1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the ill.docxSONU61709
Â
1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the illegal drug industry in Latin America. In doing so, discuss the parallels with the dynamics of legal international trade under the influence of increasing globalization and economic integration. Â
2. Please discuss in your own words (no quotes) the Mexican Cartels and how they have defied U.S. Drug Policies. In doing so, discuss Operation Intercept, and Operation Condor.
3. Please discuss in detail the fight against violence and terror on the Southwest Border of the United States. In doing so, also list and discuss the three points keyed in on by Kingpins and corruption (2017).
4. Please define, describe, and discuss what is meant by âA Line in the sand.â Then, summarize the Majority Report by the United States House Committee on Homeland Security Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Management.â Your conclusion should provide some solution to the problem of southwest border security.
EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 37, No. 3, 2014
Pages 407â430
An Evaluation of a Treatment Package
Consisting of Discrimination Training and
Differential Reinforcement with Response Cost
and a Social Story on Vocal Stereotypy for a
Preschooler with Autism in a
Preschool Classroom
Amanda P. Laprime and Gretchen A. Dittrich
Simmons College
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the use of a treatment package com-
prised of a social story, discrimination training, and differential reinforcement
with response cost on the vocal stereotypy of one preschooler diagnosed with
an autism spectrum disorder. The study took place in a preschool classroom
of a public school and was implemented by the classroom teacher and staff.
A changing criterion design was employed to evaluate experimental control.
The results of this study demonstrated a clear decrease in vocal stereotypy as
compared to baseline.
Keywords: Vocal Stereotypy, Response Cost, Differential Reinforcement,
Changing-Criterion Design
A defining characteristic of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
involves repetitive vocalizations or body movements, otherwise de-
fined as stereotyped behavior (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). Rapp and Vollmer (2005) conducted a review of the literature
and concluded that the majority of stereotypic behaviors are main-
tained by automatic reinforcement. Skinner defined verbal behav-
iors as âbehavior reinforced through the mediation of other personsâ
(1957, p.2). Though repetitive vocal responses may topographically
appear to be verbal, if the consequences maintaining such responses
are not mediated by a listener, they then could instead be defined as
vocal stereotypy maintained by automatic reinforcement. Vaughn and
Michael (1982) defined automatic reinforcement as a contingency not
mediated by a listener. Therefore, vocal stereotypy may be maintained
This study was conducted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requiremen ...
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022Readings Use your .docxjolleybendicty
Â
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022
Readings
Use your
Social Policy and Social Programs text to complete the following:
¡ Read Chapter 1, "Analyzing the Social Problem Background of Social Policies and Programs," pages 7â26.Multimedia
View the following animation:
¡
Bloom's Taxonomy.
Unit1Disc1 (1page site sources in APA)
The Definition of a Social Problem
Choose a social problem affecting an oppressed population you are interested in learning about. Research the history of how that issue became a social problem and report your findings. Use this unit's readings to ensure your understanding of defining a social problem. For this discussion, answer the following questions:
¡ What factors led to the definition of this social problem?
¡ Who were the key players?
Unit1Disc2 (1page site sources in APA)
Diverse Policy Viewpoints: Right or Wrong?
Explain why there is no such thing as a
right or
wrong social policy viewpoint. Provide examples from the issue you researched in the first discussion of this unit to illustrate your claims and support them with course references. Include how different groups define the same problem; accomplish this by showing how the problem would be viewed by at least three distinct groups.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Effects of a Lag Schedule with Progressive Time Delay on Sign Mand
Variability in a Boy with Autism
Bryant C. Silbaugh1
& Terry S. Falcomata2
Published online: 18 September 2018
# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2018
Abstract
For some children with autism, mand training can produce highly repetitive manding unless the environment is arranged in a
manner that promotes mand variability. Prior research demonstrated that mand training using a lag schedule and progressive time
delay increased variability in vocal manding in children with autism. Whether lag schedules have similar effects on sign mand
topographies is unknown. The current study evaluated the effects of mand training with a Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement and
progressive time delay (TD) on topographical variability and the development of a sign mand response class hierarchy in a boy
with autism. The results suggest independent use of all sign mand topographies occurred, a mand response class hierarchy was
developed, and topographically variant sign manding increased under the Lag 1 + TD schedule compared to a Lag 0 schedule of
reinforcement. Implications for practitioners, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
Keywords Lag schedule . Mand . Operant variability . Response class hierarchy . Time delay
During mand training for individuals with language delays or
deficits (e.g., autism), a response such as saying âjuiceâ is
taught by presenting a relevant establishing operation (EO;
e.g., giving access to salty popcorn and withholding juice)
and using prompting, rapid prompt fading, and differe.
