from chickpea
c) Seed, sowing & critical growth stages with reference to irrigation requirements
of chickpea.
d) Importance of pulses in Indian agriculture
Give Reasons:-
1. Seed rate of chickpea varies with the varieties.
2. Seeds of pulses should be treated with Rhizobium culture before sowing.
3. Nipping is done in chickpea .
4. Gram is considered as soil fertility restoring crop.
1. Gram/chickpea is the predominant pulse crop in rabi season.
2. Gram belong to family – Leguminoceae
3. Gram grain contains about 17-21% protein .
4. 5 to 7 liters of malic acid is collected from one hectare of gram crop.
5. Botanical name of desi or brown chickpea is Cicer arietienum.
6. Chickpea ‘Amb’ contains 90-95% of malic acid and 4-5% oxalic acid.
7. Virat is high yielding variety of Kabuli chickpea crop.
8. Cicer kabulium is botanical name of kabuli or white gram.
9. Indian Institute of Pulses Research is located at Kanpur,Uttar Pradesh.
2. Lentil
Botanical Name:- Lens esculenta Moench ., Lens culinaris Syn.
Family: Leguminoceae / Fabaceae
Local name :- Masur,Masoor/Masuri
Lentil is annual winter season crop. It is busy herb, erect plant and varies 30-50
cm plant height. Lit is self-pollinated crop having acropetal flowering(flowering begins from
lowermost buds and gradually moves upwards).Pods are oblong, slightly inflated and small
about 1.5cm long containing two seeds in characteristic lens –shaped. Seed colour mostly
orange-pink .Seed colour varies from red, green and yellow.
1. It is a pulse crop, grains are used in daily diet.

44
2. It contains 25.1% proteins.
3. Unripe pods are used as green vegetable
4. Dried leaves, husk, and broken grains and stalks are used as cattle feed.
5. It can also be grown for green manuring purpose in Kashmir valley for paddy crop.
Origin: Western and Central Asia.
Area and Production: It is grown throughout North India, Madhya Pradesh and some parts of
M.S. In southern India it is cultivated in few areas viz., parts of Karnataka. The area under this
pulse is around 2.0 million ha, with a production of 0.91 million tons.
Soil and Climate:
Climate: The crop is grown as cold weather unirrigated crop. Requires cool weather for
growth. Lentil is mainly grown as rainfed crop.
Soil: The crop is raised on light loam, clay loam and alluvial soils in Northen India.Soil should
be well drained. Soil pH 6.0-6.4. It is cultivated in moderately deep black soils in MP and MS.
It can stand moderate alkalinity. It can not tolerate water logging.
Preparation of Land: The land preparation not very thorough one ploughing followed by one
or two harrowing are given for a sole crop alone, a finer seedbed than gram preferred.
Seeds and sowing:
1. Sowing Time: The sowing time extends from October to November. Sowing should be
delayed beyond November as it causes drastic reduction in yield.
2. Seed rate: For sole crop: depending upon seed size.
1.Small seeded variety-30-40kg/ha
2. Bold seeded variety- 50-60 kg/ha.
For mix crop : - 10-12 kg/ha depending upon extent of mixture.
3. Method of sowing: drilling (line sowing) or Broadcasting. It is generally grown after
rice or millets, in many areas; it may be broadcasted in the maturing paddy crop just
before harvest (relay cropping). Grown mixed with barley and mustard or it can be
intercropped in autumn (pre-seasonal) planted sugarcane.
4. Spacing : 30cm between rows and 10cm plant to plant.
5. Sowing depth: 3 – 4cm(shallow depth)
6. Seed treatment :1. Thiram +Carbendazim (1:1) @ 2.5g/kg of seed.
2. Rhizobium culture @ 250 g/ 10 kg of seed at the time of sowing.
Varieties: Differed in plant habit, colour of the flower and shape, size and colour of the seeds.
The bold seeded Masur and small seeded Masuri are commonly recognized trade varieties.
Improved varieties are T-36, L 9-12, Pusa-1, Pusa-6, B-77, W. B. – 94,
Pant – 209 and pant – 406.
Wilt resistant/ tolerant – RV L - 31, IPL81 (Noori), IPL - 316,
Sekhar masoor – 2.
Rust resistant/ tolerant – IPL - 406, WBL - 77, Pant L - 6, Pant L - 7,
IPL –316, Sekhar masoor – 2.

45
Manures and Fertilizers: No manuring. For irrigated crop N:P:K 20: 40:0 kg/ha is applied as
a basal dose.
Irrigation: One to two, especially when winter rains are meager. One at 45 DAS. Irrigation at
pod development stage is beneficial.
Interculturing: No intensive intercultural operations. However, it responds to the weed control
at 30-35 DAS.
Weed management
A weed-free period of early 45 - 60 days is important.Two manual weeding, one at 25-30
days and another 45-50 days after sowing should be done. pre-emergence herbicide sparay of
Pendimethalin 30 EC @ 0.75 - 1 kg a.i. per hectare may be done.
Pest and disease management
The major diseases of lentil are rust in Northern plain and wilt in Central zone. Use of
resistant varieties is helpful in controlling the disease.
Pest is not a major problem in lentil. In case of heavy infestation of aphid spray
Monocrotophos (0.04%) is effective for aphid control.
Intercropping :
Most common inter cropping systems are:
Lentil + Sugarcane (Autumn) with two rows of lentil at 30 cm row spacing in between two
rows of sugarcane.
Lentil + Linseed (2:2).
Lentil + Mustard (2:6 )
Harvesting and Yield: Mature within three and half months. Harvesting is done before it is
dead ripe or fully matured. Harvesting is done either by uprooting the plants or cutting with
sickle. Then dried for a week, threshing is done by beating with wooden stickle and clean the
seeds by winnowing. Seeds are dried in 4-5 days to bring their moisture content at 9-10%.
Yield: Rainfed – 4-5 q/ha and Irrigated 8-9 q/ha.
Well managed crop may yield up to 10-12q/ha.
---
Question Bank
1. Give the information on the cultivation of lentil on the following Points:
1. Economic Importance 2. Soil and climate
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Varieties
2. Prepare a leaflet on the cultivation of lentil.
3. Prepare a package of practices for lentil on the following points.
1. Land preparation 2. Manures and fertilizers
3.Interculture (weed management) 4. Irrigation management.
4. Write the cultivation practices for lentil on the following points.

46
1. Weed management 2. Pest and disease management (plant protection)
3. Intercropping 4. Harvesting and yield
Write short notes on:-Economic importance of lentil
Give Reasons:-1.Sowing of lentil should not be delayed beyond November.
2. Limited irrigation is required for lentil.
1. Lentil is rabi season crop.
2. Lentil belong to family – Leguminoceae
3. Lentil contains about 25% protein .
4. Rust and wilt are the major diseases of lentil.
5. Botanical name of lentil is Lens esculenta .
***
3. Pea (Field Pea)
Botanical Name : Pisum Sativum L.
Family:- Leguminoceae /Fabaceae
Local Name : Watana, Matar
Origin:- Mediterranean Region of Southern Europe.
Economic Importance:- Very popular crop throughout the world. It provides variety of
vegetable dishes used as tender pods.Matured seeds used as whole or split as dal. Seed contains
22.5% of proteins,62%Carbohydrates, and vitamins like A,B and C. Ca64mg/100g, Fe-
4.8mg/100g of seed.Broken parts of pods used as the fodder crop. It helps in improving soil
fertility and prevents soil erosion.

47
Area and Production:- it is third most popular rabi pulse of India after Chickpea and
lentil.Area under field pea in India is about 11.50 lakh hectares and production 10.36lakh
tonnes(2015). In India it is cultivated in the Indo-gangetic plains.Uttar Pradesh is the major
field pea growing state and other field pea cultivating states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Himachal,Bihar,and Maharashtra.
Soil and Climate:-
Soil: Medium to heavy soils with proper drainage is well suited for its cultivation. Sandy
loams to loam soils with pH range of 6-8 are also suitable for the crop.
Climate: moist and cool climate is favourable for this crop. Optimum temperature range
10ºC to 30 o
C is good for growth. It is grown well in areas receiving annual rainfall 500mm It
can tolerate cold, susceptible to frost and dew at flowering.
Preparation of land:- it requires fine seedbed is required. One ploughing followed by 2-3
harrowing followed by planking is sufficient to prepare seed bed. Too fine seedbed should be
avoided..
Seeds and Sowing:-
i)Time of sowing:- Mid October – Mid November. Up to 1st week of November
is ideal time of sowing.
ii)Seed rate:- 100Kg/ha(Dwarf varieties)
70-80kg/ha(Tall varieties)
iii) Spacing: 30-45cm x 15cm(Tall varieties) and 22.5x10cm for dwarf varieties.
iv) Sowing depth- 4-5 cm
v) Seed treatment:- a) Seeds are soaked in water for 24 hrs. to ensure good germination
and treated with thiram @ 3 g/kg of seed or captan 2.5g/Kg seed or Bavistin 2g/kg seed,
or Thiram 2g+ Bavistin + 1g/kg seed are recommended for controlling seed borne
fungal diseases.
b) Seed treatment with Rhizobium and PSB culture @ 250g/10 kg of the seed
just before sowing.
iii) Method of sowing:- Drilling or dibbling (two seeds/hill). It is also sown behind
the plough by dropping it in the plough furrow.
Varieties:
Varieties: Duration (Days)
Bonneville 80-90 Green pods
135 days dry pods
Early Badger 60-65
English Wonder 80-90
T-163 110
EC-33866 75
Wai Early 60-70

48
Wai late 90-95
Khaparkheda 60 (Green Pods)
Other varieties: NP-29, Selection 82 and selection-83, Arkel-1, Harbhajan, FC-1, Jawahar
matar-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Jawahar peas-83, JP-4 (Jm-6), JP-19, Lincoln, Matar ageta –7, Pantnagar
matar – 2, Pant uphar (IP-3), P-88, PRS-4, VL-3.Mitthi falli,Hissar Harit.
Manures and Fertilizers: FYM or compost @ 10-12 t/ha.
Variety N P K ZnSo4
Kg/ha In case of Zn deficiency
Dwarf 20 40 20 15kg/ha
Tall 30 60 30
Irrigation: it is mainly grown as rainfed crop on residual soil moisture. Total water
requirement of the crop is 30 ha-cm. The sowing is done after pre-soaking irrigation. It require
one or two irrigations Flowering and pod development stage is sensitive stage for irrigation.
Aftercare/Interculturing/weed control: After 8week of sowing it needs staking or support is
necessary to avoid the lodging (Particularly to irrigated corp.), for this purpose stakes are fixed
near the stem and pea branches are tied to the stakes.Bamboo stakes used.
Field pea crop should be kept weed free up to 40-50 days from sowing. Two to three weedings
at three and six weeks after emergence.Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin30EC @
0.75-1kg a.i./ha in 400-600litre of water.
Pest and Disease management(Plant protection):
Pests;1.Leaf minor-makes tunnel in the leaf causing severe damage. Control measure-when
attack begin spray Metasystox 25EC in 1000litre of water /ha.
2.Pod borer: Caterpillars feed on developing pods by making hole in pods.
Control measures: picking of pods periodically.
Spray cypermethrin @1.25litre in 1000litres of water/ha.
Disease management: 1.Wilt. premature yellowing and withering of young leaves during
seedling stage and advance stage.
Control measure: 1.Adopt crop rotation. 2. Seed treatment with Thiram
2gm+Carbendazim1gm/kg of seed.
2.Powdery mildew: white patchy symptoms observed first on leaves. severe infestation plant
dies prematurely.
Control measures:Use resistant varieties for cultivation.
Sparying with wettable powder @3gm/litre of water and repeat after 10-15days interval.
Crop rotation – Maize-pea, paddy-pea-wheat, Cotton-pea, Sorghum-pea, Pearlmillet-pea
Intercropping-In autumn sugarcane as two rows of pea at 30cm row spacing in the centre of
two sugarcane rows at 90cm.
Harvesting and Yield: For vegetable purpose three to four hand pickings t are required.

49
For the seed purpose it is harvested when the pods are fully ripe, plant as well as pods are
dried. Harvesting is done either by picking or cutting . threshing is done after sufficient drying
in the sun followed by winnowing to remove the chaffy material..Seeds are dried for 4-5 days
in bright sun to assure moisture content up to 9-10% to store.
Yield: Seed yield - Irrigated crop 20-25 q/ha,
Rainfed crop-10-15 q/ha.
Green pods for vegetable purpose are harvested to tune of 40-60 q/ha.
.
Question Bank
1. Give the information on the cultivation of field pea on the following Points:
1. Economic Importance 2. Soil and climate
2. Prepare a leaflet on the cultivation of field pea.
3. Prepare a package of practices for field pea on the following points.
1. Land preparation 2. Manures and fertilizers
3. Interculture (weed management) 4. Irrigation management.
4. Write the cultivation practices for field pea on the following points.
1. Weed management 2. Pest and disease management (plant protection)
3. Intercropping 4. Harvesting and yield
Write short notes on:-Economic importance of field pea
Give Reasons:-1.Staking is done for field pea.
1. Field pea is rabi season crop.
2. Field pea belong to family – Leguminoceae/Fabaceae
3. Pea contains about 22.5% protein .
4. Uttar Pradesh is the major state of field pea growing state in India.
5. Botanical name of pea is Pisum sativum.
6. Origin of pea is Mediterranean Region of Southern Europe.
***
4. French bean
Botanical Name : Phaseolus Vulgaris,
Family:- Leguminoceae/Fabaceae
Sub family:- Papilionaceae
Local Name:- Marathi – Ghewada, Hindi- Rajmash, Faras bean, Farasi samba
It is mostly cultivated in the sub-Hmalayan ‘Tarai’ region. In Maharashtra is mostly grown in
western Maharashtra especially in Satara district.
Origin and History:
It is originated from South America. It is an ancient crop It is cultivated from 7000-8000 years
ago (B.C.)

50
1. Important vegetable crop throughout India
2. Green pods are used for vegetable purpose
3. Dried seeds are cooked as a whole for vegetable as a special dish or canned in sauce
4. Grain contains 22.9% protein, 1.3Fat, 60.6% carbohydrates, Minerals, calcium and
iron.
5. It is highly palatable.
6. It improve the fertility of soil
7. It is popular in kitchen garden
8. It is a great demand in cities.
Botanical description of plants:
It is a diploid species with 2n=22 chromosome. The French bean is a self-pollinated crop. It is
a photo-thermo sensitive crop. Seed colures varies from light brown,red,to reddish black.
Ecology of the crop:
Soil:-
1. It is grow on all types of soil, ranging from sandy loams to heavy clay.
2. It is grow best in loam soil..Soil should be well drained.
3. Very heavy soils are unsuitable, due to more vegetative growth.
4. It is tolerant to acid soils, but pH should not be lower than 5.5
Climate:
1. It is a cold weather crop, but thrives well in the higher temperature than peas.
2. It grows well in places between 1000 to 2000 ‘m’ above the sea level
3. It require low rainfall of about 750-1000mm.
4. In plain area it is grown in winter, while in hills area it is growing in summer season.
Preparation of land: One ploughing & 2 harrowing. It is growing as 2nd
crop after harvest of
kharif crop. It required clodded & rough seedbed.
Seeds and sowing:
Sowing time:
a) Plain area: - i) Rabi - mid of September to October
ii) Summer – January – to February
b) Hills Area:- April to end of June.
Seed Rate: 110-120kg/ha
Sowing method:- Dibbling and drilling
Spacing: -
1. Drilling – 45cm x 10cm, 60cm x 20 cm. Irrigation layout is flat bed and sara.
2. Dibbling – 30cmx 10 cm, 60cm x 30 cm, 90cm x 30 cm. Irrigation layout is ridges and
furrow.
Depth of sowing:- 8 to 10 cm deep
Seed Treatment:
1. Seed is treated with Bavistin + Thiram @ 2g + 3g per kg of seed to control seed born
fungal disease like wilt. or Tricoderma @ 5g/kg of seed.

51
2. Just before sowing seed is treated with Rhizobium + P.S.B. culture each of @ 250g/10kg
of seed for increasing nitrogen fixation .
Varieties:-
1. Contender:- Seed colour is light brown
2. Phule Suyash :- Seed colour is light brown with red spatches released from NARP
Ganesh Khind,, Pune-5
3. Pusa Parvati:- Seed colour is light brown.
4. Jampa:- Seed colour is black
5. Pencil Pod:- Pods are long, round fleshy tender & sweet, High yielding:- yield is 45 Q.
of green pods/ha
6. No. -34:- High yielding – yield – 68 Q/ha of green pod yield
7. Arka Komal released from Bangalore
8. Selection-2
9. Pant anupama – released from – U.P
10. Mutha(HPR-35)
11. Varun
12. Phule Rajma
Manures:- FYM/Compost @ 20-25tonnes/ha, is applied before last to harrowing.
Fertilizer:-RDF- 60:80:00 NPK kg/ha. Half quantity of ‘N’ & Full quantity of P should be
given at the time of sowing. Remaining half quantity of N i.e. 30 Kg at 30 DAS
After Care:- Crop should be kept weed free in initial 30-45 days of sowing.First hoeing at20-
25 days after emergence and second hoeing 30-35days.Shallow interculturing should be
carried out, deep interculturing causes the injury to plants by destroying roots near the surface.
Pulling of weeds as and when appeared.
Training/Stacking:- Give support with long wooden poles for climbing type of varieties
during 2.5 to 3months age of crop.
Water management:
French bean is the most irrigation responsive pulse crop due to its shallow root system and high
nutrient requirement. It needs 3-4 irrigations. Interval between two irrigation is 25 days. Pod
development stage is critical growth stage for irrigation.
Harvesting and Yield:-
1. Green pod (Vegetable purpose)- It is generally harvested before pods are fully-grown
and seeds are tender and still small. All the varieties should be harvested before the
seeds reach full size. Picking is done by hand.
2. For Grain purpose: - Harvesting is done as soon as large percentage of pods are fully
matured & turned yellow colour. Crop matured within 90 – 110 DAS
Yield: i. Green pods: - Average yield 60 to 120 q/ha
ii. Dry seeds:- 20-25q/ha
Question Bank
}

52
5. Give the information on the cultivation of French bean on the following Points:
1. Soil and climate 2. Seeds and sowing
3. Land preparation 4. Varieties
6. Prepare a leaflet on the cultivation of French bean.
7. Prepare a package of practices for French bean on the following points.
1. Manures and fertilizers 2. Interculturing
3. Weed management 4. Irrigation management.
8. Write the cultivation practices for French bean on the following points.
1. Ecological requirement 2. Economic importance
3. Nutrient management 4. Harvesting and yield
Write short notes on:-Economic importance of French bean
Give Reasons:-1.Training/Staking is done for French bean.
Fill in the blanks
1. Germination of French bean (Rajmash) is Hypogical type.
2. Botanical name of French bean is Phaseolus vulgaris
3. Origin of French bean is South America.
4. French bean is photo-thermo sensitive crop.
***
III. Oilseeds
1.Sunflower
Botanical Name: Helianthus annuus L.
Family:- Compositae / Asteraceae
Local name:- Suryaful, Suryakanti, Surajmukhi)
Sunflower is an important oil-producing crop in temperate countries and largest source
of vegetable oil in the world. Next to groundnut, soybean, and rape seed-mustard. Sunflower
is short duration, photo insensitive, wide adaptability and drought tolerance crop. It can be
grown throughout the year and can serve an ideal catch crop during the drought period when
land is otherwise kept fallow.
Economic Importance

53
1. Sunflower seed contains 40-45% oil ,which is semidrying use in vanaspati ghee as well as
for culinary purposes. Oil is use for manufacturing of paints, varnishes, soaps, cosmetics,
The oil contains fair quantities of vitamins D, E and 14-18% protein.
2. The oil cake contains 40-44 % high quality proteins. It is ideally suited for poultry and
livestock rations.
3. The oil is used for making margarine.
4. Sunflower kernels can be eaten as raw or roasted. Seed coat is used for preparing chemicals
viz., pectin, furfural and alcohol. The stalks are used for fuel.
5. Sunflower oil is a rich source of linoleic acid (64%) hence preferred for reduction of high
serum cholesterol levels.
Origin and History: - Sunflower is a native of North America (Southern United States and
Mexico from where it was introduced in to Spain by early explorers and merchants, in the early
mid of 16th
Century. It is cultivated mainly in Russia, Argentina and Turkey. It is introduced
in India during 1965as an edible oilseed crop from Russia. Its commercial cultivation begins
in 1972 and emerged as an important oilseed crop in 1980’s.
In India sunflower is cultivated mainly in the Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh and parts of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.
There are about 264 species. All the varieties grown in Russia and India are divided in three
main groups:
1. Large white seeded one possessing high oil content.
2. Small black seeded one best for eating seeds.
3. Intermediate one with striped seeds good for both eating and oil purpose.
According to habit of growth:
Group – I: Having tall, unbranched single headed types with well developed acne’s
Group-II: Having comparatively shorter, branched one and with multi heads.
Botanical Description: Sunflower is an annual, erect tall growing herbaceous plant growing
to a height 1.5 to 6.0m
Root: The taproot going up to 3m with a larger lateral spread of feeder roots.
Stem: It is 2.5 to 7.5cm in diameter, rough hairy or hispid, usually without branches
terminating in a capitulum (flower heads)
Leaves: Simple, alternate with stout petioles, somewhat lanceolate in shape and about 5-25 cm
long about of length as width. Leaves are rough on both surfaces and irregularly toothed on the
margins with hair on both sides varying in size having acute or acuminate tip.
Inflorescence: Protandrous, male and female parts mature at different times. There appears to
be time lag of 18-24 hrs in the maturity of male and female parts. Therefore, it is essentially a
cross pollinated plant. Capitula (Flower head) with bright yellow colour ray florets at the
outside about 10-50 cm in diameter with 40-80 ray florets inside.. A single head produces 350
to 2000 seeds.
During the young stage sunflower stalks and buds tilt to face the sun during the
day from east to west. But once stems mature and flowers open they stop to move and face east
continously.This phenomenon is called as heliotropism/photoperiodism.
Seed: Seeds are generally less than 1.5cm long pointed at base and round at the end. Seeds may
be white, black or black with white stripes.

