This document provides information about rice (Oryza sativa L.), including its botanical name, family, chromosome number, production levels worldwide and in key countries/states, uses, nutritional content, historical research and development, and important varieties. It discusses rice's origin in Asia, classification into two cultivated species (O. sativa and O. glaberrima), and subdivision of O. sativa into three subspecies based on geographic adaptation and morphology. Major stages of rice growth and development are also outlined.

1. Rice - (Oryza sativa L.)
• Botanical name – Oryza sativa , Oryza glaberrima (African rice)
• Family – Poaceae (graminae)
• Chromosome No. : 2n=24
 Paddy is unprocessed part whereas, rice is the one which is
processed from paddy.
 The word rice is derived from the French word ris or the Italian
word riso, which might be modified Sanskrit word Vrihi.
 Rice is the staple food of more than 60 per cent of the world’s
population.
 About 90 per cent of all rice grown in the world is produced and
consumed in the Asian regions.
 It is the 2nd important cereal crop next to wheat in world.

2. Area
( m ha )
Production
(m ton)
Productivity
(t/ha)
World 163.5 718.35 4.3
Count
ries
India 44.1 152.60 3.4
China 28.7 188.5 6.5
states
West Bengal 5.5 14.83 2.6
Uttar Pradesh 5.9 14.0 2.3
• It is grown in 114 countries across the world.
• India is having highest area in world and second in production.
• West Bengal stands first in production and UP stands first in area
of rice in India.
 UP, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, MP and Assam cover
about 66.6 % of area with only 50% of rice production.

3. Importance
 It is staple food of over 3 billion people in Asia, which accounts
for production and consumption of 90% of world’s rice.
 On an average rice accounts for 27% of all cereal grain
production worldwide, second only to wheat at 30 % and
slightly more than maize, which comprise 25% of the cereal
production.
 Rice grain contains about 80 % starch, 7.5% protein, 0.6 % fat
and 1.7% minerals.
• It is used for preparing other edible items like dosa, idli, roti,
kadabu, paddu, uppama, papad, sandige,etc.
• It is used for preparing puffed rice, rice flakes etc.
• It is also used in starch and brewing industry.

4. • The straw is used as fodder and for making mats, hats and
ropes.
• The straw is also used for thatching, litter, mulching and
mushroom cultivation.
• By-product of rice milling is rice husk which is used as
poultry bedding, to manufacture particle boards (for sound
proofing or thermo insulation) or block boards and paper
industries and also as fuel.
• Other byproduct of rice milling is rice bran which is used for
cattle and poultry feed, used in preparation of biscuits.
• The rice bran oil is used for cooking after refinement and soap
making.

5. Origin
Rice is regarded as a first cultivated crop of Asia.
De candolle (1886) and Watt (1862) mentioned south India as its
centre of origin.
Vavilov (1926) suggested India and Burma i.e. Indo-Burma (South
East Asia) is the centre of origin of rice.
Classification
Genus Oryza belongs to family Poaceae has 24 species - 22 wild
species (both annual and perennial) and two cultivated species
namely
Oryza sativa – Most popular and grown in Asia, America and
Europe and
Oryza glaberrima - grown in Africa

6. Oryza sativa Oryza glaberrima
1. The common rice cultivated in Asia,
America and Europe
Varieties found in West Africa
2. The varieties are sub divided into 3 sub
species
i. Oryza sativa indica
ii. Oryza sativa japonica
iii. Oryza sativa javanica
The varieties are sub divided into
i. Upland rice
ii. Deep water rice
3. The varieties have white pericarp Red pericarp
4. Lot of work in varietal improvement
(because of cosmopolitic nature) wider
distribution
Limited localisation (because of the
varietal improvement is restricted)
5. It has both photosensitive and photo
insensitive varieties
It has only photosensitive varieties
6. It is cultivated in tropical and
temperate world
It is restricted to west Africa
7. It has longer panicle It has fewer panicles branches. Thicker
panicle axis compared to Oryza sativa
8. It is essentially annual in nature It is a perennial

7.  Primarily based on geographic adaptation and morphological characters
of the cultivated oryza rice, the world can be broadly divided into 3 sub
species viz., Indica, Japonica and Javanica.
 Oryza sativa var. indica –Tropical and sub-tropical
 Oryza sativa var. japonica --Sub-tropical and Temperate countries
 Oryza sativa var. javanica –Restricted to Indonesia