1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the ill.docxSONU61709
Â
1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the illegal drug industry in Latin America. In doing so, discuss the parallels with the dynamics of legal international trade under the influence of increasing globalization and economic integration. Â
2. Please discuss in your own words (no quotes) the Mexican Cartels and how they have defied U.S. Drug Policies. In doing so, discuss Operation Intercept, and Operation Condor.
3. Please discuss in detail the fight against violence and terror on the Southwest Border of the United States. In doing so, also list and discuss the three points keyed in on by Kingpins and corruption (2017).
4. Please define, describe, and discuss what is meant by âA Line in the sand.â Then, summarize the Majority Report by the United States House Committee on Homeland Security Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Management.â Your conclusion should provide some solution to the problem of southwest border security.
EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 37, No. 3, 2014
Pages 407â430
An Evaluation of a Treatment Package
Consisting of Discrimination Training and
Differential Reinforcement with Response Cost
and a Social Story on Vocal Stereotypy for a
Preschooler with Autism in a
Preschool Classroom
Amanda P. Laprime and Gretchen A. Dittrich
Simmons College
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the use of a treatment package com-
prised of a social story, discrimination training, and differential reinforcement
with response cost on the vocal stereotypy of one preschooler diagnosed with
an autism spectrum disorder. The study took place in a preschool classroom
of a public school and was implemented by the classroom teacher and staff.
A changing criterion design was employed to evaluate experimental control.
The results of this study demonstrated a clear decrease in vocal stereotypy as
compared to baseline.
Keywords: Vocal Stereotypy, Response Cost, Differential Reinforcement,
Changing-Criterion Design
A defining characteristic of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
involves repetitive vocalizations or body movements, otherwise de-
fined as stereotyped behavior (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). Rapp and Vollmer (2005) conducted a review of the literature
and concluded that the majority of stereotypic behaviors are main-
tained by automatic reinforcement. Skinner defined verbal behav-
iors as âbehavior reinforced through the mediation of other personsâ
(1957, p.2). Though repetitive vocal responses may topographically
appear to be verbal, if the consequences maintaining such responses
are not mediated by a listener, they then could instead be defined as
vocal stereotypy maintained by automatic reinforcement. Vaughn and
Michael (1982) defined automatic reinforcement as a contingency not
mediated by a listener. Therefore, vocal stereotypy may be maintained
This study was conducted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requiremen ...
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022Readings Use your .docxjolleybendicty
Â
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022
Readings
Use your
Social Policy and Social Programs text to complete the following:
¡ Read Chapter 1, "Analyzing the Social Problem Background of Social Policies and Programs," pages 7â26.Multimedia
View the following animation:
¡
Bloom's Taxonomy.
Unit1Disc1 (1page site sources in APA)
The Definition of a Social Problem
Choose a social problem affecting an oppressed population you are interested in learning about. Research the history of how that issue became a social problem and report your findings. Use this unit's readings to ensure your understanding of defining a social problem. For this discussion, answer the following questions:
¡ What factors led to the definition of this social problem?
¡ Who were the key players?
Unit1Disc2 (1page site sources in APA)
Diverse Policy Viewpoints: Right or Wrong?
Explain why there is no such thing as a
right or
wrong social policy viewpoint. Provide examples from the issue you researched in the first discussion of this unit to illustrate your claims and support them with course references. Include how different groups define the same problem; accomplish this by showing how the problem would be viewed by at least three distinct groups.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Effects of a Lag Schedule with Progressive Time Delay on Sign Mand
Variability in a Boy with Autism
Bryant C. Silbaugh1
& Terry S. Falcomata2
Published online: 18 September 2018
# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2018
Abstract
For some children with autism, mand training can produce highly repetitive manding unless the environment is arranged in a
manner that promotes mand variability. Prior research demonstrated that mand training using a lag schedule and progressive time
delay increased variability in vocal manding in children with autism. Whether lag schedules have similar effects on sign mand
topographies is unknown. The current study evaluated the effects of mand training with a Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement and
progressive time delay (TD) on topographical variability and the development of a sign mand response class hierarchy in a boy
with autism. The results suggest independent use of all sign mand topographies occurred, a mand response class hierarchy was
developed, and topographically variant sign manding increased under the Lag 1 + TD schedule compared to a Lag 0 schedule of
reinforcement. Implications for practitioners, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
Keywords Lag schedule . Mand . Operant variability . Response class hierarchy . Time delay
During mand training for individuals with language delays or
deficits (e.g., autism), a response such as saying âjuiceâ is
taught by presenting a relevant establishing operation (EO;
e.g., giving access to salty popcorn and withholding juice)
and using prompting, rapid prompt fading, and differe.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Clinical PsycholAlleneMcclendon878
Â
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Clinical Psychology Review
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/clinpsychrev
Clinical psychology is an applied evolutionary science
Steven C. Hayesa,â, Stefan G. Hofmannb, David Sloan Wilsonc
a University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States of America
b Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
c Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, United States of America
H I G H L I G H T S
⢠There has been a historical breach between evolutionary science and clinical psychology.