54
Area and Distributions: The major sunflower producing countries of the world are Soviet
Union, USA, Argentina, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Canada.
Ecology of Sunflower:
a) Soil: Sunflower can be grown on a wide range of soils and tolerates a moderate pH range
and to some extent salinity. It thrives best on well drained medium to heavy soils. The ill
drained and more sloppy and acidic soils are not suitable. The optimum pH range is 6.5 to 8.5.
b) Climate: It requires cool and warm weather. It can be grown in the areas receiving rainfall
in the range of 200 to 750mm.Sunflower tolerates temperature range of 5ºC to 40ºC without
significant yield reduction, indicating that it is adapted to the regions with warm days and cool
nights. However, it grows well within a temperature range of 20ºC to 25ºC. The optimum
temperature being 27ºC to 28ºC. High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and rainfall
at the time of flowering results in poor seed set. The amount of linoleic acid content decreases
with high temperature at maturity. .
Field Preparation: Sunflower requires well-pulverized, weed free land with adequate moisture
supply. Ploughing is done by mould board plough, followed by planking and 2-3disc
harrowing. If the problem of white grub add linden powder.@ 40kg/ha. Add and 5 to 6 t/ha of
FYM/compost before last harrowing.
Seeds and Sowing: The seeds have dormancy for the period of about 45-50 days. Therefore,
select seed from last year stock should be well developed plumy and of improved genotype.
a. Time of sowing:
1. Rabi-First fortnight of October to first fortnight of November.
2. Summer- last week of January to 15th
February.
b. Seed Rate: Variety: - 8-10kg/ha, Hybrid variety:- 5-6kg/ha
c. Spacing: Medium-Heavy soils: 45cm x30cm, Heavy soils-60x30cm,
Hybrid variety - 60cm x30cm.
d. Depth of sowing: - 5-6 cm. Soil should be placed in moist soil.
e. Method of sowing: Drilling is the common practice. Dibbling is most appropriate method
for hybrids.
f. Seed treatment:-
1. For better germination and plant stand under Dryland conditions, pre-soaking of seeds in
water for 12 hours and subsequent drying in shade was found to be effective for better
germination and plant stand.
2. Seed should be treated with Brassicol or Thirum @2-2.5g/kg of the seed for the control of
seed born fungal diseases like wilt.
3. For control of yellow mosaic disease seed should be treated with Apron 35 S.D @ 6 g/kg
seed.
4. Seed should be treated with Emidachloprid 70 W.A. gauch @ 5 g/kg seed for the control
of narcosis disease.
5. For ‘N’ fixation Azotobactor seed treatment @ 25 g/kg seed.
g. Plant population: 60 to 70,000 plants/ha

55
Varieties:
I. Improved Varieties: Phule Bhaskar, Modern, S.S. 56, Bhanu, EC-69874
II. Hybrid varieties: K.B.S.H.-1, L.S.F.H.171,L.S.F.H-35, L.S.F.H-08, K.B.S.H-
44,Phule Raviraj,M.S.F.H.-17
Manures and Fertilizers: Sunflower is an exhaustive crop and responds well to the manure
and fertilizers. Application of FYM/compost @ 5 to 6 tons/ha and thoroughly mixed at last
harrowing.
Recommended dose
N P2O2 K2O
Kg/ha
Under assured rainfall or
irrigated crop
60 60 60
At Sowing 30 60 60
Top dressing at 30 days 30 00 00
In case of deficiency of
Sulphur(at the time of
sowing mixing with
vermicompost)
Elemental sulphur @20kg/ha
Spraying of borax @ 2 g/liter of water at the time opening of flowers up to after 8 days,
increased filling of grains and seed weight.
Water management: - Sunflower is a crop of medium water requirement (30 to 35 ha cm).
Sunflower crop is highly sensitive to water stress between flowering to seed filling stage.
Critical growth stages of sunflower for irrigation viz., Seedling stage (15-20 DAS),
Capitulum initiation (30-35DAS),
Flowering (45-50DAS) and
Grain filling (60-65 DAS).
Number of irrigation depends upon the soil type and season.
Interculturing: Thinning should be done at 15-20 days after sowing, by keeping only one
healthy plant at recommended spacing. Sunflower crop should be kept free of weeds in initial
stages up to 45 days, by giving 2-3 hoeing and 1-2 weeding according to weed intensity.
Herbicides: Lasso (Alachlor) @ 1.5kg a.i. /ha is sprayed as pre-emergence or pendimethalin
(stomp) or 1.0–1.5 kg a.i/ha as pre-emergence spray OR pre-emergence application of TOK E
25 @ 1.5 to 2.0 kg a.i/ha can be advocated.
One head (flower) should be kept per plant. Bird scaring is another practice to be undertaken.
Hand Pollination: Since Sunflower is self-incompatible crop and depends on insects (mainly
bees) for cross pollination and seed set, it is essential that adequate pollinators are present in
the field for pollen movement and seed set. Lack of adequate pollinators result in chaffy and
partially filled heads, thus reducing the yield drastically. Keeping 4-5 boxes of beehives ha in
the field increases the yield. Hand pollination may also resorted to (18-25% increase in yield)

56
by rubbing two flower heads together or gently rubbed with palm during flowering period (50-
65 days) depending upon variety from 7.00am to 11.00am on alternate days for 7-8 days.
Pest and disease management: this crop does not have serious insect-pest and disease
problems. However leaf eating caterpillar if noticed use 10%sevin. Use of any chemical plant
protection measures should be done considering no harmful effect on natural pollinators.
Birds menace during seed formation can be reducing by constant vigilance or use of suitable
bird repellants.
Crop rotations and Mixed cropping with Sunflower:
Sunflower is raised in rotation with several crops. Some of the important crop rotations
are given below:
1. Pigeonpea (early) - Sunflower
2. Maize - Sunflower
3. Maize - Potato - Sunflower
4. Maize - Toria - Sunflower
5. Rice - Sunflower -
6. Maize - Torja - Sunflower
7. Sugarcane ratoon - Sunflower -
8. Sunflower - Sunflower
Harvesting: The sunflower crop matures in 90-100 days and seed contains 20% moisture at
the time of harvesting.
Phenotypically the heads are ripe when back of the floral head turns yellowish and outer
bracts turns brown and dried up. All the heads may not mature at one time, therefore harvesting
should be done in 2 to 3 installments, to avoid shattering. Cutting the heads dried well in sun
and then threshed by beating with stick or seeds are separated by rubbing the flower heads
together or against metal sheet. Unfilled broken seeds and inert matter is removed by
winnowing.
The clean seeds are dried in bright sunlight well to reduce moisture per cent up to 8-
10%. If grains are reserved for seed stock, it should be treated with Brassicol and bagged at 6%
moisture level for better keeping quality and germination.
Yield : (i) Rainfed : (i) Variety - 8-10 q/ha. ii) Hybrid – 12-15 q/ha and
Irrigated: Hybrid - 17-20q/ha.
Question bank
1. Prepare the leaflet with the help of points given regarding rabi sunflower.
a. Soil & land preparation. b. Seeds & sowing
c. Varieties d. Harvesting & yield.
2. Discuss in brief the following aspects of cultivation of Sunflower
a. Irrigation management b.Manure & fertilizer application
/Nutrient management
c. After care /Interculturing d.Harvesting & Yield

57
3. Short note on
1. Economic importance of sunflower
2. Hand Pollination
Give Reasons:
a. Rubbing / Hand Pollination/ smearing practice in sunflower is found to be beneficial.
Fill in the blanks.
1. Botanical name of sunflower is Helianthus annuus L.
2. Sunflower belongs to family Compositae / Asteraceae.
3. Native/Origin of Sunflower is North America (Southern United States and Mexico).
4. In India sunflower is introduced as an edible oilseed crop from Russia in 1965.
5. Oil content of Sunflower is40-45%.
6. Sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid (64%) hence preferred for reduction of high
serum cholesterol levels/ cardiac patients.
7. Young sunflower exhibits heliotropism/photoperiodism.
8. Sunflower is highly cross pollinated crop.
9. Heliotropism/photoperiodism is the phenomenon when young stage sunflower stalks
and buds tilt to face the sun during the day from east to west. But once stems mature
and flowers open they stop to move and face east continuously.
10. The Indian Institute of Oilseed Research (IIOR)is located at Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh.
***

58
Sunflower plant Sunflower disc florets
Sunflower disc Sunflower seeds

59
2. Safflower
Botanical Name:- Carthamus tinctorius Linn.
Family:- Compositae /Asteraceae
Local name: Kardai Kusumbha and Kusum
Safflower is cultivated both in tropical and temperate region. It is minor oilseed crop in India
restricted its cultivation in some states. It is mainly grown in rabi season as rainfed crop .it has
deep and efficient root system therefore utilized soil moisture effectively.
1. Safflower is mainly grown for the edible oil (28-32%).
2. In early stage (25-30 DAS) top portion of plant used for leafy vegetable.
3. Flowers used for making type of herbal tea.
4. The ray and disc florets can be used as the substitute for saffron.
5. Safflower oil is rich in essential fatty acids like linoleic and oleic acid, hence useful to
maintain low level of blood cholesterol.
6. It is used in various food additives, extracting protein and amino acids.
7. The oil is used in various industries viz., as dying oil, paints, varnishes, soap making,
waterproofing material and plastic adhesives for glass.
8. The oil cake from decorticated seed is fed to cattle and it contains 40-50% protein.
9. As the natural colour is obtained from carthamin pigment and the petals having
medicinal value, cure rheumatism.
10. The roasted seeds can be eaten or seeds are very relishable food to pigeons. The hull or
seed coat used for the preparation of hard board, fuel or decoration.
11. Being spiny it acts as guard crop as it protects main crop against stray cattle.
Origin and History: It has originated from Abyssinia and Afghanistan.
Area and Distribution: Its cultivation extends from India, China Egypt, Ethiopia, Mexico,
Argentina, Australia and USA. In India it is mainly cultivated in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Parts
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.
Ecology:
Soil requirement:- It is grown both as a rainfed and an irrigated condition. Depth of soil should
be more than 45cm for favorable growth of this crop. Soil should be well drained. It can be
grown in moderately saline soils. In MS and Southern states it is grown mainly on medium to
heavy black cotton soils as unirrigated crop. In other parts of country it is grown as on loam
and light textured soils as an irrigated crop.
Climatic Requirement: Safflower is a drought resistant crop and can be grown in regions
receiving rainfall of about 100 mm.
Cultural Practices:
Preparatory Tillage: In assured rainfall areas it is grown after the harvest of short duration
legume crop like green gram, blackgram or early groundnut. In such areas land is prepared by
giving 2-3 harrowing after harvest of Kharif crops. In drought prone areas, land is kept fallow
in Kharif and safflower is grown in Rabi. In such regions, one deep ploughing once in three
years in summer followed by 2-3 criss-cross harrowing is sufficient. In these fields soil
conservation practices are followed in Kharif seasons.

60
Seeds and Sowing:
Time of sowing:
a) Rainfed :- Optimum sowing time from first fortnight of September to first week of
October.
b) Irrigated :- up to the end of October.
**The timely sowing of crop may escape it from the attack of aphids and cold waves in
early stages. However, late sowing beyond 15th
October is uneconomical. The too early
sowing before the 15th
September, due to higher humidity in the prevailing weather may
lead to incidence of the leaf spots disease like Alternaria and Cercospora.
Seeds rate: For the pure/sole crop – 10-12 kg/ha.
For mixed or intercrop – 5 to 6 kg/ha. Depending upon the extent of mixture.
Method of sowing: Sowing is done by drilling with the two-bowl fertilizer-cum seed drill, it
enables for better placing of fertilizer basal dose and seed simultaneously in the soil.
Spacing:
a. In heavy soils – 60 cm x 30cm i.e. 55,555 plants per ha.
b. For medium to light soils- 45cm x 20cm i.e. 1,11,111 plant per ha.
Depth of sowing: Preferably seed should be placed up to 5 cm depth in the soil, deep placement
may lead to uneven germination and patchy growth.
Seed Treatments: The seed should be treated with thiram @ 3g per kg of seed before sowing
to control fungal seed borne diseases.or Trichoderma @10g/10kg of seeds.
For ‘N’ fixation Azotobactor or Azospirilum +PSB culture each @250g/kg of seeds just before
sowing .
Varieties: a) Spiny Varieties :- Bhima(S-4), Girna, Sharada, Tara, Phule Kusuma (JLSF-414),
Nagpur–7, NARI-15, NARI-38, AKS-207, Parbhani kusum (Registant to aphids), N-62-8,
DSH-129, PBNS-12.
b) Non spiny varieties:-PBNS-40, NARI-6, NARI: NH-1, SSE-658.
Manures and Fertilizers: FYM or Compost is incorporated at the time of last harrowing @
5-6 t/ha. Safflower responds well to fertilizer application
Rainfed condition -RDF is 50:25:00 kg NPK/ha . Entire dose should be applied as the basal
dose in rainfed farming. These fertilizers applied with seed drill at the time of sowing.
Irrigated condition: RDF is 60:35:00 kg NPK/ha. The irrigated crop should receive the dose
of 30kgN+30 kg p205/ha as basal dose and another 30 kg N/ha should be top-dressed after 30
days of sowing.
After care:
Thinning: It is the important practice particularly in the safflower crop for avoiding
unnecessary competition. Thinning is done at 10-12 days after the sowing by keeping only one
healthy plant per hill. A distance of 20 cm in medium to light textured soils and 30cm in the
heavy soils is maintained within the plant.
Weed management: Two to three hoeing followed by one weeding may be given according
to weed intensity.
a) First hoeing is carried out at 3rd
week of crop age with slit blade hoe.
b) Second hoeing is carried out at 5 th week of crop age with entire blade hoe.

61
c) Third hoeing is carried out at 8 th week of crop age with tooth hoe.
The repeated interculturing with the entire blade hoe for rainfed crop will provide dust
mulch thereby reducing the moisture depletion in the soil by evaporation.
Topping: At the age of 30 to 35 DAS the leafy top of the plants are removed in order to
encourage the profuse branching and greater production of flower and seed. This is used as
leafy vegetable.
Irrigation management: Generally it is raised as the rainfed crop on residual/stored soil
moisture in medium to heavy soils. Crop thrives well, if sufficient moisture is present in the
soil during the initial stages of its growth i.e. up to 25 to 30 DAS (Grand growth/rosette
termination stage). If the moisture is insufficient at the time of sowing, crop should be sown
by giving presoaking irrigation. Not more than two irrigations are needed by the crop, and these
two irrigation should be scheduled one 30-35 DAS (i.e. rosette termination stage) and the other
at the 50-60 DAS (50% flowering stage). Extreme moisture stress should be avoided; light
irrigation should be given to avoid wastage of water due to crack development in black soil
and also to avoid wilt disease. Water requirement is 25 – 30 ha cm.
Plant protection: To control aphids spray 75SP Asiphate 16g/10litre of water at 40-45 days
second spray at 55-60 days.
On incidence of Alternaria blight one or two combine spray of Carbendazim12%+Mencozeb
(63%) OR Eprodion (25%) +Carbendazim (25%) @2g/10litre of water should be taken.
Crop Rotation and Mixed Cropping: As the pure crop (single crop), crop rotation with
wheat, gram, cotton, Rabi sorghum. Occasionally it is grown as the second crop after harvest
of the Kharif crops like green gram, black gram, groundnut, coriander, sesamum, sunflower,
pearlimillet and hybrid sorghum.
Mixed cropping: It is mostly grown as mixture with wheat, barley and Rabi sorghum,
generally 3 rows of the safflower being sown after the every 9, th 12th
or more rows of the
main crop. Sometimes it sown as the border strip crop surrounding the main crop of wheat,
Rabi sorghum etc, due to its spiny nature, it protect main crop against stray cattle.
Intercropping : 1) Gram + safflower (6:3 row proportion)
2) Linseed + safflower 4:2 row proportion) are found beneficial.
Harvesting: The crop matures in 130-135 days. Yellowing of the leaves and capsules is the
important sign of maturity. Harvesting is carried out early in the morning, when there is dew
on the plants and spines are not sharp Harvesting method is either pulling the plants or cutting
close to the ground level with the help of sharp sickles. After harvesting plants are staked in
small heaps. The plants are allowed to dry in the field itself for about 2 to 3 days.
Threshing : Then the plants are threshed in the field itself on tarpaulins by beating with the
help of long wooden sticks. Winnowing is done to clean the threshed material.
Combine wheat harvest machine is also used for harvesting, with this harvesting,
threshing and winnowing are carried out simultaneously.
Yield: Rainfed crop- ( medium soils) 12-14 q/ha.
Heavy soils)-14-16q/ha
Irrigated crop- 20-25 Q/ha.

62
As the mixed crop 2 – 3 q/ha.
Yield of dye: Total 100 to 150 kg/ha yellow and red pigments.
Dye making: Crop grown for the dye purpose, starts flowering in the month of
January when the harvesting of ray and disc florets is carried out. The flower heads are
plucked every second or third day, dried and cleaned of the leaflets. The yellow dye is
extracted by washing and dissolving florets in the water. The remaining pulp is then
dried and made into the small cubes. There are two colouring matters, a yellow pigment
soluble in the water and the saffron red pigment soluble in the alkali.
Question bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of safflower on the following points.
1. Ecology of crop 2. Suitable varieties
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Cropping systems
1. Irrigation management 2. Manure & fertilizer
3. Intercultivation 4. Harvesting, threshing and yield
Give reasons
1. Safflower + Sorghum intercropping is uneconomical.
2. Safflower oil is recommended for the heart patients.
3. Early or late sowing in safflower is not advised. /Timely sowing of safflower is
important.
Short notes
1. Economic importance of safflower
2. Dye making in safflower
***

63
Safflower leafy growth
Safflower plants
Safflower flowering Safflower seeds

64
3. Mustard
Botanical Name:- Brassica juncea L
Family :- Cruciferae
Local name :- Rai, mohari
Mustard seed is the second most important oil seed crop in India after soyabean
accounting for nearly 20- 22% of the total oilseeds produced in the country. Under the names
rapeseed and mustard several oilseeds belonging to the family Cruciferae, are grown in India
viz., Toria(Brassica napur var.toria),yellow and brown sarson(Brassica napus var.glauca and
dichotoma),black mustard(Brassica nigra),tarmaria(Eruca sativa).Whereas Brassica juncea a
brown Indian mustard, is mainly adapted and grown in considerably large areas for oilseed
purposes. It is also use as a condiment in Indian cooking..
Indian mustard has a very high level of erucic acid in oil and glucosinolates in the meals.
Removal of erucic acid from oil is necessary before it is used as edible oil and removal of
glucosinolates from meals made it acceptable as cattle feed.
The pungency of mustard oil is due to the presence of allyl isothiocyanate.
1. Mustard yield the most important edible oil. This is used for culinary purposes.
2. The oil content of the seeds of different forms ranges from 30-48% The oil possesses a
sizable amount of erucic acid (38-57%), together with linolenic acid up to 4.7-13%.
The oleic and linolic acids, which have higher nutritive value together, constitute only
about 27%. It is desirable to increase the quantity of oleic acid and linolic acids by
reducing the linolenic acid and erucic acid. A lower proportion of erucic acid will make
the oil more palatable, nutritive, besides reducing metabolic disorders.
3. The seed and oil are used a condiment in the preparation of pickles and for flavouring
curries and vegetables. Rapeseed oil is also used in the manufacture of greases.
4. The oil cake is mostly used a cattle feed and small quantities are also used as manures.
The presence of toxic glucosinolates in the mustard cake render it unsuitable as a source
of human protein, it can cause Goiter.
5. Protein content in rapeseed and mustard seed normally ranges between 24-30%
6. The leaves of young plants are used as a green vegetable
7. Oil is used in tanning industries for softening leather.
8. Oil is used preparation of hair oil, soap making and medicines (B. campestris oil used
to cure stomach & skin disease as they supply enough sulphur and minerals in the diet.
Origin: Probably of North Africa and Mediterrian European origin. Brassica juncea L was
originally introduced from China to northeastern India, from where it is extended into
Afghanistan via Punjab and other countries. It was also observed that mustard seed was grown
from about 3000B.C.in Indus valley and use of oil from the last few centuries of the pre-
christian era.
Area and Production: The crop is grown in subtropical and tropical countries. In Asia it is
chiefly grown in China, India and Pakistan. It is also grown in Europe, Canada and Russia. In
India, mustard and other crops extensively grown in Northern states. The major states
producing mustard are Rajasthan, M.P, U P, West Bengal, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam,
Orissa, Punjab, and Haryana. Rajasthan contributes 41% production share of mustard. India is
the fourth producer of mustard seed and contributing to 11%of world’s total production.

65
Soil and Climate:
Soil: The rapeseed and mustard thrives well in light to heavy loams. Mostly grown on medium
to heavy soils. Very light soils are avoided. This crop has good tolerance to saline and alkaline
soils. pH of soil is 6.0-7.5.S
Climate: Mustard is a rabi season crop that requires relatively cool temperatures for
satisfactory growth and dry period at harvest. It needs about 18o
C-25o
C It is grown in medium
to high rainfall areas. Rainfall, high humidity and cloudy weather not good for this crop during
winter.
Preparation of Land: As the seeds of these crops are small, a fine, firm and moist seedbed is
required to ensure good germination and emergence of seeds. To get good tilth one to two
ploughing, each followed by planking and three to four harrowing is required.
Seeds and sowing:
Sowing Time: Optimum time of sowing is first fortnight of October to mid November
The seeds from the healthy and desirable plants grown in isolation in case of self-sterile
forms should be selected. Whenever, moisture in the field is inadequate, the seed is mixed with
moist soil and kept overnight. For distributing evenly, the seeds usually mixed with fine sand.
Method of sowing: The seeds are either sown byline sowing broadcasting in the main crop or
mixed with the main crop.
Spacing: 45x15cm 2for mustard
Seed Rate: Pure crop- 5kg/ha
Mixed crop – 2 to 2.5 kg/ha
Depth of Sowing: (Shallow depth)2.5 to 3 cm.
Seed treatment:- Seed are treated with Bavistin @ 2 g/kg of seed or dithane m-45 @ 3 g/kg
of seed or Brassicol or capton @ 4 g/kg of seed to protect from root rot and sclerotia disease.
Varieties:
Mustard:- Varuna, Sita, Pusa bold, T.M-4, T.M-2, Prakash, T.M – 21, TPM-1,
GM- 1 &2, Laxmi, Narendra rai, Agrni(SET-2).Durgamani, Bhagirathi,RLM-619,RH-
30,81&819.
Manures and Fertilizers
Manures: - FYM 15-20 tonnes/ha
Fertilizers: - For Rainfed crop, fertilizers drilled at sowing @ 40kg N + 20 kg P2O5 / ha.
Irrigated conditions- , crop is fertilized with 50 kg N + 25 kg P2o5/ha. Half of the quantity of N
along with full P is applied at the time of sowing. Remaining half the quantity of N should be
top dressed 30 - 35 days after sowing.
After care: Thinning is carried out twice at 15 and 25 DAS by keeping only one healthy plant
per hill at a distance of 15cm, for mustard. One to two hoeing and one to two manual weeding
is given as per the weed intensity. To control orobanche, pulling of orobanche and crop rotation
except mustard for 2-3 years is the control measure.