8. Characters of 3 races
Character Indica Japonica Javanica
Adapted to Subtropical to tropical
regions
Subtropics/temperate
regions
Extensively grown
in warm climate
Cultivated in India Japan, china and
Korea
Indonesia
Varieties Very tall, lodging
sensitive
Dwarf, erect and non-
lodging
Tallest and erect
Tillering Profuse Medium Low
Photosensitivity Photosensitive Photo insensitive Photosensitive
Leaves Very broad to narrow,
pale green and
slightly pubescent
Narrow, dark green Broad, very stiff,
light green
Poor fertilizer
responsive, moderate
filling and late
maturing
Fertilizer responsive,
high yielding and
early maturing
Poor filling and
long duration
Grain quality Thin, flattened and
Elongated
Small and round Broad and thick
Awn Mostly awnless Both awned &
awnless
Both awned &
awnless
Grain shattering High Low Low

9. Distribution:
• Due to diverse nature and wider adaptability makes rice to cultivated in
different agro climate situations ranging from 450N to 400S of the
equator. It is grown in tropics, subtropics and even in some temperate
regions.
• Highest yields are recorded between 300N to 450N of the equator.
• The average yield ranges from 2.0 to 5.7 t/ha in India, China and
Egypt lying between 210 to 300N. While the countries near the equator
show an average yield of 0.8 to 1.4 t/ha .

10. Botanical description of plant:
• Rice belongs to Poaceae or graminae
family.
• Semi-aquatic annual grass.
• The common cultivated rice plant is
annual which usually grows to a
height of 0.5 – 2.0 m but, deep water
rice varieties grow upto 6-9 m tall.
• It is basically short day and C3 plant
Rice plant can be divided into two
main parts namely root systems and
shoot system.

11. Rice forms fibrous root systems
consisting of seminal, nodal and
lateral roots,
Seminal roots – emerge from embryo;
nodal – from stem
When it is grown in flooded soils, rice
root develop aerenchyma that permits
the diffusion of oxygen from leaves
through roots to the soil .

12. Shoot system: Collectively applies to all
plant parts visible above the ground level.
It is mainly composed of culms, leaves
and inflorescence.
The culm or stem: The jointed stem of
the rice is made up of a series of nodes
and internodes. Node is the solid portion
of the culm, node or nodal region bears a
leaf and a bud. Primary tillers originate
from the lowermost nodes and give rise to
secondary tillers. Secondary tillers
produce tertiary tillers and each tiller is an
independent plant.

13. Leaves are borne alternately on the
culm in opposite directions. One
leaf is produced at each node.
The topmost leaf below the panicle
is the flag leaf. The flag leaf
contributes largely to the filling of
grains because it supplies
photosynthetic products, mainly to
the panicle.
The bud is attached to the upper
portion of the node and is enclosed
by the leaf sheath.
The bud may give rise to a leaf or a
tiller.

14. • The terminal component of the
rice tiller is an inflorescence called
the panicle. The inflorescence or
panicle is borne on the
uppermost internode of the
culm. The panicle bears rice
spikelets, which develop into
grains.

15. Spikelet: The individual spikelet
consists of two outer glumes.
It consists of two hard covering the
two sections which are known as
lemma and palea ( the glumes)
and the complete flower in between
them.
The lemma and palea together are
known as the hull.
The rice flower contains six
functioning stamens (male organ)
and a pistil (female organ).
At the base of the flower there are
two transparent structures known as
lodicules.

16. Awns are stiff bristle like structures borne on lemma.

17. • The dehulled rice grain is
called caryopsis, commonly
referred to as brown rice
because of three brownish
pericarp layers that envelope
it. Next to the pericarp layers
are the two tegmen layers and
the aleurone layers.
• A kernel of rice consists of a
hull and a bran coat, both of
which are removed on
polishing “white rice”.

18. In general, each rice kernel is
composed of the following layers:
Rice shell, hull or husk: encloses
the bran coat, the embryo and the
endosperm.
Bran Coat (layer): a very thin
layer of differentiated tissues. The
layer contains fiber, vitamin B,
protein and fat. The most nutritious
part of rice resides in this layer.
Embryo: The innermost part of a
rice grain consists mainly of starch
called amylase and amylo pectin.
The mixture of these two starches
determines the cooking texture of rice.