66
Irrigation: Total water requirement of the mustard crop is 25-30 ha-cm. In rainfed situations
two protective irrigation, one at flowering and the other at pod formation is yield benefial.
Plant Protection (Pests and disease management)
Pests: Mustard aphid is major pest. it is controlled by spraying of methyl demeton 0.02%or
Dimethoate 0.03%two-three times as per intensity of pest attack.
Diseases: Alternaria blight, rust, Downy mildew, powdery mildew.
Control measure-application of Dithane M-45 @1.5kg/ha or 2-3 applications of Bordeaux
mixture.
Crop rotation & mixed cropping:- For rai (Mustard):-mustard is followed by kharif season
crops viz.,green gram, black gram maize, early rice, soybean and pearl millet.
Mixed cropping :- Rabi crops like wheat, barley and chickpea
Intercropping: Wheat + Mustard (– 4:2 OR 6:2 row proportion.)
Harvesting and Yield
Harvesting: Mustard is ready to harvest in 110-160 days. Mustard is harvested in March/April.
Harvesting is done as soon as the crop begins to turn yellow. Care should be taken to ensure
the harvesting of mustard before the pods open, in order to avoid losses from shattering of
seeds. Harvesting is done in morning hours.
The crop is cut close to the ground with the help of sickle and it is brought to threshing
yard and allowed to dry. The threshing is done with the help of sticks or mogri. The winnowing
is done with the natural air current but the wind velocity should be gentle as the seeds are being
small, may be drifted with the high air.
Yield: - Mustard (Rai)
a) Rainfed:- 8-10 q/ha
b) Irrigated:- 12-15 q/ha
Question bank
1. Describe the cultivation of mustard on following aspects.
a. Soil & climate
b. Seeds & sowing
c. After care/interculturing
d. Harvesting, threshing & yield.
2. Advice the farmer about cultivation of mustard on the following aspects,

67
a. Varieties
b. Land preparation
c. Fertilizer management
d. Irrigation management
3. Prepare a leaflet on cultivation of mustard.
Short notes on
1. Economic importance of mustard
Fill in the blanks.
1. Brassica juncea a brown Indian mustard, is mainly adapted and grown in
Northen states for oilseed purposes.
2. Mustard seeds use as a condiment in Indian cooking.
3. Botanical name of mustard is Brassica juncea L
.4.Mustard belongs to family Cruciferae
5. The pungency of mustard oil is due to the presence of allyl isothiocyanate.
6. Mustard has North Africa and Mediterrian European origin.
7. Brassica juncea L was originally introduced from China to northeastern India.
8. The oil content of the seeds of different forms ranges from 30-48%.
***

68
Mustard Plant Mustard Inflorescence
Mustard dried Pods Mustard seeds

69
4.Linseed
Botanical Name :- Linum usitatissimum L.
Family;- Linaceae
Genus:- Linum
Local Name:- Jawas or Alshi
Linseed is an old crop cultivated for both oilseed and fibre extraction purpose. In western
countries it is more commonly known as flax i.e. fiber crop.
Origin and history:
According to scientist Vavilov linseed classified into two types.
1. Small-seeded type(oilseed):- Which are grown mainly for oil purpose. It is originated
from South-western Asia, comprising India, Afghanistan & Turkey.
2. Bold seeded type(flax):- Which are grown mainly for fiber purpose, seems to have
originated in the Mediterranean region, including Asia minor, Egypt, Algeria, Spain,
Italy and Greece.
The history of flax is nearly as old as the history of cultivation. Egyptian records trace
the culture of flax or linseed back to 5000 years to the Bronze age.
It is cultivated in temperate and tropical countries. Major linseed growing countries
are Argentina, Russia, USA, Canada, India, Pakistan, and Australia. India ranks first in
the world acreage under linseed cultivation whereas productivity is low.
India prominently it is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh (Chhattisgarh), Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Bihar,(Jharkhand). Madhya Pradesh contributes about 60% area of
linseed and from sub marginal rainfed lands.
1. It is use as oilseed and fiber crop.
2. About 80%of the linseed oil used in manufacturing of paints, varnishes, pa ink, printing
ink, oil cloth, soap, waterproof fabrics.
3. Roasted linseeds are used in various forms .Oil is edible used as cooking oil.
4. Husk and straw is a good raw material used for making tissue paper, fire fighting
hosepipes and rugs.
5. Oil cake is good cattle feed especially for milch animals. Oil cake contains 36% protein.
6. It is also used as organic manure. It contains about 5% ‘N’ 1.4%’P’ and 1.8 % ‘K’
7. In Western countries is mainly grown for fiber purpose for manufacturing of the linen
goods.
8. Seed contains oil varies from 35-42% and flax (fiber) contains 80-90% of cellulose.
Botanical description of plant / Crop
Both the species have the same chromosome number – (2n=30). Linseed is normally a self-
pollinated crop. The fruit is a capsule known as ‘seed ball’. It is globular in shape.
In India there are two types of linseed varieties viz., peninsular varieties and alluvial varieties.
Particulars Peninsular varieties Alluvial varieties

70
Suitable areas Rainfed Shallow water
table(Gangetic belt)
Root system Deep Shallow
Seeds Bold seeds Small seeds
Branching habit Few branches Many branches
Seed production Less as compared to alluvial
varieties
Better as compare to
peninsular varieties
Ecology of the crop:
Soil:- It grows well on medium to deep cotton-soil and alluvial loams, Soil must be well
drained. The crop can tolerate soil acidity to some extent but ideal pH is 6.
Climate:
a. For small seeded crops (oil purpose): - It is a temperate crop. It needs cool climate.
Crop needs temperature 25-30ºc during germination and about 15-20o
C during seed
formation.
b. For bold seeded crops for fiber (Flax):Crop requires still lower temperature and higher
humidity 80-90%.Both the type crops requires average annual rainfall about 450 to 750
mm
Land Preparation:-
It needs a weed free and fine seedbed. After harvest of the previous crop one ploughing
followed by two to three harrowing are given. To control termites and cutworms soil
application of Aldrin 5% at last harrowing.
Seeds and sowing:
a)Time of sowing: - Rainfed area- Last week of September to first fortnight of October
Irrigated areas- Second fortnight of October to November.
b) Seed rate: (i) small seeded crops for oil purpose:- 8 to 10Kg/ha for drilling/line sowing
(ii) Bold seeded crops for fiber purpose:- Drilling – 20-25kg/ha, Broad casting- 35-40kg/ha
c) Method of sowing:- Line sowing/Drilling and broad casting
Generally broadcasting is done in standing rice crop in Bihar and parts of East U.P
d)Spacing:- 45cmx10cm
30cmx15cm
e)Sowing depth: Shallow placement of seeds(2-3 cm deep).
f) Seed treatment: - Thiram @ 3g/kg of seed + Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seed to control seed born
diseases.
Varieties- Maharashtra: - Malshiras-10, Solapur – 36, N-3, N-55, R-552, Kiran, Sheetal,
Jawahar –23
MadhyaPradesh:- No-4-29, N.P.-11
UP-Type No.-1, Type No. 126
Other varieties:- T-397, Jawahar-7, 17&522, Neelam, Mukta, Hira & K-2,
Dual Purpose varieties (oilseed +fibre purpose)
Gaurav:- Crop duration – 135 to 140 Days (Irri.)

71
Seed Yield:- 10 Q/ha, Fibre Yield-9 Q/ha
Jeevan:- Crop duration – 175 to 180 (Irri.), Seed Yield- 10 q/ha, Fiber yield-10 q/ha
Nagarkot:- Crop duration – 160 to 170 days. Seed Yield :- 12q/ha Fiber yield – 10 q/ha.
LCK – 8528:- Crop duration – 130 to 135 days, seed yield – 12 Q/ha, Fiber yield – 10 Q/ha,
Manures and fertilizer (i) Rainfed:- FYM /compost -4 to 5 t/ha;and RDF is 25:50:00kg
NPK/ha at sowing time only.
Manure – (ii) Irrigated: - 8 to 10 tonnes of FYM or compost /ha
RDF is- 60:30:00kg NPK/ha.
30 kg N & 30 kg P at sowing,
Remaining 30 kg ‘N’ after 40-45 DAS
Irrigation:
It is mainly grown as rainfed crop on residual soil moisture. If irrigation facilities are available
one or two light irrigation may be given at 30-35 and 50-55 days after sowing. In case of
irrigated condition later sown crop (late Oct-Nov) one light pre-sowing irrigation is given to
ensure moisture supply for germinating seeds.
After care:
Rainfed crop generally not required interculturing. When the crop is irrigated, one –two
weeding are required at 21DAS and 35-40 DAS required.
Pest:- Most important pest of linseed crop is gall fly which damage the flower buds. It can be
controlled by spraying of phosphomidon or dimethioate at 0.3%conc.
Diseases: Wilt and rust are commonly occurring diseases of linseed. Early sowing of short
duration varieties reduces the incidence.
Crop rotation and Intercropping
Linseed is an exhaustive crop and soil may become linseed sick, if the crop is grown
year after year on the same soil.
Linseed crop is usually grown in rotation with hybrid sorghum, maize, pearl millet,
groundnut, cowpea and Soybean.
One season crop – rotation with, wheat, safflower, Gram.
It is also sown as mixed crop with wheat, barley, gram and mustard.
Intercropping:- Linseed + Gram (4:2 row proportion),
Linseed + safflower(4:2 row proportion),
Linseed + mustard (5:1 row proportion).
Harvesting and Yield:
1. For seed purpose (i.e. Oil):- The crop matures in 100 days from the sowing. The crop
may be harvested when the leaves are dry, plant turn golden yellow in colour, the seed
ball (capsules) become dry and brownish in colour, Seeds have become shiny.

72
2. For fiber purpose: If the fibre is also desired, harvesting should be done at physiological
maturity, when the crop is still green.
Harvesting is done cutting the plants close to the ground with the help of sharp
sickle or uprooting the plants. Plants tied in bundles stacked in the threshing yard for
drying. Threshing is done under the feet of bullocks or by beating with sticks.
Yield:- (A) Seed yield
i) Rainfed:- 3-5 Q/ha
ii) Irrigated:- 8-10 Q/ha
(B) Fibre Yield: 4-6 Q/ha of cordage (ropes of a ship)
Retting & extraction of fibre from flax:-
Retting is a process of treatment of stalks for final fiber extraction. When the fiber is desired
along with seed, the harvesting should be done at physiological maturity, when the crop is still
green. Immediately after harvesting the plants tie in bundles and cut small upper portion of
plants with seed ball. Then stalks bundles are steeped in running / flowing water in river/stream
just enough to cover the material. The stalks bundles also steeped in stagnant water. Retting in
stagnant water is faster than running/flowing water due to higher microbial load and activity.
Generally, it takes 4-6 days for proper retting. During the process of retting, the bundles should
be shuffled by replacement upper layer to lower layer after 2-3 days for ensuring uniform
retting of the entire lot. Over retting weakens the fibre completion of retting can be determined
by when straw is bent around the finger, the wood in the center should be spring clearly through
the sheath of the fiber. If a piece of the fiber is separated from the straw, it should break under
strain without leaving a square broken end.
After removing the retted straw from water, it should be cleaned in running water and
then dried.
The extraction of fibre requires simple machine. The machine is indigenously designed
on the principle of passing the straw through fluted rollers to break the woody cores and
separate the fibers.
Question bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of linseed on the following points.
1. Ecology of crop 2. Suitable varieties
3. Seeds and sowing 4. Nutrient management
1. Irrigation management 2. Crop rotation and intercropping
3. Intercultivation 4. Harvesting, threshing and yield
Give Reasons: -
1. Linseed plants are not fed to cattle. :
Linseed plants contains a cyanogenic glucoside linamarin which by the action of an
enzyme (glucosyl transfer) forms prussic acid which is toxic to animals.
Write short Note:
1. Economic importance of linseed.
2. Retting and extraction of fiber from flax (linseed)

73
Fill in the blanks:
1. Linseed is grown for Oil and Fiber purpose.
2. Origin of linseed is South western-Asia.
3. Linum usitatissimum L is botanical name of linseed.
4. Linseed contains oil varies from 35-42% and flax (fiber) contains 80-90% of cellulose.
***
Linseed Plant with flowering Linseed plant with seed balls
Linseed balls Linseeds
IV-Sugar Crops
1. Sugarcane

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Botanical Name- Saccharum officinarum L
Family:- Gramineae/Poaceae
Sugarcane is cash sugar crop contributing more than 62% of the world sugar production.
Brazil is the largest sugarcane producing country and 40% of the production of the world. In
India, Uttar Pradesh has largest area and production followed by Maharashtra.Karnataka,
Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab is the major sugarcane
cultivating states.
Role of Sugarcane in Indian Economy/Economic importance:-
1. Sugar industry is the largest agro-based processing industry next only to textile in India,
having 453 sugar factories.
2. It plays a vital role in the Indian economy contributing about 2% towards national gross
domestic product. (GDP).
3. Sugarcane is a multiple product commodity crop. It produces about 10-tonns Sugar, 4-tonns
Molasses, 3-tonns filter Cake, 9.3- tonns furnace ash, 30- tonns bagasse and 150 KW
electricity for every 100 tonns of sugarcane crushed in a sugar factory.
4. It serves as a food, fuel, fibre, fodder & foreign exchange earner.
5. It provides useful raw material to over 25 types of industries which utilize its different
components to produce sugar, Jaggery & khandsari.
6. It is also used in different agro industrial co-products like alcohol, fuel, chemicals paper
boards, antibiotics, cattle feed & electricity.
7. Sugarcane trash can be used as a mulch and compost making.
Origin:
Thin canes (Saccharum barberi, saccharum sinense) - India
Thick Canes (Saccharum officinarum) – New Guinea.
Species of Sugarcane:
Saccharum is derived from Sanskrit word shakkara meaning sugar. The genus sacchanum
comprises 3 cultivated & 2 wild species. They are
Cultivated species Wild species
1.Saccharum officinarum 1.Saccharum spontaneum
2. Saccharum barberi 2.Saccharum robustum
3.Saccharum sinense
Some of important characters of these species are:-
1. Saccharum officinarum: - 2n=80
The officinarums are called noble canes due to thick juicy, low fibre canes and high
sucrose content. The varieties are suceptible to diseases (red rot & mosaic) & pests.
These canes are known as pundia or Paunda in North India. They grown for chewing
purposes.
2. Saccharum sinense: - 2n=118
It is termed as Chinese canes. Long & tain stalks, broad leaves. Low to medium sucrose
content & early maturing. The clones are suceptible to moisture stress & mosaic and
red rot diseases.
3. Saccharum barberi: 2n=82 to 124

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Thin stalks with narrow or medium leaves clones are tolerant to diseases & pests.
4. Saccharum spontaneum:- 2n = 40-128
Clones of this wild species are small & bushy. Tillering is profuse. Resistant to diseases
and pests.
5. Saccharum robustum:- 2n = 60 to 80
Wild species, high fibre content, broad leaves and high fiber content
Botany of Crop
Stem or Stalk:-Stem is called stalk or cane is composed of distinct nodes and internodes. It is
also known as millable cane. It develops from the bud of seed cane. At each node, there is a
bud (eye) appearing on opposite sides of the canes. Immediately above each node, 2 or 3
translucent dot like structures known as root primordial. The underground protein of the stem
tapes rapidly & from lateral buds of this region the short develops, these are called tillers.
Leaves:The leaf consists of leaf sheath, leaf blade. The sheath surrounds the stalk completely.
At the junction of sheath & blade, there is a membranous attachment known as ligules.
Inflorescence:- Is an open panicle called arrow. It is long & tapering. Flowering is undesirable
in commercial cane. The plant flowers at an age of 300-350 days.
Seeds-Sugarcane seeds are very tiny and callus hairs persisting. True seed of sugarcane is
called as “fluff”.it is used in hybridization of sugarcane.
Roots: The stem cutting when planted in soil develops thin & branched roots from root
primordia known as sett root. These roots provide moisture & nutrients to the primary shoot
until it forms its own roots known as shoot roots. The shoot roots are thicker than setts roots.
Flowering:
Short day plant, C4 plant. Time of initiation of flowering largely depends on the location of
the place where plant is growing.
In northern hemisphere (India) October to December.
In Southern Hemisphere (Australia) April – May
Duration of day length is the major factor-controlling flowering (arrowing).
Flowering can be suppressed by removal of the spindle, spraying of chemicals such as
malic hydroxide, diquat, paraquat etc. Withholding irrigation at flower initiation is effective in
minimizing flowering.
Area & production:
Sugarcane is grown in tropical & sub-tropical regions. Brazil has largest area & Production of
Sugarcane. India is second to Brazil in Sugarcane production. It is followed by Cuba & China.
Other Important cane- growing countries are Pakistan, Mexico, South Africa, Australia,
Indonesia, Hawaii, ranks first in average Yield (220 t/ha), Peru – 150t/ha.
At present Sugarcane is cultivated throughout the country except hilly tracts in J & K,
H.P. & North-eastern Parts.
To meet the sugar requirement of increasing population in future, it is essential that
Sugarcane production is stepped up. Since there is no scope to bring additional load under
sugarcane, the targets have to be achieved only through increased productivity.
Soil and Climate

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Soil: can be grown on all types of soil ranging from sandy loam to clay loam. Well drained
medium deep to moderately heavy soils (60-120cm depth), high in organic matter content. The
optimum pH 6.5 – 8.0. It can tolerate moderate acidity & alkalinity (pH-5.5-8.5), but soils with
slight acidity or with pH-6.0 preferred for higher crop yields.
Soils rich in ‘P& ‘Ca’ good for juice quality. Soil rich in ‘Fe’ good for sugar recovery.
Most of the soils in Deccan canal area are fertile heavy black cotton soils of clayey.
Organic carbon: It should be about 0.8% organic carbon status of soil. C/N ratio: should
between the limit of 30 & 10 & should not be lower than 30 or greater than 10.
EC → 4mmhos cm-1
or dSm-1
Climate:
Sugarcane is a tropical crop & thrives best in the regions of 750 to 1200mm rainfall.
Hot humid climate – during growth period
Cool & dry climate – during growth maturity.
Deficient rainfall produces a fibrous cane, while heavy rain results in low sugar content in cane.
Germination: 20 to 32ºC for quick & higher germination, %
Tillering: Optimum temperature for tillering – 26-32ºC
The tillering is increased in bright sunshine with larger day lengths & hot weather favours
tillering.
Grand growth: Bright sunshine, moderate temperature & long day length are important for
metabolic activities in Sugarcane.
Humidity - 65-70%
Optimum temperature for growth – 27-30ºC or in range of 25 to 35ºC
Cold weather arrest growth, borer attack is increased in hot weather.
Maturity: Cool & dry climate with less than 50% relative humidity is beneficial for ripening
of cane. The minimum temperature of 11ºC ideal for cane ripening .
Land preparations:
Sugarcane does not require extremely fine seedbed as required for other cereals. The land
should be ploughed 1-2 times crosswise deep up to 25-30 cm followed by clod crushing & 2-3
harrowing.
20 C.L. FYM should be added before 2nd
ploughing, mix well in the soil by harrowing.
Open the ridges & furrows at distance of 100 & 120 cm in medium & heavy soils, respectively.
According to soil slope, the length of ridges & furrows should be – 50 to 60 meters. Add the
remaining ½ dove of manures (20 C.L. FYN) at the times of planting.
Time of Planting:
The time of planting is governed mainly by weather conditions. Spring & autumn planting are
two important planting seasons.
Spring planting:

77
In northern India, spring planting is done in February-March, while in peninsular India, it is
done in January – February. Spring planted crop is known as Suru in M.S. & Eksali in Gujrat
& A.P. M.S. – is 15th
December – 15th
February.
Autumn Planting:
In northern India Autumn planting is done is September – October, while in Bihar & peninsular,
it is done in October-November. Autumn planting is known as pre-seasonal planting in M. S.
& Gujarat. Crop matures in 13-15months. Maharashtra – 15th
October – 15th
November. Pre-
seasonal.
Adsali planting :- M.S. – 15th
July – 15th
August.
In M.S. & K.K. adsali planting is done in July- August & crop matures in 16-18 months.
Because of extended growing season, there is increase in yield and sugar recovery. Now a
days, area under adsali planting is declining because less availability of irrigation water.
Pre-seasonal planting is also popular because of possibility of growing vegetables as intercrops.
In M.S. for suru sugarcane January is the optimum time for planting considering the low
temperature, during December & also infestation of early shoot borer & stem borer as late
planted crop after February.
Methods of planting:
I) On the basis of layout or system of planting:
1. Flat planting: (planting in flatbed):- Commonly flowered in low rainfall areas of North
India. Simplest & cheapest method of planting. In this method shallow furrows (8-10cm)
are opened at 75 or 90cm, distance 2 or 3 eye budded setts are placed end to end in the
furrows. After this, furrows are covered with soil & heavy planking levels the field. These
should be adequate moisture in field at the time of planking. Generally earthing up is not
done. But to avoid of lodging light earthing up may be given.
2. Ridges & furrows method.:- Followed in South India including Maharashtra. The ridges
& furrows are opened at a distance of 90 to 100cm – light to medium soils, 120cm –
heavy soils to a depth of 20cm to 25cm . Sugar cane is planted in furrows by two methods.
A. Wet method.
For light to medium soils, wet method of planting followed. It consist of irrigating
furrow first allowing them to soak for some time & pressing the setts 5-7 cm deep in
furrows under the feet of manual labourers, care is being taken to see that the eye buds are
on sides of the shoots. This method of planting also called ‘Blind planting’, as there is no
control over depth of planting & the position of eye buds.
B. Dry Method:
On heavy soils, the setts may be placed at more depth causing poor germination on such soils
dry method is followed. This method is also adopted for adsali planting & for salt affected
soils. In this method small shallow trenches are prepared with the help of kudali & setts are
placed end to end, then cover the setts with soil. & light irrigation is applied.
3. IISR 8626 Method:
In North Indian loams soils, cane yields could be increased by a technique known as IISR 8626.
This technique developed at Indian institute of Sugarcane research Lucknow.

78
The technique referred to planting of long rayungans vertically in deep fully fertilized
of irrigated trenches.Rayungans are setts with shoots produced by cutting of the tops of
standing canes.
1. Trench or Java Method:
It is practiced in Java & Mauritius & in coastal areas of Orissa, A.P. & T.N. Where the crop
grows very tall & the strong winds and torrential rains are liable to lodge the crop.
The rectangular trenches 20-30 cm deep are prepared at 90-120cm apart. Basal dose of
fertilizer are applied in treches. Shallow furrows (5-7cm) are opened at the bottom of trenches
and setts are placed end-to-end & covered with soil. After planting irrigation is given.
In this method cane gets good anchorage (support) which prevents lodging in early
stages.
5. Pit method or ring planting Technique:
This method is prevalent in tillah lands in Assam, and hilly tracts, lighter soils in Kerala.
The field is marked at regular distance of 120cm leaving 1m space at the begining both
length and widthwise. With the help of long rope straight lines are made both ways & at point
where both lines cut, a round ring of 90cm diameter or square of 90 x 90 cm2
is made. The soil
from the ring is dug to a depth of 45cm & kept in periphery of the ring. 30cm space, left in
between two rings. In this way 6900 rings (pits) are made in 1 ha area. Cost of planting is
higher than conventional planting. About 16-18 tonnes of seed is used.
6. Paired row system:
Considering the importance of the intercrops & use of modern irrigation systems like drip in
Sugarcane cultivation for increasing the net income from unit area of laud, the paired row
system of plating is promising & important to sugarcane growers.
In this system the first two furrows are opened at distance of 75cm after this pair of
furrows, a open space of Patta is left of about 120 to 135cm and again a pair of furrows at a
distance of 75cm followed throughout the field.
In this system, number of rows or plant population is maintained as that of conventional system,
also seed requirement same. Intercrops are grown in patta immediately after planting of cane.
This system is most suitable for drip irrigation to cane as there is 30-40 % saving in initial
investment on drip system. One lateral of drip can irrigate efficiently two line of sugar cane &
hence 50% saving of laterals. Laterals are spread at the center of paired row.
III. On the basis of seed material used:-
1. Rayungan method:
This method is followed where the sugarcane fields get submerged under floods during
rainy season.
If adsali planting is done, sugarcane seedlings from 3 bud setts are raised in nursery
beds & then vigorous setts are transplanted in the furrow after flood is over. 3 eye buds setts
planted vertically in June – July keeping two buds above the soil & one into the soil. These sets
allowed to grow in nursery for 6 weeks up to August. When the flood is over, the sprouted setts
are transplanted in the field, where the ridges & furrows are already opened before the flood.
This method has advantages of adequate germination & early good stand of the crop under
flood prone & high rainfall areas in Kolhapur region.
5. Spaced Planting:

79
In this method, single eye bud setts are prepared by cutting the setts 2.5 - 3cm on upper side of
the bud & 5-6cm at lower side of the bud.
These setts planted horizontally in furrows at a spacing of 30-35cm apart keeping the eye bud
upward & covered with soil 3-4cm.
Advantages – 1) saving of the seed material 2) Germination % above 80.
6. Spaced Transplanting Technique (STP)
In this method, setts of single eye bud are prepared as in single eye bud planting. These setts
are planted on the raised beds in nursery. The growing seedlings are transplanted in the main
field after 35- 40 days at 30-35 cm apart in standing water or immediately after transplanting
light irrigation given.
Advantages:
1. Saving of 2/3 seed material. As it requires only 2 tonns seed material as against 6-7
tonns in conventional method.
2. Higher stalk population (1.2 Lakh canes / ha)
3. Uniform crop stand
4. Lower incidence of pests & diseases
5. Reduced cane lodging
6. Increased in seed multiplication ratio (1:40) over conventional method (1:10)
7. 25% higher yield.
7. Partha Method.
In coastal areas of A.P. & T.N., the North –east monsoon (October – December) brings heavy
precipitation which resulted in over moisturing of soil & unfit for preparation & planting of
cane till about the end of January. The gap between two monsoon in September provides a
short spell of dry period when field can be prepared. If planting of setts is done in the furrows
with the onset of second monsoon the setts get rotted & germination is very poor due to over
moist condition of the soil.
Under such situations modified technique was developed by Parthasarthy Sharma &
termed as Parth method of sugarcane planting.
In this method, 3 eye bud setts are planted either in furrows or on the side of the ridges
slanting at 60ºto the vertical. Bottom but of the set is inserted in to ground up to 2.5-3 cm depth.
This bud invariably fails to germinate & the top two buds sprout up. Later when monsoon
ceases, the slanting setts are pressed into the soil to horizontal position & soil from the sides is
added to enable the shoots to strike the roots.
2. Normal or conventional method:-
This method consists of planting sugarcane in furrows either by wet or dry method using 2 or
3 eye bud setts.
6. Stubble or clonal method:- In this method, line stubble or whole clone (stool) from previous
crop of sugarcane is used for planting. This method saves the seed material and also useful for
rapid multiplication of newly developed improved variety at faster rate.
Selection of Planting Material: Commercially sugarcane is vegetatively propagated planting
material is cane setts, settlings, bud chips.
Cane setts (seed pieces)-this is stem cutting or sections of the stalks
1. The seed material of 10 to 11 months age from well-manured nursed seed nursery
should be selected.

80
2. The seed material should be thick, succulent, juicy and healthy. The eye buds should
be green, well developed, thick prominent but not over mature.
3. Seed material should be free from pest and diseases.
4. Top 1/3 to 2/3 portion of cane should be used as seed material and it should be planted
within 24 hours after harvesting for better germination.
5. Seed material should be changed after every 4 to 5 years, for higher production.
6. The seed material should have higher water content, soluble N, P, K, and reducing sugar
percentage
Seed Treatment:
1. Soaking in water: By soaking the setts in water, the fresh weight of seed material is
increased by 2 to 4%, which results in better germination. Soak the seed material in water
for 12 to 24 hours.
2. Lime water treatment: If the seed material is of more age and showing dry eye buds.
Setts are soaked in limewater for 24hrs. Lime water is prepared by dissolving 500g of lime
in 180lit.of water. This improves germination of dry eye buds.
3. Mercurial compounds seed treatment: To protect the sets from fungal diseases and for
better germination, the setts are dipped in 100 lit. Water + 100g Bavistin + 300 ml
Malathion for 10 minutes.
4. Hot water/air seed treatment: This seed treatment is especially given to setts to be
planted in seed nursery. The setts are treated with hot water 50ºC for 2 hrs. or 52ºC for
half hrs or hot air 52ºC for 6hrs. Or moist air 54ºC for 4 hrs. This seed treatment helps to
control grassy shoot, red rot and ratoon stunting diseases and to some extent smut and
other viral diseases.
5. Seed treatment with Acetobactor and PSB: Setts are dipped in solution containing
Acetobactor 10kg + 2.5 kg PSB (phosphorus solublising bacteria) per 100 lit. of water for
30 minutes. Due to this seed treatment there is saving of 50% ‘N’ and 25 % P2o5 fertilizer.
Planting of Sugarcane
a. Spacing:-
i) Heavy soil: - 120cm
ii) Light soil:- 90 to 100cm
iii) Paired row/patta method:- 75 to 150cm OR 90 to 180cm
b. Seed rate:-
i) One eye bud setts:- 30,000/ha Distance between two setts:- 30cm
ii) Two eye bud setts:- 25,000/ha. Distance between two setts:- 15-20cm
iii) Three eye budded setts:- 25,000/ha
c. Method of Planting
i). Heavy Soil:- Dry method on ridges and furrow.
ii) Light Soil:- Wet method on ridges and furrow.
iii) Paired row/patta method.
d. Depth of planting:-
2.5 – 7.5 depending on soil type and method of planting. More depth of planting on
light to medium soil than in heavy soils.

81
Varieties:
a) Varieties for suru & pre-seasonal planting:-
CO-86032 (Nira) – 1996
CO – 94012 (Phule savitri) - 2002
COM-0265 (Phule – 265) – 2006
CO-419, CO-740, CO-7219 (Sanjivani)
COM-7125 (Sampada), CO-7527
COM-88121 (Krishna), COM – 7714
CO-8014 (Mahalaxmi)
COVSI - 9805 (Good for ratoon), C0- 92005 (Suru and good for jagger)
b) Varieties for Adsali Planting:
CO-86032 (Nira),COM-0265 (Phule – 265), CO-740, COM-88121 (Krishna),
COM-7714. , Co.V.S.I – 9805
Nutrient Management:
Sugarcane being a long duration & huge biomass-accumulating crop removes substantial
amount of plant nutrients from the soil. An average crop of 100 tonnes/ha exhausts - 208 kg
N, 53 Kg P, 280 Kg K, 3.4 Kg Fe, 1.2 Kg Mn, 0.6 Kg Zn, 0.2 Kg Cu and 30 Kg S
Most of Sugarcane producing soils are deficient in N & Few of them are deficient in P
& K. In addition, the deficiencies of S, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu are emerging in more & more soils
due to continued use of high analysis fertilizers & restricted recycling of organic matter.
The long-term experiments showed that neither the mineral fertilizers alone nor the
organic manures / Materials exclusively can sustain Sugarcane productivity in an intensive
cropping system. The use of organics in associating with mineral fertilizer has proved superior
over its individual component.
Components of integrated Nutrient supply system:
The basic aim of INS is to manage the soil fertility, sustain the sugar cane productivity &
improve the farmer’s profitability through the judicious& efficient use of chemical fertilizers,
organic manures, crop residues & Bio-fertilizers.
A) Chemical Fertilizers:
B) Legumes:
Sugarcane is generally planted in wider row spacing. Crop generally takes 30-40 days for
germination. Initial growth rate is also slow. So growing of erect, short duration & dwarf
varieties of legumes more advantageous. Green manuring crops – sunn hemp, Dhaincha,
Beans, Berseem, guar, pea, lentil etc.,
C) Crop residues:- Use of cane trash 5 t / ha OR leaves of glyriddia 5t/ha
D) Organic manures:
Supplies macro & micronutrients & improves physico-chemical & biological environment of
soil. Organic manures include FYM, compost and oil cakes.
E) Factory Wastes:
By products of factories like spent wash from distillery and molasses, press mud from
sugarcane factory.

82
Press mud contains:- ‘N’-1.33%, ‘P’ – 1.08%, ‘K’ – 0.53%, Zn-52Mg, Fe-2.56Mg, Cu -44Mg.
Press mud saves ‘N’ up to 50-75Kg/ha
F) Bio-fertilizers: 25% ‘N’ saving in Sugarcane.
1. Azotobactor Chroococcum
2. Azospirillum Spp
3. Acetobactor Diazotrophicus
4. Bacillus Striata
Micronutrients-Fe – Good for sugar recovery and Ca- good for Juice quality.
FYM : 25 t/ha 15 days before planting.
S
N
Time
Adsali (kg/ha) Pre seasonal (kg/ha) Suru (kg/ha)
N P K N P K N P K
1 At Planting 40 85 85 34 85 85 25 60 60
2. 6-8 weeks after
planting
160 - - 136 - - 100 - -
3. 12-16 Weeks after
planting (light
earthing up)
40 - - 34 - - 25 - -
4. 20-24 weeks after
planting (final
earthing up)
160 85 85 136 85 85 100 55 55
Total 400 170 170 340 170 170 250 115 115
If deficiency of Fe, Zn, Mn and B:
Soil application of FeSO4 @ 25 kg + ZnSO4 @ 20kg + MnSO4 @ 10Kg + Borax @ 5 kg/ha
Schedule of application of fertilizer by crow bar (kg/ha):
S
N
Time
Adsali (kg/ha) Pre seasonal (kg/ha) Suru (kg/ha)
N P K N P K N P K
1 After Ist irrigation
(At waspsa
condition
200 85 85 170 85 85 125 60 60
2. 135 DAP 200 85 85 170 85 85 125 55 55
Total 400 170 170 340 170 170 250 115 115
Fertilizer schedule for ratoon management:
S.N Time N (Kg/ha) P (Kg/ha) K (Kg/ha)
1 Within 15 days after harvesting 75 115 115

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2. 2 Months after harvest 75 - -
3. At the time of earthing up 100 - -
4. Total 250 115 115
FYM 50 tonnes /ha before planting of seed production plot. Total fertilizer dose for sugarcane
seed production Plot: - 670:225:225 kg NPK/ha.
Crop logging or crop log technique:- This is the method of applying fertilizers and irrigation
to sugarcane after analyzing plant parts, usually active leaves and sheath. This method is also
called as foliar analysis or leaf and sheath indices. Dr. Clements in Hawaii adopted this method.
From young plants actively growing 4-6 leaves are selected and analyzed to known nutrient
and moisture content, N index 2.25 % P2O5 0.08 to 0.09 %, K2O index 2.25%, moisture index
83.85% (74% at harvest), have been computed as an optimum level at 3 months age of crop.
The crop should be adequately fertilized if the level of nutrients fall below the above –
mentioned status.
Water Management:
Judicious use of water is one of the main factors, which governs the cane yields & sugar
recovery. On an average about 60-70 tonnes of water is required for the production of 1 tonne
of sugarcane
Life cycle of sugar cane is divided into 4-phases
1. Germination phase (planting to 60th
day)
2. Formative phase (60th
day – 130th
day)
3. Grand growth phase (130th day – 250th
day)
4. Maturity phase (250-365th
day)
The water requirement of crop varies greatly with growth phase & environmental
conditions particularly climate & soil type. The water requirement at formative phase(tillering)
& grand growth phase is maximum.
Suru sugarcane - 280 hacm & 32 irrigations.
Tillering & early growth – 5cm depth
Grand growth – 7.5 cm depth
Maturity – 5.6 cm depths
Effective root zone – 90 cm
Adsali: 415 hacm & 38 irrigations
Tillering & early growth – 6cm depth
Grand growth – 10cm depth
Maturity – 5-6 cm depth
Effective root zone - 90 cm.
Pre-seasonal: 350hacm & 32 to 35 irrigations.
This is the total water requirement of crop inclusive of rainwater. Light irrigations with short
intervals should be given during germination for all season crops.

84
According to environmental conditions the crop on medium soil should be irrigated at
15 days interval in winter. (Even 20 days in heavy soils), 10 days – Summer & 15-20 days –
rainy season if there is no rainfall.
During summer months when there is shortage of water crop should be irrigated during
critical phases i.e. tillering, initial growth & grand growth. Alternate furrow irrigations, use of
mulch (7.5 t/ha), spraying of 10% kaolin anti-transpirants or 3% solution of muriate of potash,
use of drip irrigation in paired or skipped row planting may be followed for increasing WUE.
Critical Growth Stage
CGS Months after Planting
1. Germination
2. Tillering Stage
3. Initial growth Stage
4. Grand growth Stage
5. Maturity
1.5-2
2-4
4-6
6-10
10-12
CGS Water depth requirement/irrigation
Up to tillering
After earthing up
At flowering & Maturity
7-8 cm depth/ irrigation
10-12 cm depth/irrigation. (Maximum
water requirement)
6-8 cm depth/irrigation (Low water
requirement)
Irrigation should be stopped 20-25 days before harvesting.
Now the new techniques in sugarcane i.e. micro irrigation/drip irrigation /Fertigation is
adopted on large scale. It is costly but in long run it is beneficial.
In Micro irrigation system (Drip) 45-50% water is saved & that water can be utilized
for other crops.
Soil moisture depletion approach:
Sugarcane should be irrigated at 50% depletion of available soil moisture.
Climatological Approach (IW/CPE)
For suru Sugarcane 25-30 irrigation should scheduled at 75mm cumulative pan
evaporation.
Interculturing/After Care.
Germination is completed in about3-4 weeks from the planting.
1. Gap filling: Should be done 6-8 weeks of planting.
2. Hoeing: 2-3 hoeings should be given tooth hoe at monthly interval till earthingup
operation.
3. Weed Management: At initial stages weed control is more important.
In suru planting:- 2-3 times weeding
In pre-seasonal planting:- 3-4 times weeding
In Adsali planting:- 4-5 times weeding.
Chemical Weed Control:-

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Sr.
No
Name of herbicide
Rate of application
kg a.i/ha
Time of application
1. Atrazine
(Atrakil, Atrataf)
1-2 kg a.i./ha in 700-1000
liters of water
Pre-emergence, after
planting but before
emergence of weeds
2. Metribuzine (Sencor) 1.0 – 1.5 kg a.i/ha in 500-
600 liters of water
Pre-emergence
3. 2,4-D (Fernoxone) 1-1.5kg a.i./ha in 500-600
liters of water
Post emergence
4. Glyphosate (Round
up/Glycil)
0.6-1.6kg a.i/ha in 400-500
liters of water
Post emergence, use
spray hood for spraying.
Avoid spraying on
sugarcane.
Earthing up:
1. Sugarcane needs light earthing up to 12-16 weeks after planting. It is done by small
iron plough or mannually. (Bal bandhani ) – 3-3.5 Months.
2. Final earthing(Mothi bandhani) up should be done. 20-24 weeks after planting by iron
plough or ridger. (4.5 – 5 Months)
Mulching:
The cane trash use as mulch to conserve moisture. This helps in reducing the water requirement
of crop. It is also useful for suppressing weed growth. 7.5 tonnes of trash/ha is sufficient for
mulching.
Detrashing:
Removal of dried leaves from lower parts of plant called detrashing. Detrashed leaves
are useful for mulching & defoliated green leaves are useful for fed to cattle.
Wrapping and propping of sugarcane:
These operations are done in sugarcane just to provide mechanical support to the grown up
cane plants to prevent lodging and mostly adopted in Andhra Pradesh in the areas prone to
cyclonic winds and torrential rains from North East monsoon. By wrapping the distribution of
CO2 becomes easy and proper to all plants throughout the field. The dried leaves are removed
from the plants; the green leaves on the plants are wrapped together by taking all the canes of
one bundle. After wrapping the clumps in adjacent rows are tied together (crosswise) to form
a sort of bridge or arch. Lower leaves of cane are twisted into the form of rope. Within the
loops of the rope the canes are enclosed and the rope is run the line at about 1.5m heights from
the ground level for about 3-4m-row length. Bamboos are introduced in middle of unwrapped
clumps and the ends of crop rows to give added strength.
Crop Rotations:
Paddy - Sugarcane – Ratoon – Wheat
Cotton – Sugarcane – Rabi Sorghum
Cotton – Sugarcane – Gram

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Bajra – Pre-seasonal Sugarcane – ratoon – Wheat – Sunnhemp
Adsali Sugarcane – Ratoon – Wheat – Sunnhemp
Intercropping:
Growing of short duration intercrops in between two rows of sugarcane has become almost
adopted practice in sugarcane.
Sugarcane is usually intercropped with maize, onion, garlic, potato, bhendi, peas,
cowpea, soybean, Cole crops, mustard and gram.
Harvesting:
Signs of Maturity:
1. Leaves become yellow
2. Plants stop growing & emergence of arrows in case of flowering varieties.
3. Swelling of eye buds’
4. Breaking of cane at nodes
5. increase sweetness of juice
6. Cane gives Metallic sound when tapped with fingernail at the internodes.
7. Brix reading should be 19º to 24º at the harvesting.
8. Hand refracto meter reading should be 21 to 24º
Harvesting is done by means of cutting the plant at bottom with sharp chopper, detrash the
trash & cut the tops.
Yield:-
1. Suru planting: - 100 tonnes/ha
3. Pre-seasonal planting:- 125 tonnes/ha
4. Adsali Planting:- 150 tonnes/ha
Ratooning in Sugarcane:
Ratoon is a crop, which is allowed to grow in the same field from roots of the previous crop
without planting new seed setts.
Merits / Advantages of ratooning.
1. Saving in cost of seed bed preparation, planting and planting materials
2. The ratoon crop utilizes the residual fertility of the previous crop.
3. The ratoon crop matures earlier and helps in running sugarcane factories earlier. Thus
the field is vacated earlier for the next crop.
4. Total cost of cultivation is less as compared to the planted cane.
Demerits/ Dis-advantages of ratooning.
1. The ratoon crop is invariably attacked severely by insect, pests and diseases. Thus yield
is less.
2. The Soil becomes poor in fertility when ratooning is done more than two years.
Ratoon Management in Sugarcane.
1. Short duration varieties having good ratooning ability should be selected.
2. Any harvested plant cane upto first fortnight of February can suitable to maintain for
ratooning purpose, because there after increase in temperature and that affect the ratooning
ability. It also affect sprouting of buds and increase pest and disease problem.

87
3. Stubble shaving (cutting of stubbles) should be completed immediate after harvest of plant
crop to encourage shoots from lower internodes and to have uniform stand of the crop.
4. On shaved stubbles spray 0.1% Bavistin.
5. Within 8-10 days after harvest of plant crop the soil near the stubbles/stools should be
loosened.
6. First dose of fertilizer has to be applied within 15 days after harvest of plant crop and
irrigate the field.
7. Trash material at the rate of 5 t/ha has been found beneficial if it is incorporated in the
furrows.
8. Use 8 kg urea+10kg single super phosphate+1kg compost culture per 1 ton of trash for
early composting of trash.
9. Gap filling with the plantlets raised from one eye bud setts in polythene bags increase the
cane number resulting in higher yields.
10. Use of biofertilizers and micronutrients also improves the ratoon yield. Spraying of 0.5%
ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) + 0.2% magnesium sulphate (MgFeSO4) + 12.5% urea is
recommended for control of mosaic disease.
11. Final earthing up should be carried out 3.5 to 4 month after harvesting of plant crop.
12. The crop matures earlier, usually in October; therefore, it should be harvested earlier.
Fertilizer schedule for ratoon management:
Sr.No Time N (Kg/ha) P (Kg/ha) K (Kg/ha)
1. Within 15 days after
harvesting
75 115 115
2. 2 Months after harvest 75 - -
3. At the time of earthing up 100 - -
Total 250 115 115
Varieties for ratoon Sugarcane:
CO-740, CO-7219 (Sanjivani), COM-88121 (Krishna),
CO-86032 (Nira), CO-94012 (Phule Savitri),
COM-0265 (Phule –265)
Yield: - 100 tonnes/ha.
Question bank
Q.1. Describe the of cultivation of ‘Suru’ Sugarcane on following aspects

88
1. Selection of Planting material 2.Time and method of planting
3. Manures and fertilizer application. (Nutritional requirement)
4. Control of Weeds
Q.2. Explain the cultivation on following points for ‘Adsali’ Sugarcane.
1. Selection of seed material 2. Time and method of planting
3. Manure and fertilizer application 4. Weed Control
Q.3Write the cultivation of sugarcane of following points.
1. Selection of planting material 2. Preparation of setts
3. Planting time & methods of planting 4. Intercropping
5. Signs of maturity and Yield
Q. 4.write the cultivation of pre-seasonal sugarcane on the following points.
1. Selection of planting material 2. Time and method of planting
3. Manure and fertilizers application 4. Intercropping.
5. Signs of maturity and harvesting
Q. 5. Describe the cultivation of sugarcane on the following points.
1. Planting time 2. Seed treatment & position of bud placement
3. Irrigation and water management 4. Interculturing.
Write short notes on
1. Nutrition in sugarcane 2. Crop log technique in sugarcane.
3. Ratooning in sugarcane 4. Wrapping & propping of sugarcane
5. Seed treatment in sugarcane.
Give reasons:
1. Partha method of sugarcane planting is more popular in waterlogged soils of heavy
rainfall tracts.
2. Crop logging is a good indicator of nutrient status in sugarcane.
3. Length of seed piece and planting depths affects the germination of sugarcane.
4. Sugarcane setts are treated with hot water before planting.
5. Wet method of planting of sugarcane is also called as blind planting.
6. Top portion of sugarcane is generally used as planting material.
7. Plant cane whose ratoon is to be maintained should be harvested at soil level.
8. Adsali planting of sugarcane is not followed in heavy rainfall areas
9. Rajooning or Rayungan method of planting of sugarcane is followed under flood prove
conditions.
10. In heavy soils sugarcane is planted by dry method.
Fill in the blanks.
1. Indian Institue of Sugarcane Research(IISR),Lucknow,UttarPradesh(Founded,1952).
2. Sugarcane Breeding Institute,Coimbatore,TamilNadu(established,1912).
3. Brazil is known as sugar bowl of the world as it has largest sugarcane area and
production of in the world.
4. Khandsari is raw unrefined sugar made from thickened sugarcane syrup.it is neither bleached
and without any additives.

89
Sugarcane crop Cane setts
Paired row planting+Drip irrigation Ring method of planting
Raising seedlings from eye bud. Arrowing/flowering in sugarcane

90
Sugarcane breeding field True seeds of sugarcane-fluff.

91
2. Sugar beet
Botanical Name :- Beta Vulgaris
Family:- Chenopodiaceae
Local name:- Sharkarakand, Beet.
Sugar beet is cultivated mostly in colder temperate region. It is a biennial crop but
usually cultivated as an annual crop for sugar and for the seed production till second year.
Sugar beet has a larger tap root and reduced stem.
1. It provides about 44% of world sugar production.
2. It produces about 50 – 70 tonnes of roots/ha with sugar content of 15-16% & on an
average sugar recovery of 10-12 %
3. Beet pulp, after extraction of juice may be used as a nutritive cattle feed, either fresh or
dried.
4. Dry pulp contains 60% carbohydrates (CHO), 5% protein.
5. The molasses can be used for feed and variety of other industrial uses in manufacturing
Citric acid, Yeast, antibiotics & other products of fermentation industry.
6. Sugarbeet also yields 7-10 tonnes of green tops useful as a fodder to cattle or for green
manuring. Green tops of 1 ha, add 100kg, ‘N’ to the soil. Freshly harvested tops contain
oxalic acid that is harmful to cattle, this harmful effect may be counteracted by addition
of 60 gm finely ground lime per 100 kg of tops or it should be mixed up to 20% with
other roughages.
7. Sugarbeet is useful for cultivation on salty soils where Sugarcane is poorly yielding.
8. Tops contain 10% CP & 60% TDN.
Origin & History:
Origin-Mediterranean Region:
In 1746, German Chemist Andreo S. Margrave analyzed many plants & found that the
crystals formed from sugar beet juice had the same physical & chemical properties as that of
sugar crystals from sugar cane juice. Franz Carl Achard and recognized as the Father of beet
sugar industry. He discovered that the white skinned & fleshy type beets had sweetest juice.
These guidelines laid to the development of sugar beet varieties & Sugarbeet industry.
Area & Production:
Crop of temperate countries like U.S.A., Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, &
Netherlands, France, etc.
In Kashmir valley, Sugarbeet holds out a promise as a rain fed spring crop. Since it a
biennial plant & does not produce seeds until the second year. During the first year, the roots
develop to full size & in the second year seeds are produced. The beetroot is richest in sugar
content slightly above the middle and sugar decreases towards both ends. In India, Sugarbeet
is cultivated mostly in Kashmir valley,Himachal Pradesh,Punjab,Haryana,Rajasthan and U.P.