20. Major
stages
Substages Plant condition Remarks
A.
Vegetative
Germination
Emergence of plumule &
radical
20-25
days
Seedling stage Upto 2nd leaf stage
Active veg. stage
Transplanting to max.
tillering
35-42
DAT
Vegetative lag phase
Maximum tillering to panicle
initiation
5-10 days
Important growth stages are:
Tillering - Initiation of side shoots (tillers) start from 10-15 days

21. B.Reprodu
ctive
Panicle
initiation
Beginning of reproductive stage
where the ears start emerging
Takes
around
30 - 35
days
Internode
elongation
and booting
Auxin concentration increases &
results in elongation of internodes
and panicle is covered in flag leaf
(Last emerging leaf) in the form of
boot
Heading
(emergence
of panicle
tip)
15 days after booting
Flowering
20-25 days after booting, the
panicle blooms followed by
pollination and fertilization

22. C.
Ripening
Milky stage
7-12 days after anthesis,
the watery content of grain
turn milky in consistency
Takes
around
30
days
Dough stage
15 days after milky, Grain
turn to soft dough and later
into hard dough (2-3
weeks)
Maturity stage
Grain become hard, clear
and free from greenish tint

23. HISTORY OF RICE RESEARCH IN INDIA
• Rice had been recognized as a major staple food in India, hence its
improvement process began nearly a century back.
• The outbreak of devastating epiphytotic brown spot disease of rice
(Helminthosporium spp) in the then Bengal province (the areas of which
are now in the state of West Bengal and Bangladesh) in 1942 resulted in a
serious shortage of rice.
• Added to this, the failure of civil administration to cope with such a
disastrous situation culminated in what was called the Great Bengal
Famine of 1943.
• With this background, the Central Government, in the year 1944, decided
to intensify research on all aspects of rice crop.
• Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) on April 23, 1946 at
Bidyadharpur, Cuttack, Odisha.

24. Subsequently, in 1966, the administrative control of the Institute was
transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
The Institute was renamed as ICAR-National Rice Research Institute
(NRRI) in the year 2015.
The Institute has two research stations,
 Hazaribag, Jharkhand for carrying out rice research on rainfed
upland ecologies and
 Gerua, Assam for carrying out rice research on flood prone
rainfed lowland ecologies.

25. • In 1949, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
established the International Rice Commission, which commissioned an
indica-japonica hybridization project based in Cuttack, India.
• Its mission was to cross the short japonica, or temperate, rice with taller
indica, or tropical, varieties, to develop short statured varieties with higher
yield potential.
• Shorter rice varieties such as ADT 27 and Mahsuri, selected from the
japonica × indica crosses, were widely planted across the Indian
subcontinent in the 1960s.
• ADT-27, in particular, created the first phase of the Green Revolution
in rice.
• Further, the ICAR launched the All-India Co-ordinated Rice
Improvement Project (AICRIP) in 1965 at Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad.

26. • AICRIP was elevated to Directorate of Rice Research (DRR) in 1983
and later renamed as Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR) in 2014.
• During this period (1965) several RRS (Regional Research Stations)
were established by the SAU’s to take up the improvement work
effectively.
• U.S. scientists thought even better rice varieties could be produced.
• The Ford and Rockefeller Foundations turned their attention to the rest
of Asia where famine threatened.
• In 1960, they established and funded the IRRI, the International
Rice Research Institute, in Los Banos, Philippines.
• This institute helped in evolving dwarf high yielding varieties with the
concept of improving the plant type in indica rice based on the use of a
gene (DGWG) from semi-dwarf Chinese varieties.

27. Taichung Native 1 (TN 1) was the world's first semidwarf rice variety
developed by hybridization and was the first tropical semidwarf to cross
national boundaries for wide cultivation.
TN 1 = Tsai-yuan-chung X Dee-geo-woo-gen (DGWG)
TNl was first introduced into India in 1960
IR – 8 = Peta X Dee-geo-woo-gen (DGWG) was released in 1966 by IRRI
- “MIRACLE RICE” - because of high yield potential, fertilizer responsive,
lodging resistant and photo-insensitive.
Adoption of IR8 rapidly occurred in Asia because farmers obtained a yield
advantage of 1–2 tons ha−1 on irrigated land compared to traditional varieties
While the best landraces gave yields of about 6 tons ha−1, the yield potential
of IR8 was 10 tons ha−1 in the tropical irrigated lowlands.

28. Important varieties
1. First dwarf variety of rice developed in world is TN-1 in Taiwan in 1964-
65.
2. First high yielding dwarf variety developed in world is IR-8 (Peta X
DGWG) by IRRI (1966).
3. First Indian high yielding semi-dwarf variety Jaya (TN-1 x Type 141)
released in 1968 by Dr. Shastry, it out yielded TN-1 and IR-8 both,
hence called Miracle rice in India.
4. Mutant variety of rice- Jagannath and sattari
5. Salinity tolerant varieties are lunishree and IR-8
6. First hybrid of basmati in world is PRH-10
7. First high yielding dwarf under quality aromatic rice is Pusa basmati-1
(aroma in rice is due to chemical Di-acetyl 1- Pyrolline)
8. Some other varieties grown in country are Rasi, Aishwarya, Tellahamsa,
Red Annapurna etc.