92
Soil and Climate:
Soil: can be grown in well-drained sandy loam to clays loam soils. Heavy soils should be
avoided. It can thrive very well in saline alkaline soils with pH value as high as 9.5
Climate:
It is crop of temperate & cold climate It is highly versatile & can be raised successfully
in any region with temperature ranging from 12 to 45ºC
Germination - 15 ºC
Growth & sugar accumulation - 20-22ºC is ideal
Temperature >300
C retard sugar accumulation.
The Sugarbeet is a biennial plant normally completes its life cycle in two years. During 1st
year,
the roots develop to full size & 2nd
year, it produces flowers & seed. Sometimes due to
unfavorable climatic conditions (prolonged cool period), the plant gives out seed stalk in the
first year itself, which is termed as bolting.
Land preparation:
Sugarbeet requires good firm seedbed. Field can be prepared by 1- deep plough. Followed by
2 to 3 cross harrowings. Planking should be done to make seedbed smooth.
FYM – 20-30 t/ha – last harrowing.
Ridges & furrows are opened at distance of 45-60cm. The height of ridge – 15-20 cm.
Seeds & Sowing:
Sowing Time – 15th
October – 15th
November
Spacing - 45-60 x 20-25 cm – Dibbling
Methods of Sowing:
1. Drilling in flat beds: 45-65 x 10-15 cm
2. Dibbling: 2-3 seeds dibbled at a distance of 20-25 cm on both sides of the ridge
Sowing Depth: 4-5cm
Seed Rate: - 8-10kg/ha
Seed Treatment: To ensure better germination, seeds are soaked in plain water for 4-5 hours.
Plant population – 80,000- 1,00,000/ha.
Varieties:
Erotype E, Romonskaya, US-35, US-75, Maribo Anglo Poly, Maribo Resista Poly, Triplex,
Maribo magna Poly, shows good performance in Indian conditions.In Maharashtra- Maribo
Resista Poly, Triplex is good . The Diploid muttigerm variety Romoskava – 06 is
recommended for commercial cultivation.
Manures & Fertilizers: -

93
FYM – 20-30 t/ha
N : P : K
100-120 kg/ha : 80-120 kg/ha : 100-120 kg/ha
1/3 1/3 1/3
Sowing After thinning at earthing up in December
(One month) (2 months)
Not to apply K2O fertilizer containing chloride ions .
Disease developed due to boron deficiency is called as ‘Heart shed’
After Care:
Gap filling: Gap filling by dibbling the seeds may be done as early as possible after emergence
of the crop. The gap filling by transplanting seedling is not recommended in sugar beet because
transplanting results in production of malformed fongy roots having poor weight.
Thinning:
Sugarbeet seed is multigerm, which gives out cluster of seedlings per glomerule (seed ball). To
avoid the competition among them & to maintain a single robust plant per glomerule, it is
necessary to pluck off remaining one (seedlings). The thinning should be done when the
seedlings are about 10 days old and having 3-4 leaves in them. Thus a uniform spacing of 20
-25 cm between the plants should be maintained by thinning after 30 days.
Weed control:
The crop should be kept weed free at least for the first 35-45 days. Approximately 3-4 hand
weeding are enough to maintain weed free crop for the good yield.
Chemical weed control:- Pendimethalin herbicide @ 1-1.5 kg a.i./ha + 500 liter water as pre-
emergence spray.
Earthing up:
The soil should be little loosened and earthing up of the crop should be done in December after
finishing the last top dressing of ‘N’ fertilizer.
Water Management:
The crop can not tolerate drought & hence it is very sensitive to inadequate water supply but
at the same time, excessive irrigation is highly detrimental to the root quality of the crop.
Interval of irrigation – 10-12 days.
Lighter & frequent irrigations are better than heavier irrigations. In all 7-10 irrigations
are better to be given with total 60-100 ha.cm of water.
Crop rotation & mixed cropping:
1. Cowpea (Fodder) – Sugarbeet – cotton – sugar cane
2. Maize/paddy – Sugarbeet – Dhaincha (G.M.) – Sugarcane.
Intercropping of Sugarbeet with pre-seasonal sugar cane is economically feasible.
Harvesting & Yield: It has been found that sugar in roots is about 10% at the beginning of
February, gradually increases to 15-16% - Mid of March. There after more or less constant or

94
may come down if crop remain field for long time after maturity.Generally October sown crop
is ready to harvest in the month of April/May.
1. Lower leaves dried
2. Brix reading above 19º.
At the time of harvesting there must be enough moisture in field to facilitate harvesting. The
harvesting may be done by running a plough along the rows on both sides. Also roots are pulled
by kudali. The roots should not be washed with water as it causes a rapid deterioration. The
adhering soil should be cleaned of the roots by thorough shaking. The roots should be topped
at the leaf crown.
Yield: 35-50 tonnes/ha – beet roots with 15-16% sucrose content, 8 – 10 tonnes of green
tops/ha
Processing of sugar beet for sugar manufacturing:
Sugarbeet gets spoiled very fast & hence it has to be processed in sugar mills within 48 hrs. of
its harvesting.
In manufacturing of sugar the topped beets are washed in a flume of rapidly flowing
water. They are then sliced mechanically into thin angular strips. The sugar is extracted from
slices by the diffusion process in large drums that contain warm juice followed by warm water
at temperature of 80-84ºC after the separation of juice from the pulp, milk of lime is added to
the juice in large tents to precipitate impurities & to neutralize oxalic acid & the organic acids.
Excess calcium is precipitated as calcium carbonate by carbonation of limed juice. The juice is
then filtered, further clarified, decolorized with sulphur and again filtered. The Juice is then
concentrated to syrup under reduced pressure in steam heated vacuum pans or evaporators. The
syrup is treated with Sulphur-di-oxide, again filtered & evaporation is continued until the sugar
crystallizes. The mixture of sugar crystals and molasses is separated in a centrifuge and dried
in a granulator.
Seed Production: It is not possible on the plains because of very high atmospheric
temperature. On commercial scale National Seed Corporation and Govt. of Himachal Pradesh
undertake the seed production in Kashmir and Kalpa Valleys. For producing the seed, healthy
roots are selected; they are cut off about 1/3rd
of their tapering length and again planted in
nicely prepared and fertilized plots. An efficient Plant Protection measure and appropriate
isolation from other variety are maintained and the seed is produced. The seed production
industry has a very wide scope in India.
Question bank
1. Advice the farmer about the cultivation of sugar beet on following points.
(a) Varieties (b) Seeds & sowing (c) Fertilizer management
(d) Harvesting and yield.
2. Describe the cultivation of Sugarbeet on following points.
a) Planting time b) seeds & sowing c) Irrigation & water management
d) Interculturing e) Fertilizer management.
Short notes:
1. Bolting in sugar beet 2. Economic importance of sugar beet
3. Sugarbeet processing for sugar manufacture

95
4. Sugarbeet by products & utilization.
Objective: a) Give reasons:
1. Green tops of sugarbeet are not fed directly to cattle
2. Gap filling with seedling is not recommended in sugarbeet.
b)Fill in the blanks:-
1. Franz Carl Achard is recognized as father of Sugar beet Industry.
2. Plant population – 80,000- 1,00,000/ha.
3. Botanical name of Sugarbeet is Beta Vulgaris L.
4. Family:- Chenopodiaceae
5. Sugar beet contains 15-16 percent sugar.
***

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Sugarbeet field Sugar beet plant
Sugar beet development
Sugarbeet harvesting
V-Other Crops

97
1. Potato
Botanical Name :- Solanum tuberosum L
Family – Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Local Name-Batata. Alu
Commercial crop/Tuber Crop
1. Potato is the most important food crop of the world.
2. Potatoes are rich source of starch, vitamins, especially( vit.C&vit.B ).and minerals.
3. They possess20.6% CHO (Carbohydrates), 2.1% Protein, 0.3% Fat, 1.1% crude fiber
and 0.9% ash
4. Used for several industrial purposes such as starch & alcohol
5. Used for production of dextrin & glucose
Classification:
The genus solanum consists of 7 cultivated & about 154 wild species, but the commercially
viable potato has only 2 species.
a. Solanum andigenum – Not very common, Thin long stem & narrow leaf lets.
b. Solanum tuberosum – It is more common plants have shorter & thicker stem & wider
leaf lets.
Origin and history: - It is originated in Andean valley South America. It was then introduced
into Europe in about 1550 AD. It was introduced in India at the end of 16th
century by
Portuguese. Potato research in India formally began on 1st April, 1935 with the opening of
three breeding and seed production stations at Shimla, Kufri (both Shimla hills) ( name of
potato varieties given) on and Bhowali (Kumaon hills), under the Imperial Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi. The institute was established in August 1949 at Patna and later
newly created ICAR-CPRI headquarter of the institute was shifted to Shimla, Himachal
Pradesh in 1956
Botany:
Potato is herbaceous annual vegetatively propagated by tubers. The tuber is an enlarged
underground stem produced on the end of a stolon & not on the roots. The root of potato is
adventitious.
Area & Production:
China, Russia, Ukraine, Poland & India are the leading potato growing countries of world.
India the second largest potato producer in the world after China accouting45 million tones
from 1.96 million ha area during 2012-13.
In India potato is grown in almost all the states. Nearly 80% of the crop is grown in
Indo-Gangetic plains comprising Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar & W.B. Gujarat has highest
productivity in India.
Potato- Growing Zones:
India has been divided into 5 potato-growing Zones on the basis of soil & climate.
I. Western Himalayan Zone.
It consists of hilly area of H.P., J.K., and U.P.. This zone is subdivided into 3 sub-zones on the
basis of altitude.

98
a. Very high hills Zone:- This sub-zone is situated at the altitude of 2500-3000m above
the mean sea level (MSL). soils are acidic. Potato is grown from April to September /
October. Occasional snowfall, hail storm & frost during winter. Tuber Yield to the tune
of 45 tonnes/ha.
b. High Himalayan Hills Zones: High Himalayan Hill Zone is is situated at the altitude
of 1800-2500 m (MSL). Soils are sandy loam to loam in texture & acidic in reaction.
c. Mild – hills zone. Altitude 1000-1800m above the mean sea-level. Soils are acidic.
Spring crop of Potato is raised from January–February to May-June. The temperatures
are mild; with occasional frost & hails are early stages.
II. Plains Zone:
a. North-western plains zone: Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan & some parts of
neighbouring states. It accounts for 4.3% of the total area. Altitude – 300MSL.Three
crops of potato are taken viz., early (autumn planted),main and spring crop. This Zone
is important for production of seed potatoes which are supplied to peninsular &
southern parts of India.
b. North-Central plains Zone. Western U.P. & M.P. & covers about 25% of the total
area. Soils are neutral to alkaline. The main crop is planted in October to November.
c. North-eastern plain Zone:- This zone comprises eastern U.P., Bihar, Orissa, & West
Bengal. It covers about 30% area. The crop is planted in November – December.
III. North – eastern Hills Zone:-
Hilly areas of W. B. & 7 States 10% of total area, Rainfall is high in hills.
Two distinct growing seasons. January – February to August – in higher
hills. August September to December- Lower hills.
IV. Low Hills & Plateau Zone:-
Altitude – 600-1000MSL
Gujarat, M.S., M.P. K.K., Orissa, 7% of total potato area
July – September – Rainfed crop
November – February – Irrigated Crop.
V.Nilgiri & Kodaikanal Hills Zone:
Altitude – 2200m above MSL
The soils are lateritic in nature having low pH & possess high ‘P’ fixation capacity.
Potato is grown throughout the year(in three seasons).
Soil and Climate
Climate :Potato is a temperate or cool season crop, which needs low temperature, low humidity
& bright sunny days.
25ºC - Germination
20ºC - Vegetative growth
Between 17-20ºC - For tuberization & tuber development.
Temperature above 30ºC stop tuber formation completely because at higher
temperature rate of respiration increases & carbohydrates formed by the process of
photosynthesis is consumed rather than stored in tubers. Cloudy days, rains and high humidity
are very congenial for spread of fungal & bacterial diseases.

99
In M.S., it is grown in kharif as rainfed crop (Satara and Ahmednagar) & during rabi,
as irrigated crop in Pune & Nashik district.
Soil:Sandy or medium loam soils rich in organic mater content, slight acidic soil is preferable;
soil pH should be between 5-7. Soil should be loose, friable, well aerated with good drainage.
This crop does not grow well in saline soils & under highly acidic conditions it suffers from
scab disease.
Preparation of land:Tuberization prefers to have well pulverized smooth tilth which may be
obtained by giving two ploughing (20cm, deep) with mould board plough followed by clod
crushing and 2-3 harrowing, planking and collection of stubbles.
Seeds & sowing:
Planting Time:
Rabi : Mid October to Mid November
Kharif – June to July
Seed size, seed rate & spacing:
Tubers having 30-50g weight are the most economical and resulted in higher yields.Whole
tubers should be planted for early crop.
Seed Size (cm)
(in diameter)
Spacing (cm) Seed rate
(q/ha)
Crop
2.5 x 3 45 x 15 10 Early Crop
4.5 x 5.0 50 x 20 25 Seed Crop
2.5 x 4.0 60 x 25 20 Ware Crop
For main crop cut tubers can be planted. While cutting the tubers, care should be taken
that each piece has 2 to 3 eyes & weights at least 25g.
For planting 1ha area – 800-1500kg/ha seed potatoes are required
Spacing: - 45 cm x 30 cm
Seed treatment:
1. Chlorinated water :- Wash the tubers in chlorinated water before planting.
2. Both the whole & cut tubers should be treated with captan (captin, captop) 30g +
carbendazin (Bavistin) 10g/10lit of water for protecting them from fungal diseases like
black scurf rotting of seed Potatoes for 20-30 minutes.
3. Before cutting the tubers, the potato knife is disinfected with solution of Blitox (0.3%)
to prevent the spread of mechanically transmitted viruses.
Varieties:
1. Kufri Chandramukhi – Early (80-90 days) wide adaptability, susceptible to blight yield
– 25-30 t/ha, suitable for Kharif & Rabi seasons.Tubers are white, attractivie and oval
with deep eyes.
2. Kufri Lavkar – Early maturing (75-90 days) suitable for rabi.Yield – 25 t/ha.Tubers are
round and white with medium deep eyes.
3. Kufri sinduri – Late maturing (120-140 days) wide adaptability. Yield – 30-35 t/ha
Tubers are round medium sized with deep eyes and light red colour.
The above varieties are generally cultivated in Maharashtra.

100
Other are –
(A) Early – Kufri Alankar, Kufri Shakti, Kufri Navtal, ‘Kufri moti’
(B) Late – Kufri red, kufri Kissan,
(C) Varieties for hills:- Kufri joti, Kufri jeevan, Kufri naveeen, Kufri moti.
New variety: Kufri frysona:It is used for preparation of French fryies.
True Potato Seed(TPS)-HPS-1/113,C-3.
Planting Methods:
1. Planting on ridges:-
Ridges are opened at a distance of 45-60cm & tubers are planted opposite on these ridges at a
distance of 30 cm. The planting is done with the help of khurpi.
2. Flat bed planting:
Most common in areas having light sandy soils. Planting of tubers is done on flat surface in
very shallow furrows & planking is done. It is not scientific method & hence hot recommended.
3. Planting potatoes on flat surface followed by ridges:
This method adopted in irrigated & light sandy soils. The shallow furrows are opened on the
flat surface. Potatoes are planted in furrows & immediately after planting, small ridges are
made.
FYM – 40-50 CL/ha (20-25 tonnes/ha)
N P K (Kg/ha)
At Planting 100 : 60 : 120
1 Month
After planting 50 : - : -
(At the time of
earthing up)
Micro nutrients
ZN - Zn deficiency – ‘little leaf’ appears on young developing leaves,
yellowing of foliage.
Fe - Yellowing of leaves near the growing point of the plant.
Mn - Yellowing & slight cupping of younger leaves, blackening of leaf
Cu - Light green colour of young immature leaf blades
B - Formation of bushy plant with droopy leaves.
Mo - Chlorosis
Micronutrient
Fertilizer
Soil Application
(kg/ha)
Spray Application
g/100 lit. of water
Tuber Soaking
Treatment g/100 lit.
of water
ZnSO4 25 200 (0.2%) 50 (0.05%)
Fe SO4 50 300 (03%) 75 (0.075%)
MnSO4 25 200 (0.2%) 50 (0.05%
CuSO4 25 200 (0.2%) 50 (0.05%)
Ammo. Molybdate 2 100 (0.1%) 20 ( 0.02%)

101
Sodium borate 2 100 (0.1%) 20 (0.02%)
In case of Fe & B, spray has been superior to soil or seed treatment. In the seed soaking,
tubers may be soaked for 30 minutes in micronutrient solutions & dried before planting.
Water Management:
Total water requirement - 50-60 ha.cm
Total no of irrigation- 8-10
1st
– immediately after planting
2nd
– 1 week after planting
Subsequent irrigation may be given at an interval of 6-8 days.
The irrigation water should not be salty as potato can not tolerate saline conditions.
Most critical growth Stages for irrigations are – Germination (10-12 DAP)
Tuber initiation (30-35 DAP)
Tuber bulking (55-60 DAP)
Intercultivation & Earthing up:
Potato tubers are modified underground stems, which synthesizes anthocyanin &
chlorophyll, if exposed to sunlight. It is essential to cover the tubers with soil because with
chlorophyll formation, the tubers stop accumulating starch & remain smaller & the Solanin
formation in green tubers results into bitter taste of tubers which is harmful if consumed.
Earthing up
In case of flat bed planting-
2 earthing up
25-35 DAP 45-50 DAP
In case of ridge planting methods
Light earthing up 30-35 DAP
of 10-15cm
Plant height
Soon after planting.
While earthing up it is essential to loosen the soil around the plants, then fertilizer, for
top dressing is mixed with soil after which ridges are prepared. At this the roots are disturbed
and partly damaged, therefore it is essential to provide one very light irrigation.
Weed Management:
1st
Two weeding - 15-20 DAP & 2nd
weeding cum hoeing at the time of earthing up about 30-
35 DAP. Alachlor ( Lasso ) 50 % EC @ 2 –2.5 Kg a.i./ha as a Pre-emergence spray.

102
Crop rotation and mixed cropping:
In the irrigated areas many crop rotations involving potato are feasible. Being a short duration
crop it fits well in many intensive crop rotations.
1. Maize/paddy/soybean – potato
2. Cowpea – potato – Wheat
3. Maize - potato – Wheat
4. Maize – Potato – Potato
5. Maize – potato – Maize
6. Maize – Potato – Onion
7. Maize – Potato – Sugar cane.
Potato can be successfully raised in pre-seasonal sugarcane as an intercrop. Where two
rows of potato can be planted between two rows of sugarcane.
Harvesting:
There should be optimum moisture in the soil at the time of harvest; care should be taken to
avoid mechanical damages like skinning, brushing, etc.
Crop should be harvested when haulms start yellowing & falling on the ground. At this
stage haulms should be removed at ground level. The crop should be harvested about 15 days
after cutting the haulms. Digging is done with kudali or by ploughing the field with wooden
plough or by use of potato digger & exposed tubers are collected.
Yield:- 25 -30 tonnes/ha.
In M.S. crop matures in three months.
Post harvest care- These operations are essential in order to fetch better price in the market &
uniform emergence of the crop.
Curing- After harvesting to avoid further damage to the potato tubers curing is done by heaping
the potato tubers under shade with good aeration at 15-20o
C.,for 10-15days in Indo-Gangetic
plains.
In the hills when potato harvested under wet weather, it is spread in a thin layer for
drying in the shade before heaping.
Sorting:
Sorting leads to removal of diseased, damaged or rough tubers, whereas, grading leads to
classification of healthy tubers into sizes of accepted standards.
Grading of tubers-The potatoes in plains may be graded as-
1. Seed size tubers
2. Large size tubers
3. Chats.
The last of grades can be sold as ware potatoes & the seed size tubers.
The potato tubers obtained from hills are classified or graded as under.
1. Special size – with diameter of 8cm & above
2. Phool size – with diameter of 3 to 5cm
3. Ration size – with diameter of 2.5cm & below.
Storage:
Potatoes are perishable in nature & have to be kept in proper stores to avoid rotting of
tubers. In plains the Seed tubers are kept in cold storage between February-March to September

103
– October. In cold storage, the temperature 4-5o
c and Humidity – 90-95% is maintained. The
CPRI has developed store run on passive evaporative cooling, which is more efficient and
economic at high temperature and lower humidity.
At places where cold storage is not available, the potatoes may be stored in country
stores attached to house.
Question bank:
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of potato with following points.
a. Climatic requirement b. Choice of variety c. Seeds and sowing
d. Irrigation management e. Harvesting and yield
2. Discuss the cultivation of potato on the following aspects:
a. Selection & preparation of field for planting.
b. Planting of potato
c. Manure & fertilizer application
d. Interculturing operations
e. Post harvesting operations(curing, grading and storage)
Fill in the blanks
1. Botanical Name :- Solanum tuberosum L and Family – Solanaceae.
2. Origin of potato –South America
3. Potato tuber is an enlarged underground stem produced on the end of a stolon and not
on the roots.
4. The root of potato is adventitious.
5. CPRI- Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh (1956).
***
Potato Plant with tubers Potato Tubers

104
True Potato seeds
2. Sweet Potato
Botanical Name: Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam)
Family: Convolvulaceae
Origin-Central and South America
Local name-Rataalu/Ratale
Sweet potato is a herbaceous perennial vine, It is a starchy tuberous roots .Tubers are
use as food in many forms .Green tops in succulent stage also use as green leafy vegetable.
Its flesh ranges from white, red, pink, violet, yellow, orange, and purple.

105
Nutrient composition of sweet potato- (per 100g) Energy -86Kcal, CHO-20.1g. Starch-
12.7g. sweet potatoes are high in fibre(3g/100g), contains beta carotene .
Area and Production-It is cultivated in china, Argentina, Venezuela, Puerto
Rico, Brazil Mexico, Peru, Chile, Central America, and Philippines, In 2017, global
production of sweet potatoes was 113 million tonnes, led by China with 64% of the world
total.
In India is cultivated in the Orissa, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,Tamil Nadu.
Soil and Climate:
Soil: Sweet potato can be grown in fertile, well-drained soil, loamy soil with a pH range of
5.6 - 6.6.
Climate- It requires a warm warm temperatures of 24 °C bright sunshine. Annual rainfalls
of 750–1,000 mm most suitable,The crop is sensitive to drought at the tuber initiation stage
50–60 days after planting, and it is not tolerant to water-logging and frost.
Preparation of field
Plough the field to fine tilth.3-4 ploughings followed by 1-2 harrowing and bring the soil to
fine tilth.
Seeds and Sowing
Sowing /Planting time- June – July Rabi- September
Planting material- Vegetatively propagated , Vine Cuttings /slips—small rooted pieces of
tuber. The vine cuttings should be 15-25cm in length with 2-3 nodes and to be collected from
matured vines aged 3 months and above.
Seed rate-Planting material-vine cuttings 50,000/ha
Treat the vine cuttings before planting by dipping in a solution of Azospyrillum mixing 400 g
in sufficient quantity of water.
Spacing- 75cmx30cm or ridges furrows 60cmx30cm
Varieties –H-42,Pusa Safed,Pusa sunehari,H-41,pusa Lal,Co 3, Co CIP 1, Sree Nandini, Sree
Vardhini,
Manures and fertilizers
FYM/Compost-10t/ha.
Fertilizers- RDF-100:75:100kg NPK/ha
Basal application- 50:75:100NPKKg/ha. At planting.
Top dressing- 50kg N –after one and half month after planting followed by earthing up.
Irrigation
Irrigate is done before planting.to keep soil moist at the time of planting. Light irrigation next

106
day after planting.Generally weekly interval of irrigation to keep soil moist. excess irrigation
is harmful to developing tubers.
Interculturing-Keep the crop weed free by two hand weeding.
The vines are lifted and turned on 50th and 75th day after planting but before earthing up to
prevent root formation at nodes.
Earthing up- First earthing up at 1 ½ months after planting.
Second earthing up- 2 ½ months after planting. cover the tubers with soil and give support to
the vine.
Plant Protection-
Pests- Spary 700ml Nuvacron 40EC/Thiodan@1000ml in 500lit.of water to check defoliaters.
Harvesting – sweet potato is about four months(110-120days) duration. Stop irrigation one
week before harvest.it is harvested when leaves and ends of the vines turning
yellow.Harvesting is done by cutting the vine and soil loosen around the plant digging up the
potatoes.Separate out damaged and bruised tubers.
Curing- After digging up the tubers, removes soli adhered to the tubers and kept for curing in
a warm place about two weeks.
Yield- 20-25 t/ha of tubers .
Question bank
3. Write in detail about the cultivation of sweet potato with following points.
a. Climatic requirement b. varieties c. Seeds and sowing
d. Irrigation management e. Harvesting and yield
4. Discuss the cultivation of potato on the following aspects:
a. Soil & preparation of field for planting.
b. Planting
c. Manure & fertilizers
d. Interculturing operations
e. Economic importance of sweet potato.
Fill in the blanks
6. Botanical Name of sweet potato is Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam)
7. Sweet potato belongs to family: Convolvulaceae.
8. Origin of sweet potato is Central and South America.
9. Per 100g of sweet potato has -86Kcal Energy,Starch-12.7g. sweet potatoes are high
in fibre(3g/100g), contains beta carotene.
10. Sweet potato is propagated vegetatively by using vine cuttings/slips—small rooted
pieces of tuber.
***

107
3. Tobacco
Botanical Name :- Nicotiana spp.
Family:- Solanaceae
Sweet Potato Crop
Sweet potato tubers

108
Tobacco is use as narcotic crop–Crops used for stimulation. It is cultivated as cash
/commercial crop. The genus Nicotiana has more than 60 species.
1. Tobacco contributes a major percentage of the total value of commercial crops in India
generating huge socio- economic benefits in terms of agricultural employment, farm
incomes, revenue generation and foreign exchange earnings.
2. Provides employment for about 57 lakh people annually in cultivation, curing, grading,
factories and cottage industries.
3. Tobacco and tobacco products contributes total tax revenue more than
43,000crores annually and foreign exchange around Rs 6,000 crore annually in
terms of foreign exchange to the government.
4. The crop is grown for its leaves, which are used as a cured product.
a. Smoking: It is smoked as pipe, cigar, cigarette or hookah, cheroot, bidi
etc.,
b. Other uses such as chewing, snuff, tooth powder, and insecticides such as
Nicotine sulphate.
1. Origin and History: Tobacco originated in the western hemisphere and the types of
tobacco presently being cultivated evolved in Mexico and Central America. It was
cultivated by the Red Indians at the time of the discovery of America by Christopher
Columbus in 1492. He and his men on landing in the little Island of Tobaus were greatly
surprised to find the native smoking tobacco. In addition to smoking tobacco, the native
ground the leaves into a fine powder or snuff and inhaled it through a hollow cane tubo
called – Tobago. The name tobacco is derived from the word ‘tobago’. Tobacco was taken
to Europe by the spainards in 1560 and then it was introduced into France. In India tobacco
was introduced during the early part of 17th
century by the Portuguese.
2. Area and Distribution:
N. tabacum is widely cultivated in most of the countries in the world and as far North
as Sweden and as far South as New Zealand. The cultivation of N. rustica is restricted to India,
Russia and Some other Asiatic Countries. Though the tobacco plant is of tropical origin. Its
production at present is concentrated mostly outside the tropics except in India.
The three most important tobacco-growing countries in the world are China, U.S.A. and India.
Other countries are Indonesia, Greece USSR, Brazil, Philippines, Turkey and Cuba.
In tobacco production India ranks third after U.S.A. and China with a annual production
of 46 Lakh tones of leaf from an area of about 42.3 Lakh ha. Almost all the states in India grow
tobacco but the important ones are A.P., Gujarat, Karnataka, T. Nadu, Orissa, Bihar, West
Bengal, Maharashtra and U.P. These states account for about 90% production India’s average
production is 1060 kg leaf/ha.
India ranks fourth in the world in tobacco exports after U.S.A. Turkey, Greece and
export is about 80 million kg of tobacco to about 50 countries and earn about 635 million

109
rupees of foreign exchange annually. About 85% of the export consists of flue cured Virginia
tobacco and India is the world’s second largest exporter of Virginia tobacco.
For improvement and development of tobacco the Indian Central Tobacco Committee
was established in 1945. In 1947, the committee established the Central Tobacco Institute
Rajahmundry (A.P.) subsequently the committee established research station at Guntur (A.P.)
ICAR started regional Research Stations at Vedsandur (T.Nadu) Hunsur (Karanataka), Pussa
(Bihar) and Dinhata (West Bengal).
Andhra Pradesh has nearly 50% of the area and production of tobacco. It is mostly
cigarette tobacco; about 90% of the cigarette tobacco produced in India is grown in A.P. The
next state in order of importance is Gujarat, which grows all bidi tobacco.
About 50% of the total area under bidi tobacco is in Gujarat and 40% in Kolhapur,
Nipani, and Belgavi area. The rest is scattered all over India.
Hookah tobacco is grown mostly in Northern States (Assam, Bihar, West Bengal, U.P.).
The Cigar and Cheroot tobacco is prominent in Southern states (A.P., T. Nadu). The chewing
tobacco is cultivated all over the India.
In Maharashtra, Kolhapur and Sangli, districts contribute 80% of the area under
tobacco. Ahmednagar and Solapur have about 10% area. The districts in order of Area and
production are Kolhapur, Sangli, Satara, Ahmednagar and Solapur. The tobacco grown is
mainly bidi tobacco.
In the Southern parts of Chandrapur Cigarette tobacco is grown in about 300 to 400
hectares.
Indian tobacco is classified into two species, namely N. tabacum and rustica.
Sr.No
.
Particulars N. tabacum N. rustica
1 Cultivation All over the country Northern and north eastern regions
of the coutry.
2 Climate Tropical and subtropical Cooler climate
3 Growth habit Plant height Tall, 150-
250cm ,leaves broad and
flowers raddish, pinkish or
white in colour
plant height. Short, bushy 90 to
120cm. round,puckered
leaves,flowers in cluster and dull
greenish-yellow colour.
4 Known as Desii tobacco Vilayti/Calcutta tobacco
5 Used for smoking and chewing
purposes
Cigarette,cigar,cherrt,bidi,h
ookah and sniff tobacco
Chewing and sniff tobacco
6 common varieties virginia and Natu, Harrison
special and deshi.
calcattiya, (of U.P. and Punjab) and
Motihari (of West Bengal).

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7 nicotine content 1. varies from 0.5 to 5.5%. varies from 3.5 to 8.0%
Botanical description: Tobacco belongs to family solanaceae. It is herbaceous annual grown
primarily for its leaves.
Roots: It has central tap root from which numerous short lateral roots extend. The majority of
system is confined to the upper 60 to 90cm layer of the soil.
Stem: Simple, Cylindrical, the height of the plant and length of the internodes vary in different
types.
Leaves: Vary in number, shape and structure. In general, the texture of the leaves of N.tabacum
is finer than that of N.rustica which more or less leathery and tough.
Inflorescence: The stem terminates in a raceme type of inflorescence, which may have more
than 150 individual flowers. Flowers of tobacco plant are complete and perfect. The corolla
contains five petals which are fused into a long tube and which terminate in five expanded
lobes at the tip. The flowers bear five anthers which are fused to the corolla tube. The pistil is
compound and mature into a capsule type fruit. Tobacco is normally a self-pollinated
crop, but cross-fertilization as much as 4 to 10% may occur from pollen carried by insects.
The seeds of tobacco are extremely small; a single fruit may contain as many as 8000 seeds.
Soil and Climate
Soil requirement: Quality of tobacco is greatly influenced by the soil conditions. Tobacco is
grown in light to medium loams poor in humus content but with more of potash, phosphoric
acid and iron. Tobacco does not tolerate waterlogged soil. It is deadly harmful to the plants. It
requires well drained soil. It is generally cultivated in moderately acidic soil with pH ranging
from 5.5 to 6.5.
As a general rule heavy and naturally fertile soils are preferred for cigar, pipe, hookah
and chewing type tobacco. While light sandy and somewhat less fertile soils for the bright
curing thinner and high period leaves such as are required for cigarettes, bidi, cigar wrappers
and high grade pipe tobacco.
Climatic requirement: Tobacco is a tropical crop in origin but it is grown in subtropical and
temperate regions of the world. Tobacco needs 500-1000mm rainfall, which should be well
distributed throughout the growing period. Areas having a rainfall more than 1250mm are not
fit for tobacco production, whereas a rainfall of less than 750mm results in production of
leathery and smaller leaves having very high nicotine content and poor burning quality. The
rainfall at maturity washes gum and resin on the leaves.
An optimum temperature for germination is 28C but it may germinate at a temperature ranging
between 15C and 35C. Temperature above 35C and cold weather and low temperature
affects the quality of the tobacco.

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Relative humidity of 85-95% is an optimum for the crop because at this level of
humidity the leaves are easily used and they do not become very brittle. Water logging is
harmful at any stage of growth. Windstorm at any stage of growth after seedlings establishment
is very harmful because the leaves split and reduce the quality especially when the plants have
large exposed leaf surface.
A crop, which has been subject to a moderate drought throughout growing period,
produces leaves which are thicker, darker in colour, have more gum, does not ferment well and
are inferior in taste and aroma.
Preparation of field: A clean and well-pulverized seedbed of fine tilth is needed for
transplanting of tobacco seedlings. Land should be well prepared by ploughing followed by 3
to 4 cross harrowing. Each harrowing should be followed by planking so that the soil is well
pulverized and leveled. Add 10 to 12 tonnes of F.Y.M. compost/ha in the soil at the time of last
harrowing.
Seed and sowing:
Method of sowing: Transplanting:
Raising of seedlings (Nursery)
Tobacco seeds are very small (0.08 to 0.09 mg per seed wt.) and cannot be sown directly
in the field. The soil selected for raising seedlings should be sandy loam to clay loam. In
some area the tobacco seedlings are raised by rabbing method.
Seedlings and raised in the nursery beds 10-15 cm high, 100 to 120cm wide and of
convenient length usually 3 to 4m) surface drainage is provided by keeping channels 30
to 50cm. These channels provide convenience for watering and weeding as well. During
land preparation for nursery beds F.Y.M./compost is added @ 20 to 25 tonnes/ha. Part of
it, is also spread on the beds in thick layer of 5 cm (about 4-5 kg/bed) to serve as a mulch,
to prevent cracking of soil surface and consequent injury to the seedlings.
For each bed (3 x 1.2 m2 size) apply 125 gm of ammonium sulphate of potash and
50gm of thimate one day prior of sowing. Also apply 35gm of capton or copper oxide by
mixing in 18 liters of water and sprinkle it on seeding with water can to prevent camping
off disease of seedlings.
Sowing of seed on nursery beds:
For transplanting an area of 1 ha, 20-25 gm seed is the necessary and this seed is to be
sown on 20 to 25 raised beds (0.10 to 0.12 ha). Since seed is very small, it is mixed with
ten parts of sand or wood ash to avoid overcrowding of seedlings and ensuing uniform
sowing. Soaking of tobacco seed in water for over-night and then keeping it moist
between wet gunny bags, the seed coat starts splitting in 3 to 6 days. At this stage if the
seed is sown in nursery, the germination will be quick and satisfactory.
In normal course seed takes 5 to 6 days for germination but when soaked in water the
germination is observed in 3 to 4 days. Seed is treated with 2.5% of formalize solution of
0.25% solution of Dithane M- 45, for control of seed borne diseases. Pre sowing seed

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soaking in 50 PPM solution of Gibberalic acid (Ga.3) for 48 hr. increase and hasten the
seed germination.
The time of sowing the seed on nursery bed in Maharashtra is first or second week of
July. Sowing is done in lines across the length of bed by keeping 10cm spacing between
two lines. The depth of sowing should be less than 1cm. After sowing, the seed covered
with soil by a rake and soil surface is compacted. Then the nursery beds are covered with
gunny bags or paddy straw and sprinkled with water sprinkling with water cans avoid
dislocation of seeds.
After care(Nursery seedlings)
The gunny bags or paddy strew should be removed 4 to 5 days after sowing to facilitate
the emergence of seedlings.
Watering of nursery beds should be done carefully. It the seedlings are overcrowded in
some places, they can be thinned out when about 3 weeks old. The beds should always be
kept moist but not wet. In the initial stages, on sunny day 5 to 6 watering will be needed.
Subsequent irrigations are given through a channel after every 3 to 5 days. When the
seedlings are 3 to 4 weeks old small dose of ‘N’ is given as foliar spray. One Kg of
Ammonium Sulphate or ½ kg of urea dissolved in 100 litre of water is sufficient for
nursery of 2.5 R area 4 to 5 sprays of fertilizers may be given. Pure water spray is
followed after liquid fertilizer spray.
Tobacco nursery seedlings are susceptible to a large number of diseases such as
damping off, leaf spot, leaf blight and black shank and to pest such as caterpillars and
nematodes. Spraying of Fytolan, Blitox, Dithane M-45, Endosulphan should be done on
the seedlings to protect them from diseases and pests.
The tobacco nursery may be protected from excessive heat or rain by a removable
cover or thatched tattoos.
Normally the seedlings will be ready for transplanting in 5-6 weeks for N. rustica and 7-9
weeks for N.tabacum.
Seedlings raised on 100-125 sq.m area are sufficient for transplanting on one hectare area.
A week or ten days before the seedlings are pulled out they are allowed to harden by
withholding water to the maximum extent possible. This also helps them to withstand to
sustain from shock of transplanting.
Seedlings are transplanted when they are about 12 to 15 cm. tall and possess 4 to 5
leaves.
Transplanting: Time of transplanting: the period for transplanting is varies from place
to place keeping in view the varieties to be planted, soil and climatic conditions. The time
of raising the seedlings in nursery is adjusted accordingly –
1. A.P. - Cigarette tobacco – Mid October

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2. T. Nadu - and chewing tobacco – Mid October with onset of
monsoon
3. North India- Mid September to Mid October
4. Maharashtra, Gujarat - Bidi tobacco – Second or third week of August.
There should be a intermittent rains at the time of transplanting.
Method of transplanting:
The position of plants is marked by running a marker/marking rope in cross direction. A
few hours before transplanting, the nursery beds are watered to loosen the soil and to help
easy removal of seedlings. Big and vigorous seedlings are uprooted with the help of
khurpi or flat pointed stick without damaging the roots and in such a manner that some
soil will remain adhering to the roots. The seedlings are kept in moist gunny begs and
transplanted. Planting is usually done by hand and seedlings are set carefully in holes dug
10 to 15 cm deep by a khurpi, without bending the roots. The soil around seedlings is
pressed by hand. Without much loss of time the transplanted seedlings are watered
immediately and for 4 to 5 days successively, if there are no rains and also covered by
leaves to reduce heating and transpiration. Gaps may be filled as soon as possible to have
uniform stand and optimum plant population.
Spacing of transplanting: In Maharashtra, tobacco seedlings are transplanted at
different spacing depending on soil type as below:-
1. Heavy soils 100 x 100cm2
- 10,000 plants/ha
2. Medium Soils 100 x 75 cm2
- 13,333 plants/ ha
3. Light Soils 100 x 50 cm2
- 20,000 plants / ha
Spacing of 90cm x 90 cm for medium to heavy soils and 60cm x 60 cm on light soils can
also adopted.
Varieties of tobacco: There are local and commercial varieties grown in the various
tobacco producing areas under both N. tabacum and N. rustica. Improved varieties
evolved at the central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, A.P. and its regional
Research stations are as below:
1. Flue cured verginia cigarette tobacco- Harrison special, chatham, Virginia Gold
Hicks, Kanakapatra, White gold, Dhanadayi. These varieties have been recommended
for flue cured virgina tobacco growing areas of A.P. and Karnataka.
2. Natu: DG-3, DG-4, Prabhat – Recommended , Guntur district of A.P.
3. Bidi:- K-20, S-20, Anand-2, Anand-3, Anand-23, Anand-119, GT-4, Nipani-190,
cultivated in kaira and Barida districts of Gujarat and Belgum, Satara, Sangli and
Kolhapur districts.

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4. Cigar wrapper:- S-5, Rangpur Sumitra
5. Cigar filter:- Olor – 10, Havana, KV-1, KV-2.
6. Cheroot – OK-1, Bhavani special, DR-1
7. Chewing:- I-64, Bhagyalaxmi, PV-7, VR-2, Sona, Gandak Bahar.
8. Hookah:- DD-413, 414, 415, 417, DP 401, R – 12.
Manures and fertilizers: In tobacco crop it is a well-known fact that economic returns
are largely dependent on the right combination of yield and quality rather than on the
yield alone. Quality in tobacco, particularly in the smoking types depends on the balance
of the nutrients in the leaf. Heavy application on N increases the yield, but it has an
adverse effect on the quality. With excess of N supply, the carbohydrate – nitrogen (CN)
ratio gets reduced. On the other hand, it is observed that in chewing, bidi, hookah
tobaccos better quality is generally associated with higher yields that may obtained with
heavy dose of N together with other nutrients. But in flue cured tobaccos for cigarette,
Cigar etc., better quality leaves are obtained from partially starved plants. Phosphorus
requirement of tobacco is comparatively low. Potash is an important element, particularly
for smoking tobacco. A liberal supply of potash imparts a good burning capacity or
combustibility to smoking tobacco. Besides, potash also improves the physical qualities
of the leaf elasticity and low prominence of veins.
Phosphorous should be supplied through single super phosphate and potash should be
supplied through potassium sulphate. Potash should never be supplied through potassium
chloride. Due to chloride (chlorine) tobacco leaves quality decreases, due to chlorine,
thickness of leaves increases and leaves brazen. Humus containing soils are best for cigar
tobacco. Calcium decreases the thickness of leaves and increases the crop yield. Due to
Magnesium deficiency of chlorosis is developed in leaves, which is known as sand
drown. Due to boron deficiency lower leaves become thick. Fertilizer requirement is
varied according to type of tobacco as below(Table):
Sr.No.
Type of tobacco N(kg/ha) P2O5(Kg/ha) K2O(kg/ha)
1. Cigarette 80 60 30
2. Bidi 160 80 30
3. Hookah 100-150 80 40
In Maharashtra, the RDF is 100 kg N, 60 kg , P2O5 and 40 Kg K2O/ha
After establishment of seedlings (10 days after transplanting) 50kg N ¾ 60kg P2O5 40kg
K2O/ha should be applied by making a ring around the plants. The remaining ½ quantity

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of N is applied 1 to 1 ½ month after transplanting. The fertilizers should be placed 10 to
15 cm away and 5 to 10 cm deep.
Water management: Tobacco crop does not tolerate water logging as well as it cannot
withstand drought. It needs light and frequent irrigations. Too much irrigation produces
slick leaf with dirty colour, insufficient irrigation restricts crop growth and the curing of
leaf becomes difficult.
1. In Northern light soils of A.P. altogether 6-7 irrigations are required for flue cured
tobacco, starting 3 weeks after transplanting at 18 mm each for first two irrigations,
25mm each for next 2 irrigations and 37mm at topping and 25mm each for the last 2
irrigations.
2. Most frequent irrigations are needed for cigar and cheroot tobacco. In T. Nadu about
20 to 22 irrigations are given for chewing and cigar filter tobacco.
3. In Bihar 2 to 3 irrigations are given at monthly interval for chewing and hookah
tobaccos.
4. In Punjab, Haryana and U.P. 10-13 irrigations are given for hookah tobacco.
5. In West Bengal 1 to 2 irrigations are given for cigar and hookah tobacco.
6. In Maharashtra and surrounding Nipani area in Karnataka, generally tobacco is taken
as rain fed crop. When there are long brakes of rainfall 1 or 2 irrigations are given at 60
to 90 days from transplanting and one more at 105 day, if needed.
Irrigation water should be free from chlorides as it affects burning quality of tobacco.
More than 50 ppm chloride content in irrigation water inhibit leaf burning, reduce leaf
storage capacity, leads to two faced leaf which ultimately results in low price index.
Interculturing/After care:
1. Gap filling- The tobacco plants get established in about 10 days after transplanting.
Under adverse conditions the gaps may occur in the field, which may be filled up by
transplanting of new seedlings. The gap filling operation should be completed as early as
possible to have uniform stand of crop.
2. Hoeing/Hand weeding-Tobacco is very susceptible to water logging. It requires good
aeration. First intercultural operation should start 10 to 15 days after transplanting when
seedlings are established. Interculturing with bullock drawn implements and hand
weeding helps in improving soil aeration, removal of weeds and non-formation of cracks.
In Maharashtra State, usually 2 to 3 hoeing and 2 to 3 hand weedings are given.
Interculturing is done almost after each irrigation.
Mulching of crop with paddy straw 3.5 tonnes/ha after first interculturing was found
beneficial in the case of flue cured Virginia tobacco on black soils of Andra Pradesh.
In most of areas, tobacco is grown as monoculture which leads to build up orobanche
or ‘bambekhu’. Orobanche is total root parasitic weed, which is found during later stages
of crop growth. This weed come out from the roots of tobacco and nourished on the food

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material of tobacco. It is brownish or yellowish herb without green leaves. This weed can
be controlled by collection and destroying the weed before its seed formation. The weed
can also be controlled by adopting proper crop rotations. Crop rotation like sorghum,
groundnut, there should be followed in such areas. Other crops like soybean, sugarcane,
wheat, cowpea, gram, garlic, and coriander as intercrop and jowar as relay will help in
minimizing problem of this weed to some extent.
The herbicide Allyl alcohol at 0.1% concentration should be spread 15 to 20 days after
emergence of this weed. If necessary repeat spraying after three weeks.
Topping and desuckering in tobacco:
Removal of terminal bud with or without some of the too small leaves just before or after
emergence of flower head is called topping in tobacco.
About a week after topping dormancy buds in the leaf axils become active and put forth
branches technically known as suckers. These are also removed before they exceed 5 cm
in length. This is known as desuckering.
The operation of topping and desuckering are necessary because it produces uniform
leaves, prevent any tendency to excessive coarseness. By topping, it is observed that the
energy and nutrients absorbed by the plants are diverted to the leaves rather than flower
heads. It increases the leaf size, thickness and dry weight of the leaves to the extent of 34,
24 and 84% respectively. Topping also helps in increasing nicotine and improving aroma
of the leaves.
Topping is usually carried out 6 to 8 weeks after transplanting. Topping is also
repeated twice at weekly interval for removing the new growth (new tops end leaves). In
the areas around Nipani bottom 3 to 4 leaves are also removed initially and finally
retained 10 to 12 leaves on each plant. The tobacco plant is topped when it possesses 8 to
24 leaves depending upon varieties and purpose for which the crop is grown. Flue cured
virgins tobacco is topped keeping all the 20 – 24 leaves intact. In case of chewing tobacco
in Tamil Nadu only 7 to 8 leaves are retained on the plant by topping. Topping at 12 to 16
leaves for bidi tobacco in Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra is recommended. To get
full benefit of topping, the suckers are to be removed periodically. In Nipani areas
desuckering is done 67 times at 10 days interval where as in Gujarat, due to high
fertilization, desuckering is done 10-12 times. Desuckering is time consuming; laborious
and more expensive therefore, use of chemicals may be practiced.
1. Application of coconut oil to the top six axils soon after topping suppresses the
emergence of suckers in flue cured Virginia tobacco.
2. In case of cheroot tobacco of Tamil Nadu, application of 3% NAA to the topped portion
suppressed all suckers.
3. Use of Malic hydroxide (MH) 2% or In-dole Buteric acid, petroleum jelly is also
effective in suppressing the growth of suckers.
4. Piercing of the stem after topping with 20 to 25 cm long needle is found to beneficial.

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The number of leaves to be retained on each plant also depends on soil type, variety
and conditions under which it is grown. Under rainfed conditions 14-16 leaves and under
irrigated conditions 18-20 leaves. On heavy soils, more number of leaves as compared to
light soils. In 5-020 varieties 14-16 leaves while in Nipani 190 and H-5 variety 18-20
leaves per plant are kept.
Rotations/Sequence and Intercropping:
In most of the parts, generally monoculture of tobacco is followed. This leads to
buildup of heavy infestation of obnoxious weed orobanche .It is complete root parasitic
weed, to make the soil sickness, build up pest and diseases problem and consequent
reduction in tobacco yield. This can be prevented by following suitable crop rotations,
intercropping and sequence cropping. The most common rotations are as follows.
1. Bihar - Maize – Tobacco – Maize – sunhemp (Green manuring)
potato- sunhemp – tobacco
2. Gujarat - Tobacco – pearlmillet.
3. T. Nadu. - 1). Onion-tobaco, 2) tobacco – Cuilli.
3) Tobacco – redgram, 4) Tobacco –
sorghum/pearlmillet/ragi.
4. U. P. - Potato – tobacco (summer crop) wheat – tobacco
(summer crop), Maize – tobacco (motihari)
5. W. Bengal - Paddy (aus) – tobacco (motihari)
6. M.S. -Tobacco – groundnut – Sorghum – Fallow – tobacco
Tobacco – sugarcane – Groundnut – Soyabean, / Cowpea
Intercropping of onion, garlic, coriander and relay cropping of rabi sorghum in tobacco,
or Tobacco green gram/black gram/cowpea/French bean or early maturing groundnut
should be followed.
Harvesting and yield:
The stage of maturity and the methods of harvesting differ with the type of tobacco.
Tobacco plants starts maturing 5 to 8 weeks after topping i.e. about 4 to 4 ½ months in
bidi tobacco and 3 to 3 ½ months in cigar, cigarette and cheroot tobaccos.
Signs of maturity:
1. When the normal green colour changes to yellowish green or slightly yellow.
2. Leaves droop down and are brittle, thick spotted sticky or gummy.