29. Climatic requirement: In India rice is grown under widely varying condition
of altitude and climate.
It requires 1000-1500 mm rainfall or more (5000mm).
Altitude - 3000 mt MSL.
Rice crop needs hot and humid climate,
Best suited to regions with high humidity, prolonged sunshine and assured
supply of water.
1. Temperature : The average temperature required throughout the growth
period ranges from 21 to 370C.
Growth stage Optimum temp. (oc)
Germination 20-35
Tillering 25-31
Blooming 26.5 to 29.50C
Ripening 20-25

30. Low temperature particularly during 10-11 days before heading causes
considerable loss in grain yield because of sterility.
Rice is basically short day plant but photo periodically insensitive and
thermo sensitive crop but now many thermo insensitive varieties have
been developed.
1. Solar radiation: Solar energy is the most important climatic factor in
rice cultivation in temperate climates. The plant’s most critical period of
solar energy requirement is from panicle initiation to until about 10
days before maturity which is important for the accumulation of dry
matter.
The yield of rice during monsoon (kharif) season is lower than that in the dry
(summer) season, because of the lower levels of solar radiation received
during the crop’s grain filling and ripening stages.
The minimum requirement of solar radiation is 300-400 cal/cm2/day.

31. 3. Day Length: Rice is a short day plant and sensitive to photoperiods. Long
days can prevent or delay the flowering. But photo insensitive varieties
enable the farmer in tropics and subtropics to grow rice at any time of the year
without great changes in growth duration.
4. Wind Velocity: A gentle wind during the growing period of the rice plant is
known to improve the turbulence in the canopy. Strong winds are detrimental
especially at heading. They cause severe lodging and shattering in some rice
varieties.
5. Rainfall: Variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall is most
important factor limiting the yields of rainfed rice, which constitutes about
80% of the rice grown in South and SE Asia. Rainfall variability is more
critical for upland rice than the lowland rice. Moisture stress can damage or
even kill the plants in an area that receives as much as 200 mm of rainfall in a
day and then receives no rainfall for the next 20 days. An evenly distributed
rainfall of 100 mm per month is preferable to 200 mm per month that
falls in 2 & 3 days.

32. Season: Rice can be grown in all three seasons, kharif-May-June, rabi- Sep-
Oct, summer-Jan-Feb in different parts of India depending upon
temperature, rainfall and other climatic conditions.
Seasons for rice crop
Three seasons viz. aus, aman and boro are noticed with respect to rice
cultivation.
a) Aus/Autumn season: The word aus has been derived from the Sanskrit
‘ashu’ meaning quick or early.
Rice varieties grown during pre-monsoon period is called Aus rice, sown in
May – June and harvested in Sept- Oct.
Hence called autumn rice due to the harvest time. About 44% of the rice
crop is grown in this season. Var.: EDV & MDV.

33. b) Aman/Kharif/Winter season: The word aman has been derived from
Arabic meaning safety which indicates stability of the crop.
The season designates the cultivation of the rice varieties which are
planted in June- July and harvested in mid November-December. (The
season is synonymous to kharif -II). Also called as winter rice due to
harvesting time. About 51 % of the rice crop is grown in this season.
Var.: MDV & LDV.
c) Boro /summer season: Boro rice refers to the crop grown in
submerged land lower in elevation. The season designates the cultivation
of the rice varieties which are planted in November-December and
harvested in March-April. Also called as summer rice due to harvesting
time. About 4.4 % of the rice crop is grown in this season. Var.: EDV
are mostly grown.

34. Soils:
• Rice can be grown in all types of soils including alkaline and acidic
soils.
• Soils with good water holding capacity and good amount of clay and
organic matter are ideal for rice cultivation.
• Clay or clay loam soil is most suitable for rice cultivation and such
soils are capable of holding water for long and sustain crop.
• It grows well in soils having pH between 5.5 to 6.5 pH.
• It can be grown in alkali soils after treating them with gypsum.

35. Rice ecosystems:
When compared to other crops, rice can be grown in highly diversified
ecosystems, each distinguished by unique water related practices.
Rice farming is practiced in several agro ecological zones in India. No
other country in the world has such diversity in rice ecosystems than
India. Because cultivation is so widespread, development of four distinct
types of ecosystems has occurred in India.
Globally, the following four prominent ecosystems are used for
cultivation of rice.
• Irrigated rice ecosystem
• Rainfed lowland rice ecosystem
• Rainfed upland rice ecosystem
• Flood prone rice ecosystem

36. Irrigated Rice Ecosystem
• Irrigated ecosystems are the primary
type found in East Asia.
• Irrigated ecosystems provide 75% of
global rice production and
accounts about 44 % of global rice
area.
• In India, the total area under irrigated
rice is about 22.00 million hectares,
and accounts for 49.5% of the total
area under rice crop in the
country.
• Seedlings are raised in nurseries and
transplanted in the bunded
(embanked) and puddled field.
• Water is impounded to 5-10 cm depth
from transplanting to 10 days before
harvesting.

37. • This system is widely used in assured water supply.
• Rice is grown under irrigated conditions in the states of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh
and Gujarat.
• The average yield is 4–5 t ha-1.
• Major problems encountered in this production system are
inefficient irrigation water management leading to yield
instability and environmental degradation due to and
unbalanced nutrient use.

38. Rainfed Lowland Rice Eco System
• Fields are leveled, bunded to store water and puddle, seedlings are
transplanted in soft soil below the standing water (30-90 cm depth)
and the field is not artificially irrigated. It is followed in heavy rainfall
hilly regions.
• The depth and duration of flooding of the soil varies greatly from
year-to-year within a growing season. Depending upon the depth of
water it can further classified to
shallow water (< 50 cm)
Semi deep water (50 – 100 cm)
Deep water (> 100 cm)
• Rainfed low-land rice is grown in East India, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Philippines and Thailand, and is 25% of total rice area used
worldwide.

39. • In India, low land rice area is about 14.4 million hectares, which
accounts 32.4 % of the total area under rice crop in the country.
• Production is highly variable because of the lack of technology used
in rice production and rainfed lowland farmers are typically
challenged by poor soil quality, drought/flood conditions and erratic
yields.
• Average productivity of rice in lowland areas ranges from 1.0 to 1.2
t ha-1 as against the national average productivity of 2.19 t ha-1.

40. Rainfed Upland Rice Ecosystem
• Fields are never bunded, rain water is not allowed to impound. Seeds are
sown by seed drill or hand in rows on a well prepared and manured soil.
• It is followed in assured rainfall tracts without irrigation.
• Upland zones are found in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• In India, the total area under upland rain fed rice in the country is about
6.00 m ha, which accounts 13.5% of the total area under rice crop in
the country.
• Upland rice areas lies in eastern zone comprising of Assam, Bihar, Eastern
M.P., Orissa, Eastern U.P., West Bengal and North-Eastern Hill region.
• Land utilized in upland rice production can be low lying, drought-prone,
rolling, or steep sloping.
• The productivity of upland rice is very poor. As against the present
national average productivity of about 2.19 t ha-1, the average yield of rice
in upland areas in the country is only 0.90 t ha-1.

41. Flood Prone Rice Eco System
• Seeds are broadcasted in unbunded fields before rain. Rain water is
allowed to impound (often between 1-6m). Then the field is bunded
(bunding done after sowing).
• Seedlings emerge out of standing water. Water may recede later or may
maintain its level depending on the rainfall.
• It is followed in very heavy rainfall regions.
• Flood-prone ecosystems are prevalent in South and Southeast Asia
and are characterized by periods of extreme flooding and drought.
• Yields are low and variable.
• Flooding occurs during the wet season from June to November, and
rice varieties are chosen for their level of tolerance to submersion.
• In India 11.4 % of total rice grown area is flood prone, yields is low
(1.5 ton/ha) and variable.

42. Methods of cultivation/sowing:
Transplanted irrigated rice: Its also called as conventional rice
cultivation. The seeds are sown in a small area called “Nursery” which are
raised well in advance to produce the seedlings. Seedlings are raised with
all necessary care. When they attain certain stage, seedlings are pulled out
and transplanted in the main field.
Transplanting of healthy seedlings may be done at 20-22 days old seedling
or 4-5 leaf stage or when they are about 20-25 cm in height at 2-3
seedlings per hill/spot and depth of transplanting should not exceed more
than 2-4 cm.
Seed rate is 62.5 kg/ha.
Transplanting can be done in two ways namely random transplanting
and row transplanting.

44. Total growth period Age of seedling for
transplanting (days)
120 25
135 32
150 35
180 42
HYV’s 21-25
Dapog seedlings 10- 14
SRI method 12
The age of transplanting of seedlings also depends on duration
of variety.

45. Conditions congenial for transplanting
1. Adequate supply of water throughout the crop period
2. Transplanting is done in soft puddle soils.
3. Where weed problem is severe
4. When plant population is not uniform
5. Using community nurseries for timely transplanting.
6. Treatment of seedling for nutrient deficiency and protection
against pests and diseases is needed.