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In bidi tobacco leaves are ready for harvest when majority of top leaves develop rusty
red spot called spangles. Ion Hookah, chewing, cigar and cheroot tobacco leaves turn
yellowish green, pucker become brittle and break easily on folding.
Methods of harvesting:
Tobacco is harvested by following two methods:
1. Priming: in tobacco generally lower leaves mature first followed by upper ones
therefore when it is essential for quality that all the leaves at harvest should be of correct
maturity. Harvesting is done by removing a few leaves as and when they mature. This
method of harvesting is called priming. Generally 2 to 3 bottom leaves are harvested at
weekly interval. Entire harvesting is completed in about 5 to 6 priming. Soon after
harvesting, the leaves are harvesting, the leaves are strung on bamboo sticks at the rate
of 100 leaves per stick and loaded in the barn for curing. This method of harvest is
followed in case of cigarette and wrapper tobaccos.
2. Stalk cut method: In this method, the entire plant is cut close to the groud with sickle
and left overnight in the field for wilting. Hookah, bidi, cigar, cheroot and chewing
tobaccos are harvested by this method.
Yield: 1.Bidi tobacco – 10 to 12 q/ha (Rainfed) and 15to 20 q/ha (irrigated)
2.Cheroot and chewing – 14-15 q/ha
3.Cigarette - 7 to 8 q/ha.
Curing of tobacco leaves:
It is the operation to remove the moisture from the leaves of tobacco crop without
affecting its aroma, proper colour & texture. Curing is the important operation because
the quality of tobacco and consequently the price depend on curing. Tobacco leaves are
cured after harvest. Curing is a process by which harvested tobacco leaf is made ready for
the market. Curing is done in order to impart the required colour, texture and aroma to the
final product. It is essentially a drying process whereby most of the moisture of the leaf is
removed.Temperature, relative humidity and air supply are the main factors affecting
curing process which are responsible for fixation of colour, yellowing of leaves and better
quality of cured leaves. Different methods of curing are adopted for different types of
tobaccos depending upon the quality requirements. There are five methods of curing
tobaccos
1. Sun curing or rake curing or ground curing.
2. Flue curing
3. Air curing
4. Smoke or fire curing
5. Pit curing.

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1. Sun rake or ground curing:- Most of the tobaccos grown in the country are sun cured.
There are several modifications in sun curing method.
a) Curing whole plants on racks as in cigar and chewing tobaccos. After initial wilting in
the field the plants are strung on bamboo poles and cured in sun. The entire process takes
about 15-20 days.
b) Curing leaves with piece of stem on racks as in Natu tobacco. In this curing, racks are
not exposed to the direct sun, therefore, it takes longer period (6-8 weeks)
c) Curing whole plant on the ground as in bidi and hookah tobacco. In this curing, leaves
are allowed to dry in sun on the ground and are turned over two a day. This process
continues for about a week and then heaps are made which are opened the next day and
re-heaped. This process of heaping opening of heaps, spreading and re-heaping
continues for about 10-15 days. By the end of this period the leaves become complete
cured.
2. Flue curing: The flue-cured tobacco is raised with low level of nitrogen and harvested by
priming method. The Virginia tobacco is cured in special chambers known as bar with
artificial heat passing through metal pipes called flues. Hence this tobacco is known as
the flue cured Virginia tobacco and is exclusively used for making cigarette.
The harvested leaves are strung on sticks, which are then stacked into a flue-curing
barn. The barn is artificially heated. The green leaves should be loaded in the upper half
of the barn and the lighter ones in the lower half, the curing process consists of 3 stages
namely a) Yellowing, b) fixing the colour and drying.
a. Yellowing:- During yellowing, leaf is kept at a low temperature (32 to 35C 35C) and
high humidity for about 30-40 hrs till it attains a bright lemon yellow colour.
b. Fixing colour: After yellowing, the temperature is raised gradually and humidity of
barn is lowered by opening the ventilators. Great care is required in raising the
temperature during this stage. It is raised by not more than 1-2F every hour. With rapid
rise in temperature when the leaf is still wet, results in a bluish-black discoloration
called scalding. It takes about 16-24 hrs.
c. Drying: This is the last stage in flue curing process which may last from 28 to 42 hours.
The ventilators are closed and temperature is again gradually raised to 160F to dry the
veins and midribs of leaves. This completes the curing process. Now ventilators are
opened to cool down the barn. The leaves are left in the barn overnight for absorbing
moisture and to come to normal condition for handling and storage.
3. Air curing: Two types of tobaccos, the lanka tobacco in A. P. and wrapper tobacco in
West Bengal are air cured. Wrapper tobacco is harvested by priming method slightly
on the green side of maturity. The leaves are divided into groups according to their size
and are strung on a string secured on a bamboo stick. These sticks are taken to barn
with closed sides and roof. The leaves are cured under atmospheric temperature.
Relative humidity is maintained by sprinkling of water inside the barn. The entire
process is over in about 5-6 weeks.
Lanka tobacco in A.P. are strung on ropes in a shade for 8-10 weeks. During this
period the leaves turn yellow brown. After this process the leaves are placed in a pit
for 24hrs.Then transferred to the second pit for 48 hrs then back to the first pit for 24-

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48hrs. Fermentation of the leaf occurs during pit curing. After curing the leaves attain
a dark brown colour and fruity smell.
4. Smoke curing or fire curing: This method is adopted in case of chewing tobacco. The
leaves are harvested in such a way that a small portion of stem remains attached to the
leaves. The leaves are wilted for a few hours in the field, then tied into bundles and
hung in a smoke hut. They are smoked for about 12 hrs by burning dried leaves of trees
locally available. After the smoke treatment the leaf is fermented in bulks for 3-4 weeks.
The fermented leaves are given treatment with salt water or with jaggery.
5. Pit curing: In this method, drying is done in pits of varying sizes e.g. in Gujarat and
Nipani they are 90 x 90 x 90 cm, in Tamil Nadu they are circular 3m in diameter at the
top, 2.5 m at the bottom and 2 m deep. The pits are tied all round with straw or jowar
kadbi. The tobacco plants are placed in layer in the pit and the top layer is covered with
straw and gunny cloth. Earth is put on the gunny until the top is well above ground level
and water may not seep into it. The leaves are left there for a week or two. Care being
taken to see that the pit does not get over heated. The leaves are then out and made into
bundles. This method of curing is followed for chewing and hookah tobacco in which
burning quality is not important and the farmer is interested in only getting a product,
which has the requisite taste and aroma.
***
Question bank:
1. Write in short the cultivation of cigarette tobacco on the following points.
a. Raising of seedlings b. Choice of varieties c. Signs of maturity & harvesting
d. Methods of curing.
2. Give the information on the following points in respect of tobacco cultivation.
a. Raising of seedlings b. Planting time, spacing, and care
c. Topping & desuckering d. Harvesting & curing.
3. State the various methods of curing of tobacco and explain in detail the flue curing
method.
4. Write in details about tobacco curing methods.
Write short notes on: -
1. Topping & desuckering in tobacco
2. Flue curing in tobacco
3. Transplanting of tobacco
4. Seedbed preparation for tobacco.
5. Topping in tobacco.
6. Seedbed preparation & sowing of tobacco.
7. Comment/Economic importance of tobacco
8. History of Tobacco.
9. Curing in Tobacco
10. Raising of tobacco nursery

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State true or false: Development of spangle is important factor in determining the
quality of tobacco–(False)
Fill in the blanks:
1. Nicotiana rustica contains 3.5 to 8 % nicotine in the leaves.
2. One hectare nursery area of tobacco is sufficient for transplanting 40ha of main field.
3. The average weight of tobacco seed is 0.09 mg
4. For transplanting one-hectare area 20 to 25 g seed quantity is required.
5. Central Tobacco Institute (CTRI) is at Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh.
6. Magnesium deficiency of chlorosis is developed in tobacco leaves, which is known as
sand drown
Give reasons:
1. Priming is essential in tobacco: - because all leaves are not mature at a time harvesting
of tobacco leaves is done by removing 2 to 4 fairly matured leaves as & when they
mature. It starts from bottom & end to top portion. Each time 2-4 leaves are harvested
at weekly intervals. Entire plants harvested in 5-6 primings.
***
Source- Crop Management and Integrated farming,S.C.Panda
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/tobacco/r
https://en.m.wikipedia.org
Images from internet Google search

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Tobacco Plant Tobacco field
Tobaco Flowering Tobacco seed pods
Tobacco seeds

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Curing
Air/Shade curing Air curing
Sun curing Sun curing
Rack curing

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Fire curing/smoke curing
Flue curing Flue curing
Curing leaves
.

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VI-Medicinal and Aromatic Crops
1.Mentha(Mint)
Botanical name:- Mentha arvensis
Family- Labiatae/ Lamiaceae
Local Name:- Pudina (Marathi) Mint (English),Japanese /Chinese mint/field mint
Origin: Mediterranean region.
It is an aromatic perennial herb, commonly grown for essential oil. There is world wise use of
essential oil and aroma. In India, commercial cultivation of mint(Japanese mint is in northern
states viz., tarai districts, Uttaranchal and central U.P and parts of Punjab
Mint cultivation takes place mainly in China, Brazil, Thailand and Vietnam.
Species of Mentha:-
1. Mentha arvensis (Japanese mint) - contains 70-80%menthol. Cultivated on large scale.
2. Mentha piperita (Pepper mint)-contains 40%menthol intense minty flavour.
3. Mentha citrata (Bergamot mint) about 1-2% menthol and traces of cineole.oil is known
as Lemon mint oil.
4. Mentha spicata (Spear mint) contains less than 1%menthol and lighter flavour.
1. Use for essential oil. Fresh leaves contain 0.4-0.8% oil
2. The main constituents of the oil is menthol – 70-80%(by steam distillation)
3.Aerial parts/leaves is a source of essential oil rich in menthol, carvone, linalool and
linanyl acetate having use in pharmaceutical preparations. Used as an ingredient in cough
drops and related pharmaceuticals.
4. It is use as coolant also used in stomach disorders.
5. It is used in food and flavour industry for preparation of toothpaste, dental cream,
confectionery, flavoring of beverages, mouth washes, scenting of tobacco products and
cosmetics.
6. The spent grass is useful in making pulp for manufacture of hard boards and papers.
Soil and climate:
Soil: well drained medium to fertile deep soil, sandy loams, rich in humus, good water
holding capacity. pH-6 to 7.5. It can also be cultivated on red and black soil.
Climate: It grows in all tropical and sub-tropical areas. It prefers a cooler climate. It
requires temperature 10-300
C and humidity 60 to 70%.rainfall between 100-110 cm.
Areas receiving light showers at planting stage and bright sunshine at the time of
harvesting is ideal for its cultivation

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Bring the soil to fine tilth by one ploughing and 2-3 cross harrowing. All the stubbles
should be removed before the crop is planted.
Seeds and sowing:
a.Planting time:- January to February. The stolons sprout in about 2 to 3 weeks when
planted in February. Throughout year it can be grown.
b.Planting method: planting is done by using runners (rainy season) and stolons (winter),
which develop new roots and shoots at the nodes and form plants. It is propagated mainly
by its stolon.
Planting of stolons end to end in ridges and furrows half way down on inner sides of
ridges.
While in flat beds, open shallow furrows about 7-10 cm deep and planting of stolons end
to end.Cover the stolons with soil and field is irrigated immediately after planting.
c. Seed rate(Planting material)- 500kg stolons/ha or 1, 50,000 cuttings/ha. Use the
planting material from the previous year crop. The stolons/suckers are cut into small
pieces of 3-4mm thickness and 7-10cm length before planting.
d.Spacing:- i) Ridges and furrows: - 45 to 60cmx15cm
ii) Flat bed: - 45 to 60cmx15cm.
Varieties: Japanese mint- MAS-1, Kalka (Hybrid-77) EC-41911,Shivalik (selection from
Chinese cultivar),, Gomti, Himalaya, Kosi, Kushal,EC-41911. EC-41911 selection from
Russian germplasm),
1. Pepper mint:- Kukrail
2. Bergaot mint:- Kiran
3. Spear mint:- MSS-1, 5 Pujnab
4. Other new varieties:- Arka, Neera, RRL-118/3
Manures and Fertilizers:-
a. Manures: FYM/compost – 8-10 tonnes/ha
b. Fertilizers:- RDF- 125:75:37 kg NPK/ha.
1) Basal dose at planting: - 50:75:37 kg NPK/ha.
2) Top dressing: 75kg ‘N’ in 3 equal split, first at plant height 15cm (45-60 days after
planting), then after each cut.
Water management: Apply irrigation immediately after planting. Always keep field
moist. Being a shallow rooted plant, it is better to irrigate at frequent intervals.
Irrigation interval- Winter season –– 10-12 days and summer – 6-8 days.
During rainy season water logging should be avoided by providing adequate drainage.

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Interculturing:
Initial four to 14 weeks after planting is crucial period for weed control. Require
weeding and hoeing at regular intervals in early stages of crop growth. Two to three
weedings before first cutting (100-120 days). After first cut one weeding is necessary.
Chemical weed control:
1. Pre-emergence spray of Diuron or Terbacil @ 2kg a.i./ha
2. Pos-emergence spray of sinbar @ 1kg a.i./ha or organic mulch with Oxyfluorfen
herbicide @ 0.5kg a.i/ha OR pendimethalin @ 1kg a.i./ha + weeding, are found to give
excellent weed control throughout the crop growth.
Pests and diseases
Pests -1.Cutworms- young plants are damaged at the collar region
Control measures--Soil treatment with Phorate 10g before planting.
2.Mint Leaf Roller- The edges of the leaves are held together with silk-like filaments.
Control measures- Two to three sprayings of Thiodan @1.5ml/litre of water at
weekly intervals.
Diseases-Stolon Rot- During rainy season, stolon rot occurs on the underground parts; resulting
in a soft decay.
Control measures- 1.Crop rotation.2. stolons treatment with 0.25% solution of Captan or 0.1%
Benlate, 0.3 % Agallol solution for 2 to 3 minutes before planting .
Fusarium Wilt- Application of Benlate, Bavistin and Topsin.
Crop rotation- Mint -Rice, Mint-Potatoes-Mint: Mint-Vegetables (Peas) etc. depending upon
cropping system followed in the region.
Harvesting and yield: Japanese mint is generally harvested after 100-120 days after
planting, the crop planted through stolons in January and February is harvested twice i.e.
in June and October months.
When the lower leaves start turning yellow. The fresh herbage at harvesting stage contains 0.5
to 0.68% of oil and is ready for distillation after wilting for 6-10 hrs. The wilted crop is cut
10cm. above the ground by means of a sickle. Harvesting should be done in bright sunny
weather. Delayed harvesting must be avoided as leaves start falling resulting in loss of oil.
A second harvest is obtained about 80 days after the first harvest and the third one after
about 80 days from the second harvest.
Yield- Fresh herbage- 20 tonnes/ ha in two harvests which, in turn, yields around
250 kg of oil in a year.
Mint herbage should be shade dried for about a day before it is distilled. Oil is obtained
through steam distillation.
(Source: http://www.nhb.gov.in/Horticulture; Krishidarshini -2020)

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Question bank
1.Prepare a leaflet on cultivation of mint/Japnese/chienese/field mint.
2. Write short note on –Economic impotance of mint.
Fill in the blanks
1. Botanical name of mint is Mentha arvensis.
2. Mint belongs to family- Labiatae/ Lamiaceae.
3. Mint is use for essential oil.
4. The main constituent of the mint oil is menthol (70-80%).
5. Mint oil is obtained through steam distillation.
6.Headquarter of Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(CIMAP)is located
at Lucknow ,UttarPradesh.
***
Mint plant

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2. Lemon grass:
Botanical Name: Cymbopogon flexuosus
Family: Gramineae/poaceae
Local Name:- Marathi – Gavati chaha
Hindi – Gandhaturn
Origin: -South Asia, South-East Asia and Australia.
Lemon grass is aromatic tall sedge. Grown in many parts of tropical and sub-tropical
South East Asia viz., India, Sri Lanka, Burma Thailand, Malaysia and Africa. In India, it
is cultivated along Western Ghats (Maharashtra, Kerala), Karnataka and Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh besides foot-hills of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
Types of lemon grasses are in cultivation in India as the important sources of citral viz.,
1. East Indian lemon grass (C.flexuosus), known as Malabar or Cochin grass
2. West Indian lemon grass (C.Citrates) and
3. Jammu lemongrass (C. Pendulus)
C. Flexuosus grown commercially in Kerala and nearby adjacent states.
Its oil is popularly known as “Cochin oil” as it is shipped mainly through Cochin port.
The essential oil is being traditionally exported to West Europe, U.S.A. and Japan. Out of
three lemon grass species C flexuosus contain high percentage of oil. Hence, it is grown
in Maharashtra state on large area.
1. The chief constituent of the oil is the citral (75 to 85%) due to this oil has strong lemon-
like aroma.it is a starting material for manufacture of ionones, which produces synthetic
vitamin – A.
2. Fresh grass gives recovery of oil about 0.3 to 0.5%.
3. Oil is use in perfumery, cosmetics, beverages, flavouring preparations.
4. The oil used to improve the flavour of some fish, wines & sauces.
5. Oil has antibacterial, insect repellent and medicinal uses.
6. It can also be used for headaches, toothaches and baths viz., essential aromatic
oil/scenting soaps etc.
7. The spent grass is a source of good cattle feed and can be converted into good silage.
8. Spent grasses are also useful for the manufacture of cardboards and papers or as fuel.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Well-drained, sandy loam, rich loam to poor laterites, Soil pH ranging from 4.5 to
7.5 is ideal.
Climate: It requires a warm, humid climate with plenty of sunshine. High rainfall – 250
to 300 cm, well distributed over the year.

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Preparation of land: One deep ploughing in summer. Two harrowings and field should
prepared loose and fine.
Seeds and sowing:
a) Sowing time:- June to July
b) Sowing Method:-Planting of one year old clumps/old plants rooted slips(
commonly followed method of sowing)
c) Spacing: - Ridges and furrow – 90cm x 60cm. One ‘Clumps’/ ‘rooted slips’ OR one
seedling planted on one side of ridge at 60cm distance.
d) Seed rate:- i) Clumps /rooted slips- 22000to 25000/ha
Planting is also done with seedlings. Raised the seedlings on raise bed.
Seeds are sown in lines drawn at 10cm interval in raise beds and covered with cut
grass materials, when seedlings are about 2 months old or about 12 to 15 cm height,
they are ready for transplanting.
Varieties: OD-440, Sugandhi (OD-19), OD-408, OD-440, Pragati, Praman, Kaveri,
Krishna, RRL-16, RRL-39, CKP-25 (Hybrid), SD-68, GRL-1, NLG-84, Chorhahit.
(*Sugandhi (OD-19):- It was released from the Aromatic and Medicinal Plant
Research Station (AMPRS) Odakkali, Kerala. This variety is red in colour and is adapted
to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The plant grows from 1 o 1.75 meter
height and with profuse tillering yield 80-199kg/ha of oil with 80-88% citral under
rainfed condition).
Manures and fertilizers:
a. Manures:- FYM/Compost – 8 to 10 tonnes/ha
b. Fertilizers:- 220:50:50kg NPK/ha
i) Basal dose at planting: 20:50:50kg NPK/ha
ii) Top dressing: 40kg N at 45to 60DAT/DAP
iii) After each cutting 40kg N /ha (160kg N in 4 split doses)
iv) P and K applied per year after first cutting in beginning of every year.
Water Management:
In winter season irrigation interval 15 days. In summer season irrigation interval 10days
Interculturing: Weeding is necessary for the first 2-3 months till the planting material
gets established. Then after each cutting weeding should be carried out.
Harvesting and Yield:
First cutting at 4-5months after planting. Subsequent harvests are done at intervals of 60-
70 days or 3months interval after first cutting depending upon the fertility of the soil and
other seasonal factors.
The grass is cut 10cm above the ground level and 5-6 cuttings can be taken in a year.
Plant height at cutting time is 1.0m to 1.20m. Grass is dry in the shade for 24hrs. The oil

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is distilled from leaves and flowering tops of Lemon grass. Depending upon the soil and
climatic conditions, the crop can be retained in the field for 5 to 6 years.
Yield:
Particulars 1st
Year 2nd
Year to 4th
Year
1. Green grass yield
(tons/ha)
20-22 22-25
2. Oil Yield (Kg/ha) 70-75 75-100
Average oil Yield:- 3 to 5 kg oil from 1 tonnes of grass.
Some difference to identify citronella and lemon grass as both resembles the same.
Citronella Lemon grass
Strong citrusy aroma Lemon like fresh and sweet aroma
Pseudostems red coloured . Leaf sheath
persistent and investing base of culm.
culms 75-300cm long.
Inflorescence composed of
racemes.,terminal and auxillary
Whitish green coloured stems, dense
fasciclles of leaves from a short
rhizome. The culm is stout, erect, upto
1.8 meter high.
Broad leaf blades,deep green colour Long,Narrow leaf blades,light green
colour
It is not used directly for culinary Mostly use as flavoring herb in
soups/curries and herbal tea etc.
Generally known as mosquito repellant
plant
It is known as fever grass due to its
ability to reduce fever in some cultures
and use to prepare herbal tea .
Question bank
1.Prepare a leaflet on cultivation of lemon grass .
2. Write short note on –Economic importance of lemon grass.
Fill in the blanks
1. Botanical name of lemon grass is Cymbopogon flexuosus.
2. Lemongrass belongs to family- Gramineae/poaceae.
3. Lemon grass is aromatic tall sedge grown in tropical and subtropical regions..
4. The chief constituent of the lemon grass oil is the citral (75 to 85%) due to this oil has
strong lemon-like aroma.
5.citral derived from lemon grass oil is a starting material for manufacture of ionones,
which produces synthetic vitamin – A.
6. Origin of lemon grass is South-East Asia/India
7. lemon grass oil is use for insect repellent.
8. Types of lemon grasses are viz.,
1. East Indian lemon grass (C.flexuosus), known as Malabar or Cochin grass

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2. West Indian lemon grass (C.Citrates) and
3. Jammu lemongrass (C. Pendulus)
9. C. Flexuosus oil is popularly known as “Cochin oil” as it is shipped mainly through
Cochin port.
10. The oil is distilled from leaves and flowering tops of Lemon grass.
11. Commonly Citronella /lemon grass is vegetatively propagated.
Lemon grass

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3. Citronella grass/Java/ Citronella grass/Mahapengeri
Botanical Name: Cymbopogon winterianus
Family:- Gramineae/poaceae
Local Name: Malbar grass,
Origin: - Ceylon
Two types of citronella grass-
1 Java Citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus)- Java citronella oil.
2. Ceylon Citronella (Cymbopogon naruds)- Ceylon oil
Citronella grass is a perennial aromatic grass used for extraction of essential oil. It is
cultivated in tropical and subtropical condition with a high rainfall and high humidity areas.
Citronella grass resembles the smell of lemons, which is used in culinary and medicinal
herbs.
Citronella plant is grown in Taiwan, Guatemala, Malaysia, Brazil, Sri Lanka, India,
Argentina, Ecuador, Mexico, and West Indies. In India it is mainly cultivated in lower hills of
Assam, Karnataka, southern Gujarat and parts of Tamilnadu.
The cost of cultivation for hectare of land is about Rs. 1, 10,000. The Indian market rate
of citronella oil is Rs. 800-1000 per kg.
1. It is an aromatic grass.
2. Trade name oil is Java citronella
3. Java citronella oil contains chemical like citronellal 25-45%, citronellol 65%), % and
Geraniol 12-34%
4. Citronella grass leaves contain 0.9 to 1.2% oil.
5. Java citronella oil has higher alcohol content 90-95% and Ceylon type 60-71%.
6. Oil is used in flavorings, cosmetic, soap, and perfumery industries.
7. Oil has also used as antibacterial and mosquito repellent.
8. Java citronella oil is a superior type than Ceylon type oil.
9. The spent grass is a source of good cattle feed, fuel and mulch.
Soil and climate:
Soil: Medium to deep soils rich in humus, having good water holding capacity and good
drainage should be preferred. Soil pH-5 to 7. Alkaline, water logged soils are detrimental
for crop growth.
Climate:
The plant prefers humid warm climate with plenty of sunshine. Places having 75-90%
humidity favour the growth. Well distributed rainfall ranging from 200-250cm.
The land is brought to a fine tilth by one deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowings. Collection
of stables if any.
Seeds and sowing:
b) Sowing time:- June to July