46. Advantages of transplanting
1. A good leveling off the field is ensured.
2. Weeds are buried at the time of puddling and weed problem is
reduced.
3. The plant population becomes more uniform.
4. The availability of most plant nutrients like P, Fe & K is increased
and N is converted better.
5. Seedlings transplanted in soft puddle are able to establish themselves
faster and start early tillering and growth.
6. Community nurseries facilitate timely transplanting.
7. The treatment of seedlings for nutrient deficiency and for plant
protection against pests and diseases is facilitated before transplanting.

47. Disadvantages
1. It involves extra cost on seed bed preparation, plant protection,
pulling and transplanting.
2. It needs higher amount of labour.
3. It requires more quantity of water.
4. Seedlings are exposed to possible injury during handling.
5. Plants tend to grow more slowly than direct seeding because of
recovery time after transplanting.
6. Harvesting is delayed.

48. 2. Direct seeded irrigated rice:
• Sowing of sprouted seeds directly on puddles soils either in
rows ( may be drum seeder) or randomly.
• All other features are similar to transplanted rice, but both
tillering ability and crop duration is reduced in direct
seeded rice as compared to transplanted rice.
• Seed rate required for direct is 80 kg/ha spread uniformly by
hand and later cover seeds by spike tooth harrow.

50. Advantages:
1. Direct seeding can be adopted profitably in flooded rice where the
size of plots for rice cultivation are small and perfectly leveled
ensuing good control of irrigation water and soils are light.
2. When the labour shortage is more especially during transplanting
period.
3. It saves labour cost and reduces the demand for labour in
transplanting season.
4. The crop matures in 7-10 days earlier than transplanted crop.
5. It is recommended where the weed problem is not serious (severe).
6. The expenditure in raising, pulling of seedlings, transporting and
transplanting them is saved (limited financial resources).

51. Disadvantages
1. Higher quantity of seed requirement.
2. Weed control becomes a problem
3. The seed is exposed to bird and rat damage resulting in poor crop
stand if broadcasted.
4. There is a greater tendency for the crop to lodge because the base of
the plants is not so deeply set in the soil.
5. It is impossible to maintain good stand and in lowlands particularly
for monsoon crop, as there is no control over water management.

52. 3. Dry/Rainfed rice (upland drill sown rice):
• It involves cultivation of rice by sowing in unpuddled dry soil
depends on rainfall to meet the water requirement of crop.
• No impounding of water is necessary.
• The plant population is not uniformly maintained, therefore,
tillering ability is usually reduced.
• The extent and distribution of rainfall decides the success of the
crop. Weed control in done usually by hoeing in between the lines.
• The seed rate required is 80-100 kg/ha and seeds are uniformly
drilled placed in the soil with machines in moist or dry soil and
later irrigated.
• Fertilizer also applied along with seeds while sowing.

53. 4. Semi dry or dry cum wet system of cultivation (Punaji) :
• It involves dry seeding on the ploughed lands and allowing the rain
water to impound in the fields after the receipt of heavy rains.
• The crop is maintained as wet land.
• The excessive plant population is reduced by criss cross cultivation
done in standing water, removes the weeds and creates partial
puddling.
• This operation is referred as ‘Beushening’ in Orissa, MP, WB and
Bihar. This system is adopted in tankfed areas in Karnataka -
districts of Kolar, Bangalore, Tumkur and parts of Hassan.
• Practice involves cross ploughing of the young crop 4-6 weeks after
sowing with a light country plough in 5-10cm standing water once
or twice depending on the density of weeds

54. • Followed by this operation the crop is weeded, thinned & the gaps
are filled with the uprooted seedlings.
• This is also called punaji rice cultivation and most common in
tank areas. The seed rate required is 60-80 kg/ha and seeds are
broadcasted with hand.

55. Nursery management: In transplanted rice cultivation, the first
step is to have a nursery for raising the seedlings For raising
nursery, fertile well drained field is selected near source of water.
There are three types of nurseries are followed for raising the
seedlings for transplanting. They are
• Dry bed nursery
• Wet bed nursery and
• Dapog method of nursery
• Modified Dapog method of nursery

56. Seed treatment
Seeds saved by farmers may be infected with microbes that can induce
diseases on the seedling and the crop. This can affect seed germination
and may be transmitted from seed to seedling to plant.
Seed treatment prevents and controls seed-, soil-, and air-borne
diseases. It improves germination, vigor and productivity.
Dry seed treatment: Seeds are treated with fungicide like Bavistin or
Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing. The seeds can be
stored for 30 days without any loss in viability. At the time of sowing
seeds are treated with Azospirillum @ 600g per ha of seeds.

57. Wet seed treatment: Treat seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole
solution at 2 g/lit of water for 1 kg of seed. Soak the seeds in the solution for 2
hrs. Drain the excess water, keep the seeds in gunny bags in dark room and
cover with extra gunnies for 24 hrs for sprouting, sprouted seeds are sown in
the nursery bed.
It gives protection to the seedlings up to 40 days from seedling disease such as
blast.
Seed treatment with biofertilizers:
Five packets (1kg/ha) each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria or five packets
(1kg/ha) of Azophos bioinoculants are mixed with sufficient water wherein the
seeds are soaked overnight before sowing in the nursery bed (The bacterial
suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself).
Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens: Treat the seeds with talc
based formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10g/kg of seed and soak in 1lit
of water overnight. Decant the excess water and allow the seeds to sprout for
24hrs and then sow.
• Biocontrol agents are compatible with biofertilizers.
Biofertilizers and biocontrol agents can be mixed together for seed soaking.
• Fungicides and biocontrol agents are incompatible.

59. Dry bed method: This method is adopted when water is not sufficient for wet
seed bed.
1. To raise seedlings for one hectare 750 m2 area is required or total seed bed
area is about 1/10th of the area.
2. The land is ploughed, harrowed and leveled (but never puddle).
3. Prepare raised beds of 7.5 m length, 1.2 m width and 10 cm height with 30
cm gap between 2 beds to facilitate sowing, weeding, spraying of
chemicals and irrigation operations.
4. Apply 25 kg of well decomposed farm yard manure which has to be
incorporated 2-3 weeks before sowing. For each bed, 90 g N + 45 g P2O5 +
45 g K2O/bed should be applied.
5. Sow the well filled seeds in rows of 10 cm apart in dry or moist condition
of soil and cover the seeds with soil. Seedlings will be ready for
transplanting in 20-25 days.

61. Wet nursery: This is widely used in areas where water is abundant. The seed
bed is usually prepared 25 to 35 days before transplanting. It is the best
method for obtaining well grown seedlings within a short period. The area
required is same as that of dry nursery.
• Land where both irrigation and drainage can be controlled should be
selected for seed bed.
• The land should be fertile and free of excess salts or other soil problems.
• The seed bed area is ploughed twice either in dry or wet conditions and
then puddle by giving two or three more ploughings. After 10 days, the
field is again ploughed twice and leveled.
• When the field is brought to fine soft puddle condition, beds are prepared.
Prepare raised beds of 7.5 m length, 1.2 m width and 10 cm height with 30
cm gap between 2 beds to facilitate sowing, weeding, spraying of
chemicals and irrigation operations Excess water is drained off to maintain
a water level just sufficient to cover the soil.

62. Puddling in Paddy
nursery

63. Seed rate : 62.5 kg/ha
• Apply 25 kg of well decomposed farm yard manure which has to be
incorporated 2-3 weeks before sowing. For each bed, 1 kg N + 0.4 kg P2O5
+ 0.5 kg K2O for every 100 m2 area should be applied.
• Seed rate of 2.5-3 kg/100 m2 of nursery are appropriate. First seeds are
soaked in ordinary water for 24 hours and incubated for 36-48 hours in a
shady place and are never to dry up by regular moistening the seeds.
• Controlled irrigation is essential that the beds are constantly kept moist
but not flooded for the first few days.
• When the seedlings are about 2.5 cm height, keep the beds submerged
with shallow layer of water.
• Topdress the seed beds with 0.3 to 0.6 kg N/100 m2, 6 days before
transplanting. Seedlings will be ready for transplanting at an age of 20-22
days.

64. • Before nursery preparation, chaffy seeds are separated by dissolving the
seeds in 1:4 ratios of salt and water.
• Dissolve the salt properly then pour the seeds into the vessel and mix
thoroughly, after few minutes, the chaffy seeds will float on the upper
surface and bold seeds settle down under the bottom.
• Now separate the bold seeds and chaffy seeds and wash the good seeds
properly with clean water.
• After proper washing soak the seeds in water for 24 hrs and keep in gunny
bags (incubation) in room temperature under shade for 36-48 hrs, the
sprouted seeds will be ready.

65. Raised seedbed preparation
Pre-germinated paddy
seeds
Sowing of seeds

67. Dapog / Mat method: This method of raising nurseries has been
introduced in India from Philippines.
• The essential feature of this method is to have a very thick nursery
seeding without any contact with the soil.
• The area required to raise the seedlings is 60-65 m2.
• It saves almost half of the time in raising seedlings.
1. Seed rate: 25-35 kg/ha seed
2. Seed treatment:
Dry seed treatment: Seeds are treated with fungicide like Bavistin or
Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing and the seeds are
treated with Azospirillum at 600g per ha of seeds.