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c) Sowing method:- planting of one year old clumps or old plants rooted slips.
d) Spacing:- 1.Ridges and furrows – 90cm x 60cm. and 60x60cm.
One clumps / rooted slips planted on one side of ridge at 60cm distance.
e) Seed Rate(rooted slips): 27,8000 to 35000/ha
Varieties: Jorhat – C2, Java-2, CIMAP-bio-13, Manjusha, Mandakini, RRL-JOR-3,
IW-31243, IW-31243, IW-31245, KS-CW-SI
Manures and Fertilizers:
Manures:- Fym/compost 8-10 tonnes/ha
Fertilizers: - 160:50:50kg NPK/ha
Basal dose at planting:- 20:50:50kg NPK/ha
i) Top dressing:- 20kg N at 45-60DAP
ii) After each cutting 30kg N/ha (120kg N in 4 split doses)
iii) P and K applied per year after first cutting in beginning of every year
Water Management: For healthy crop growth it should be irrigated frequently. This
crops uses large amount of water. Irrigation interval of 15 days in winter and 10 days in
summer is required for good yield.
Interculturing:
Weeding is necessary for the first 2 to 3 months till the planting gets established. Three
weedings viz., two weeding before first cutting and after first cutting 3rd
weeding. Then
after each cutting, weeding should be carried out.
Pests and Diseases:
Generally leaf blight and Anthracnose affect citronella grass. Dithane M-45 OR Z-78
sprays control leaf blight. However, Anthracnose can be controlled by application of
Dithiocarbamate.
Harvesting and Yield: it is a perennial grass and after planting, crop remains in the field
for 4 to 5 years.
Two cuttings may be obtained in the first year commencing 6 months after
planting. There after cutting at 3 to 4 months interval. Crop should be cut when
attends1.35 meter plant height.
Harvesting (cutting) is done in morning hours. Cutting the plants at 10 to 15 cm above
the ground level. After cutting the citronella grass, it keeps for drying in shade 12-14 hours
and then it is used for extraction of oil. The extraction of this essential oil is done by steam
distillation of grass.
Yield: Average Oil Yield:- 8 to 10kg oil from 1 tonnes of grass.
Particulars(After planting of
First
Year
SecondYear
Third
Year
FourthYear
1. Green grass yield
(tonnes/ha)
20-
25
35-40 45-50 45-50
2. Oil Yield (kg/ha) 200-
250
350-400 450-
500
450-500

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Question bank
1.Prepare a leaflet on cultivation of java citronella .
2. Write short note on –Economic importance of citronella.
Fill in the blanks
1. Botanical name of citronella is Cymbopogon winterianus.
2. Citronella belongs to family- Gramineae/poaceae.
3. Citronella is use an aromatic grass.
4. Java citronella oil contains chemical like citronellal 25-45%, citronellol 11-15% and
Geraniol 12-34%.
5. Origin of citronella is Ceylon.
6. Citronella oil is use for mosquito repellent.
***
Citronella plant Citronella field

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VII-Forage Crops
1. Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Botanical Name : Medicago sativa, Linn.
Family:- Leguminaceae/Fabaceae
Alfalfa or Lucerne is one of the oldest cultivated fodder crops which practically
grown in almost all parts of world but particularly does well in drier parts of world. Being
a deep-rooted crop Lucerne can be grown as rainfed in high water table area both as
annual as well as perennial crop. It is used for green fodder, grazing, hay and silage
making. It is also used as green manuring crop and cover crop. The crop may supply
green fodder continuously for 3 to 4 years as a perennial crop. The green fodder of
Lucerne is very nutritious, palatable and is relished by all classes of Livestock. It is rich in
crude protein with 72% digestibility. Minerals, Ca 1.5%, P 0.2% dry wt. & high amounts
of vitamin A and D. It can be considered as a Queen of Legume Forages since rich in
nutrients. However it should be used only in small quantities. An excess feeding of green
Lucerne causes bloat in cattle. Therefore, start with small quantity of green feed in the
beginning and then gradually increases the quantity of Lucerne feeding. Hay of Lucerne
may replace use of grains and concentrates.
Nutritive Value: Crude Protein (CP)-19-22% CF-25.7% Fat/Ether Extract(EE)-3.1%,
Ash-14.8% and Nitrogen Free Extract(NFE)- 37.7%
Origin and History:
It is generally believed that crop is originated in Southwest Asia. It is supposed that
Lucerne was brought to Greece from Iran and other European countries. In India it was
introduced from Northwest countries sometimes in 1900 and now it has become most
popular and wide spread forage crop both for pasture & cultivated lands.
Area & Distribution:
It is grown mostly in the states of Punjab. Haryana, U.P. Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Tamilnadu as irrigated crop.
It is a herbaceous annual as well as perennial plant growing up to a height of 60-150cm. It
has deep root system consists of strong main taproot and number of lateral roots. Deep
root system makes the plant drought resistant. The stem is erect & branches arise from
crown. Crown is the compact stem at the point just above ground level. The number of
branches may be as many as forty. The leaves are trifoliate (Approx. 48% of the Wt. of
the harvested forage). The colour of the flowers is usually purple, but it may be blue,
yellow or white. The seeds are kidney shaped, small light in weight & yellowish brown
with shiny surface.
Soil and Climate
Soil :- It can be grown on a wide range of soils from sandy loam to clay. It grows best on
well-drained fertile medium deep loam soils. It does not thrive well on very heavy and
waterlogged soils. Crop can’t be grown on alkaline soils but can be grown on acid soils
with liberal application of lime.

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Climate-Lucerne can stand a wide range of temperature but cool and dry climate is
congenial for its growth. It thrives best under cool, dry and sunny conditions. High
temperature accompanied with high humidity, crops suffers badly.
Land preparation:
Lucerne needs a fine, well-levelled seedbed with adequate moisture. Plough the field once
with the mould board plough and 3-4 times with local wooden plough or 2-3 harrowing
followed by planking each time to ensure fine & firm seedbed.
Seed & sowing:
a.Time of sowing- The best time is Mid October-Mid November. Delayed sowing resulted
in poor germination, poor growth and ultimately low fodder yield due to extreme low
temperatures at beginning & high temperature in February-March
For better germination and growth seed should be healthy, bold and yellowish brown with
shiny surface. Don’t select the seed from previous plot affected by cuscuta(Amarvel).
b. Seed rate: 25kg/ha for drilling
c. Spacing: The seed may be drilled in lines 30 cm apart with seed drill.
d.Method of sowing: It is either sown by line sowing or broadcasting.
Broadcasting- after last harrowing & covered with planking or i.e. seed broadcasted in
lines.
e. Seed Treatment: Just before sowing seed treatment with Rhizobium melilotti culture
@250g/10kg of seeds.
Varieties: Sirsa-9, Anand-2, Anand-3, Sirsa-8, CO-1, NDRI-selection NO .1, Rambler
IGPIRIS-244. IGFRIS-54, Chetak (IL-244) SS-627, RL-88, Ahmednagar local.
FYM- 10 tonnes/ha.
Fertilizers- RDF-100:280:40 kg NPK/ha
Basal dose-20:80:40 Kg NPK/ha at the time of sowing. There after
Apply – 20:50:00KgNPK/ha after every fourth cutting.
It is being a leguminous crop fulfills its nitrogen requirement through the process of
symbiotic nitrogen fixation. An adequate application of phosphorus is necessary for the
proper functioning of the nodules.
Lucerne is heavy feeder of soil nutrients, some of the essential micronutrients viz.,
such as boron, iron, zinc & manganese etc. are also likely to become deficient in certain
soils & should be supplied through soil or foliar sprayas per recommendation.
Water management:-It is a perennial forage crop WR is 225hacm /year. To attain
good germination, pre-sowing irrigation is essential. Since Lucerne takes a long time to
establish at early stages very frequent irrigations at an interval of 7-10 days are required.
It is usually irrigated at 6-7 days interval during summer, at 10-12 days interval during
winter. The crop required about 20-25 irrigations in a year. During rainy season do not
allow water stagnation in the field.
Weed control:
First weeding should be done at 20-25 days after sowing and subsequent weedings
should be done after each cutting. Or hoeing should be done after every three cuttings.
Pre sowing application of Diuron (Carmex) @ 2.0 kg a.i./ha or EPTC @ 3.0 kg a.i/ha 30
DAS or MCPB @ 0.75kg a.i./ha, 30 DAS us effective.

138
Plant Protection-Integrated pest management- Care should be taken that don’t feed the
fodder to the animals for a period of 20-25 days after spray of insecticides.
On incidence of semilooper, and pod borer follow spraying of HANPV@500ml/ha at the
time of evening.
2.Release Trichoderma chilonis @1,00,000/ha. Release second time after eight days.
3.Spray B.T. @ 1kg /ha in 500 litres of water.
4.Randomly place T shaped bird perches @15/ha.
Disease management- 1.Bacterial blight- infected plants get stunted and large number of
branched stem. The roots show brownish yellow discoloration of the woody tissues.
Grow resistant varieties, Adopt long duration crop rotation.
2.Leaf spot: Diseased plants turn yellow and leave drop off.
Control measures-Early cutting can cure the crop to some extent. 2. Spray 0.2% solution
of Dithane M-45. But don’t feed the fodder to animals for a month.
Harvesting- Foliage cutting management
First cutting should be done at 50 DAS(at half bloom stage). Subsequent cuttings should
be done at 21-25days interval till the month of May after which it may be left for setting
of seeds as the plant starts flowering. Generally Lucerne foliage cutting takes place for
one and half year and then crop left for seed production. On an average 10-12 cuttings
may be taken per year.
Yield : Green fodder- 1000-1200qt/ha
Seed production: The best seed yields are obtained from the plant crop that is not cut for
fodder. In case of established crop take the last cutting of fodder in January. Stop
irrigation after full blooming to arrest further vegetative growth that ensures good seed
yield. The seed crop should be sown in the row 45-60 cm apart. To avoid shattering of
pods harvesting of matured crop should not be delayed. Harvest when 2/3 of the pods
dries up.
Seed Yield- 2-3 q/ha.
Question bank
1. Enlist rabi forage crops and give the cultivation of any one of them in brief.
2. Explain the cultivation of Lucerne on following points.
a. Seed and sowing b.Varieties
b.Manure and fertilizers d.Cutting management
3. Prepare the leaflet on Lucerne on following points:
a.Soil and climate b.Land preparation
c.Cutting management d.Green forage and seed yield.
4. Write short note on Lucerne.
5. Give reason
1. Lucerne is considered as a Queen of Legume Forages.
2. Quantity of lucerne should be increase gradually in the feed
Fill in blanks
1. RL-88 is a variety of lucerne crop.
2. Crude.Protein content in Lucerne green fodder is 19-22%.
3. Botanical Name : Medicago sativa, Linn.
4. Lucerne belongs to family:- Leguminaceae/Fabaceae.
5. Lucerne is originated in Southwest Asia.

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6. Lucerne is considered as a Queen of Legume Forages.
7. IGFRI-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute.
8. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute is located at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.
***
Lucerne Crop Lucerne flowering Lucerne seeds

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2. Berseem (Egyptian clover)
Botanical Name : Trifolium alexandrium L
Family:- Leguminaceae/Fabaceae.
Local name –Ghodaghas(in Marathi)
Berseem is an important winter forage crop. It is quite nutritive & succulent palatable
forage crop & relished by all classes of livestock. Berseem is known to stimulate milk
production in dairy cattles. It is very good soil binder & adds about 0.38 to 46% organic
carbon, 15-16 kg available phosphorus & about 45kg available Nitrogen to the soil. If is
fed alone to the cattle and they may suffer from bloating. Therefore, it must be mixed
with dry fodder & then fed to the cattle.
Nutritive Value- Crude Protein(CP)-17-19%, Ca(2.89%) & P(0.40%)and70% dry matter
digestibility.
Botany:
Berseem is small herbaceous annual growing up to a height of 60to90cm. The root system
is not as deep as Lucerne. The stems are hollow & succulent but become fibrous after
flowering stage. Leaves are small tender slightly hairy on upper surface & trifoliate.
Flower heads are round & yellowish white in colour. The seed is small in size, about
2mm in length, egg shaped & greenish yellow.
Origin & History:
It is believed to be indigenous to Egypt. It was introduced into India from Egypt probably
in 1904. It has now been established as one of the best rabi fodder crops in irrigated areas
of Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, UP & other parts of Western & Northern India. In peninsular
India it is less popular than Lucerne.
Soil and Climate:
Soil:Medium to heavy soil, with well drained.The crop can tolerate mild acidic soils.
Climate: Berssem can stand a wide range of temperature but cool and dry climate is
congenial for its growth.
Land preparation: Berseem needs a fine, well-levelled seedbed with adequate
moisture.one ploughing and 2-3 harrowing followed by plankin
Seeds & sowing: i) Time of sowing:- October – November.
ii) Seed rate:- 30kg/ha
iii) Sowing method and spacing:- Line sowing(drilling) at 30cm row to row spacing.
iv)Seed treatment:- Just before sowing seed treatment with Rhizobium trifoli culture
Varieties- Vardan, Meskavi, JB–3,4, IGFRI-S-99-1,UPB-101,103,104,Pusa Giant.

141
Manures and fertilizer
Manures: FYM/compost @ 5-10 tonnes/ha is applied before last harrowing.
Fertilizers:- at sowing time 20:80:40kg NPK/ha
Interculturing:- One weeding and one hoeing is sufficient for controlling weeds.
Water management: Schedule irrigation at 10-12 days interval.
Plant Protection: Care should be taken that don’t feed the fodder to the animals for a
period of 20-25 days after spray of insecticides.
On incidence of semilooper, and pod borer follow spraying of HANPV@500ml/ha at the
time of evening.
2.Release Trichoderma chilonis @1,00,000/ha. Release second time after eight days.
3.Spray B.T. @ 1kg /ha in 500 litres of water.
4.Randomly place T shaped bird perches @15/ha.
Harvesting: Cutting management
Always harvest the crop at 50% bloom stage. First cutting should be done after 45-50
days from sowing, and subsequent cutting are taken 21-25 days interval. Total number of
cuttings are 3-4.
Yield: - Green forage-600-800q/ha i.e.60-80t/ha.
Seed Production: Normally the crop is left for seed production after 3-4 cuttings. Stop
the cutting in Mid March and allow crop to set seeds. Seed crop should be given light
irrigation until flowering to check the excessive vegetative growth. At flowering and seed
settings, stages, irrigations should be given frequently. Seed crop matures in the end of
May when seed bolls turn yellow to brown in colour. The crop should be harvested and
threshed either by beating with sticks or by trampling under bullock feet.
Seed yield-3-5q/ha.
Question bank
1. Enlist rabi forage crops and give the cultivation of any one of them in brief.
2. Explain the cultivation of berseem on following points.
a) Seed and sowing
b) Varieties
c) Manures and fertilizers
d) Cutting management
3. Write the package of practices on Berseem on following points.
e) Soil and climate
f) Land preparation
g) Cutting management
h) Seed production
4. Prepare a leaflet on Berseem cultivation.

142
5. Write short note on Berseem.
6.Give reason
1. Why Berseem in not fed to cattle alone as fodder?
2. Berseem is always fed to cattle by mixing with dry fodder.
7.Fill in blanks
9. Vardan/Meskavi is a variety of berseem crop.
10. Crude.Protein content in berseem green fodder is 17-19%.
11. Botanical Name : Trifolium alexandrium L
12. Berseem belongs to family:- Leguminaceae/Fabaceae.
13. Berseem is originated in Egypt(Asia minor.
14. In India Berseem is introduced from Egypt in 1940 in the Sind provinces which is
now in Pakistan.
***
Berseem crop Berseem flowering
Berseem flowering Berseem seeds

143
3. Forage crop-Maize
B.N.:- Zea mays
It is .cultivated for green foliage. It contains about 9-11%protein.
Note: All cultivation practices are similar to that of Grain maize except following points.
Question Bank
1. Write in detail about the cultivation of fodder maize with following points.
2. Write in detail on the cultivation of fodder maize on following points.
1. Varieties 2. Intercultivation
3. Weed management 4. Harvesting and yield
3. Prepare a leaflet on fodder maize cultivation.
***
Sr.No. Cultivation practices Particulars
1 Soil Medium to heavy and well drained.
2 Preparatory tillage One deep ploughing, and prepare loose and friable tilth
by two harrowing.
3 Varieties African tall,Manjri composite,Vijay,Ganga Safed-2
4 Sowing time October-November
5 Sowing method Line sowing with seed drill
6 Spacing 30cm between rows
7 Seed rate 75kg/ha
8 Seed treatment Before sowing seed treatment with Azotobacter
9 Nutrient management 1. FYM/Compost @5t/ha.
2.RDF(NPK Kg/ha)- 100:50:50
Basal dose: 50:50:50 kg NPK/ha- at the time of
sowing
Top dressing of 50kg N /ha - 30DAS.
10 Intercultivation One hand weeding and one hoeing to keep field weed
free.
11 Irrigation In Rabi irrigation should be given at 10-12 days interval.
12 Harvesting Harvesting of green foliage when crop is at
50%flowering or 65-70 days after sowing.
13 Yield(Green foliage) 500-600q/ha

144
3. Oats
Botanical Name:- Avena sativa L.
Family: Gramineae / poaceae.
Oat is an important cereal/grass forage crop of winter/ rabi season. It offers a high
yielding, nutritious and palatable fodder making an excellent green fodder and hay. Oats
grains are used in animal feed. It is widely distributed in temperate and sub-tropical
countries.
Nutritive value:- Crude Protein(CP)- 9-10%, Crude Fibre(CF)-35.1%, Fat/Ether
Extract(EE)-1.8%, Ash-10.1% and Nitrogen Free Extract(NFE)-45.1%.
Origin and History: Oats are reported to be Asian origin (Asia Minor region).
Area and Distribution: - It is grown in Russia, USA, Canada, China, France, Germany,
Poland and Australia. Oat is grown mainly a fodder crop In North India comprising state
of Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, West Bengal, MS, Gujarat, and MP.
Botanical Description- 1.Roots-seminal and adventitious.
2. Stem/Culm-composed of series of nodes and internodes. It is solid and thick.
3. Inflorescence-Looseopen panicle of spikelet.
4. Grain- An oat grain is caryopsis.
Oat plant is stout (thick) erect, annual grass growing up to 150cm.
Soil & Climate:
Soil: It grows well on medium textured well drained, fertile soils are preferable for better
results.
Climate: Oat crop requires cool temperature; in the range of 15C to 25C. Well-
distributed rainfall of 760mm is adequate for its growth.
Preparatory Tillage: One deep ploughing, 2 harrowings is followed to prepare a firm,
friable and weed free seedbed.
Seeds & sowing: 1.Time of Sowing-Early October to end of November.
2. Seed rate- 100kgs/ha.
3. Method of sowing-Line sowing (drilling)
4. Spacing- 30cm row to row spacing.
5. Seed treatment- Before sowing seed treatment with Azatobacter@250g/10kg of seed.
Varieties- Phule Harita, Kent, Phule Surbhi, Weston-11, OS-6, OS-7, JHO-822, 855,
851, IGFRI- 2688, UPO-212, 222, OL-9, Pusa oat – 1, 2,3.
Manuring: - F.Y.M. @ 5-10 tonnes/ha before last harrowing is thoroughly mixed in the
soil.
Fertilizers: RDF-120:50:40 kg NPK/ha
Split Application- 40:50:40kgNPK/ha -as basal does at sowing,
40kgN/ha -at 25 days after sowing

145
40kgN/ha -after Ist cutting
After care/Interculturing: One weeding 30days after sowing is sufficient.
Irrigation- Irrigation at 10days interval is necessary for better yields. Irrigation is must
after each cut. Total water requirement of oat is 10.03 hacm
Mix Cropping:- A mix cropping of beans if sown along with oats enhances the feeding
value of the fodder and this is a common practice in many places.
Harvesting:
Oats harvested First cutting at 50-55days and second cutting 35days after first cutting or
at mid-flowering (50% flowering) stage. Cutting should be done at 10cm above the
ground level. This helps to increase total green forage as well as quality fodder.
Green forage yield:- 500-600q/ha (from two cuttings).
Question bank
Q.1.Write the cultivation of oats on following points.
a. Varieties b. Soil & climate requirement c. Seeds and sowing
d. Manures and fertilizers e. After care d.Harvesting and yield
Q.2. Prepare leaflet on fodder oat cultivation.
Q.3 Complete the following table
Sr.
No
Name of the
crop
Seed rate
Kg/ha
Improved
Variety
Fertilizer
NPK
kg/ha
Sowing
time
Spacing
(cm)
1. Oat for
forage
Q.4.Fill in the blanks
a. Oat is dual purpose crop used for fodder and grain cultivated in rabi season.
b. Crude protein content of oat is 9-10%.
c. Oat belongs to family Gramineae/Poaceae.
d. Origin of oat is Asian origin (Asia Minor region).
e. Botanical name- Avena sativa L.
***

146
Oats crop
Oats seeds

147
5. Fodder Sorghum
Botanical name: - Sorghum bicolor L. Moench
Family: Gramineae/ Poaceae
Origin- East central Africa
Sorghum as green foliage is cultivated during kharif in most parts of north India and
in summer, under irrigated conditions, multicut sorghum is very popular. Forage sorghum is
characterized by quick growth, high biomass accumulation, and dry matter content and wide
adaptability beside drought withstanding ability. It is also suitable for silage and hay making.
Fodder varieties are more juicy & sweeter than grain varieties.
Sorghum plants start synthesizing (HCN) Hydro cyanic acid from germination up to
up to 40-50 days(8weeks ) and it is harmful if young green stalks are fed to cattle. It is quite
safe to feed green fodder sorghum when it is in flag leaf stage or after eight weeks after
sowing.
Nutritive value: CP-8-10%
Ecological Factors (Soil & Climate):-
Soil: Well drained medium to heavy soils. Soil pH 5.5 to 8.5
Climate: Sorghum is purely a tropical crop and suited to areas of moderate rainfall. It thrives
well in the regions having mean temperature of over 27ºC.The average temperature during the
growing season should be 21ºC to 32ºC.It can be grown in areas receiving 350 to 1000mm
rainfall.
Sorghum crop requires firm and compact seedbed for root initiation & early growth of the crop.
Seeds and sowing: - Time of Sowing: Kharif- June-July, Rabi-September-October
Summer- February-March.
Seed rate: 40kg/ha
Method of sowing: Line sowing (drilling).
Spacing- Row to row spacing-30cm.
Seed treatment:-The seeds treated with Azotobactor culture @ 250g/10kg of seeds at the time
of sowing.
Varieties- Ruchira, Phule Amruta, Phule Ghodhan, Maldandi 35-1, Hisar Sorghum, Jawahar
Chari 6 ,Jawahar Chari 69 ,Pusa Chari 6,HC 136 ,UP Chari 1 ,2;GFS 3 ,Pusa Chari 9
,Rajasthan Chari 1,UP Chari 2.
Dual-purpose (suitable for both forage and grain production )varieties and hybrids- CSV 15,
SPV 1616 , CSV 20 ,and CSH 13, CSH 23, CSH 14, CSH 17 and CSH 20 MF
Manures-FYM@ 5t/ha at the time of last harrowing.
Fertilizers: RDF-100:50:40kg NPK/ha.
Basal dose- 50:50:40kgNPK/ha at the time of sowing.

148
Top dressing (30DAS) -50kgN/ha.
Inter culturing: one hand weeding and one hoeing control the weed growth.
Irrigation schedule:-Irrigate the crop at an interval of 15days in kharif,
10-12 days in rabi and 7-10 days interval in summer.
Plant Protection-To control shootfly sowing should be completed before 7thJuly in Kharif
fodder.
1. Seed treatment at the time of sowing with Thiomethoxam @2g/kg of seeds.
2. Ten days after sowing Spraying of quinolphos 25EC@350mlin250litres of water.
3. Second spray of quinolphos 25EC@700ml in500litres of water after 10days of first spraying.
Harvesting: Cutting management.
Single cut varieties are harvested at 50% flowering/65-70das after sowing to full bloom stage
and in multicut varieties the first harvest is taken at55days after sowing and subsequent cuts
at 40days interval.
Yield: Green forage yield -500-550q/ha.
On an average50 tonnes/ha in single cut varieties and up to 70 tonnes/ha in multi cut varieties.
Question Bank
1. Elaborate the following points of cultivation of fodder sorghum.
3. Manures & fertilizers 4. Irrigation 5.Harvesting and yield.
2. Give reasons:
3. Feeding of young sorghum plants to cattle up to flowering is harmful.
***

AGRO-246-full notes@agrounder.pdf crop production technology- Rabi

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AGRO-246-full notes@agrounder.pdf crop production technology- Rabi