68. Wet seed treatment: Treat seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or
Tricyclozole solution at 2 g/lit of water for 1 kg of seed. Soak the seeds
in the solution for 2 hrs. Drain the solution, keep the seeds in gunny
bags in dark room and cover with extra gunnies for 24 hrs for sprouting.
sprouted seeds are sown in the nursery bed. It gives protection to the
seedlings up to 40 days from seedling disease such as blast.

69. 3. Nursery bed preparation:
• Preparation of the raised beds is similar to wet bed nursery.
• Banana leaves with mid ribs removed; empty cement/fertilizer bags or
polythene (Plastic) sheets are used to cover the surface of seed bed to prevent
the roots of seedlings from coming in contact with the soil. Fertilizer is not
needed since the seedlings are nourished by food in the seed. Concrete floors
are often used as base for dapog seedlings but frequent watering is needed on
cemented base.
• A wall is made of strips of banana sheathes 2 to 3 inches high in the four
sides of the bed. The wall keeps the seeds in place after they are sown on the
bed.
• Friable FYM or compost and soil mixed in equal proportion (1:1) of 2.0 cm
thickness is placed on the sheet.
• Pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted uniformly @ 1.0 kg/m2
.
• Gently compact the seeds by hand and covered with straw mulch.

70. 4. Watering: The germinated seeds should be sprinkled with water and pressed
down lightly by hand or with a wooden flat board twice a day for 3 to 6 days.
This operation keeps the roots of the seedlings in contact with water retained on
the surface and prevents their drying. After this period, the seed bed should be
irrigated continuously to a depth of 1 to 2 cm of water.
5. Fertilizer management: Within a couple of days (10-14 days) 10 to 12 cm
height seedlings are available. If the growth of the seedlings is not satisfactory,
1% urea solution may be applied. The seedlings are ready for transplanting 10
to 14 days after sowing regardless of duration of the variety.
Age of transplanting: Seedlings are raised faster by this method and get ready
within 9 to 14 days or sowing regardless of the duration for the variety used.
Dapog seedlings are not pulled. The whole seedling mass with matted roots
below can simply be rolled and carried to the field where the seedlings are
easily separated and transplanted.

71. Sequence of seedbed preparation

72. Paddy seedlings raised through Dapog method

73. Advantages:
• Time in the seed bed is greatly reduced i.e., seedlings are raised
faster by this method.
• Area required for seed bed is reduced.
• More choices of location of seed bed.
• Very young seedlings from dapog nurseries suffer less from the
transplanting shock compared with other nurseries.
Disadvantages:
• The seedlings are delicate, thin and slender.
• If the seedlings are allowed to remain in the bed they may fade
away and die after 3-4 weeks.
• Number of seedlings per hill can not be controlled easily.

74. Modified Dapog method:
• This method is used to raise seedlings for mechanical transplanters.
• This technology establishes seedlings in a layer of soil mix, arranged
on a firm surface.
• It uses less land and requires fewer seeds and inputs, such as fertilizer
and water, reducing nursery costs by up to 50%.
• In this method prepared bed with 1mt width and 10 cm ht and cover
this with polyethylene sheet.
• In this method mix well decomposed fine FYM with fine soil and
spread on the plastic paper.
• 10 g NPK/sq.mt is added to this mix.
• Broadcast pre germinated seeds on this mixture at the rate of
0.6kg/sq.mt
• Then seeds are covered with thin layer of straw, sprinkle water 2-3
times per day.
• After 12-15 days the seedlings reach the four leaf stage which favour
quick establishment and rapid growth and ready for transplanting and
seedlings are fast establishment and more number of tillers.

75. A bubble tray nursery
• The bubble tray nursery is a good system to develop 12-15 day old
seedlings with "root balls".
• The seedlings are raised on plastic trays of 59 cm by 34 cm with
434 embedded holes.
• 750 trays are required to raise the seedlings per hectare.

76. Seedling boxes for mechanical transplanting
Mechanized transplanting requires techniques that are different from hand
transplanting.
• Usually seedling boxes are used that are adapted to the type of transplanter.
• In a seedling box, seedlings are grown on a thin layer of soil in 30 cm x 60
cm trays.
• In some instances, seedlings are grown on larger areas and then cut into
rectangular strips (mats of seedlings) that fit into the planting trays of the
transplanter.