⢠The expansion of evolutionary science beyond genetic evolution makes it more relevant to applied psychology than in the past.
⢠A multi-dimensional and multi-level extended evolutionary synthesis can bring consilience to clinical psychology as a field.
⢠Learning, behavior, symbolic thought, consciousness and culture are central to an extended evolutionary synthesis.
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Evolution
Variation
Selection
Multi-level selection
Extended evolutionary synthesis
Conscious evolution
Evidence-based therapy
Processes of change
A B S T R A C T
Historically there has been only a limited relationship between clinical psychology and evolutionary science.
This article considers the status of that relationship in light of a modern multi-dimensional and multi-level
extended evolutionary approach. Evolution can be purposive and even conscious, and evolutionary principles
can give guidance and provide consilience to clinical psychology, especially as it focuses more on processes of
change. The time seems ripe to view clinical psychology as an applied evolutionary science.
Clinical psychology is an empirically and professionally well-es-
tablished branch of the health and life sciences, but its intellectual
connection to evolutionary science is historically limited. A few min-
utes with a search engine will reveal that the vast scientific literature on
psychopathology, psychotherapy, processes of change, or diagnosis,
seldom mentions evolutionary principles as topics of critical con-
temporary relevance.
This simple fact presents a paradox of disconnection. On the one
hand, belief in evolution by behavioral scientists, indeed by scientists of
all kinds, is nearly universal (Pew Research Center, 2009). It is difficult
to find clear written statements by any clinical psychologist of note
suggesting that their field, or their specific approach to their field, does
not comport with an evolutionary perspective. On the other hand, it is
relatively uncommon to find evolutionary principles being studied or
used within well-established clinical psychological perspectives, or
within mental health more broadly (Nesse, 2019). With only a few
exceptions (c.f., Hayes & Hofmann, 2018), introductory texts in clinical
psychology say little about principles of evolutionary science other than
description of genetics in the obligatory chapter on the biological b ...
Current Directions in PsychologicalScience2015, Vol. 24(4).docxannettsparrow
Â
Current Directions in Psychological
Science
2015, Vol. 24(4) 304 â312
Š The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0963721415580430
cdps.sagepub.com
Behavior genetics is the study of the manner in which
genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes
(traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental
illness, and social attitudes. In a seminal article published
in this journal, Turkheimer (2000) noted three robust
empirical regularities that had by then emerged from the
literature on behavior genetics. He dubbed these regu-
larities the âThree Laws of Behavior Genetics.â They are:
1. All human behavioral traits are heritable. [That is,
they are affected to some degree by genetic
variation.]
2. The effect of being raised in the same family is
smaller than the effect of genes.
3. A substantial portion of the variation in complex
human behavioral traits is not accounted for by
the effects of genes or families.
These observations surprised many outsiders to the
field of behavior genetics at the time, yet they remain an
accurate broad-brush summary of the empirical evidence
15 years later, as shown by a recent meta-analysis of
virtually all twin studies ever conducted (Polderman
et al., 2015). Indeed, they have attained the status of ânull
hypothesesââthe most reasonable a priori expectations
to hold in the absence of contrary evidence (Turkheimer,
Pettersson, & Horn, 2014).
The original Three Laws summarized results from stud-
ies of twins, adoptees, and other kinships. These research
designs have many valuable uses, but they cannot discover
particular genomic regions or specific variants that are
causally responsible for downstream phenotypic variation.
Since the completion of the Human Genome Project,
numerous studies of behavioral traits have directly mea-
sured DNA variation among individuals in an attempt to
take this logical next step. While there are many types of
genetic variants, most studies have assayed single-nucleo-
tide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are sites in the genome
where single DNA base pairs carried by distinct individuals
580430CDPXXX10.1177/0963721415580430Chabris et al.The Fourth Law of Behavior Genetics
research-article2015
Corresponding Author:
Christopher F. Chabris, Department of Psychology, Union College, 807
Union St., Schenectady, NY 12308
E-mail: [email protected]
The Fourth Law of Behavior Genetics
Christopher F. Chabris1, James J. Lee2, David Cesarini3,
Daniel J. Benjamin4,5,6, and David I. Laibson7
1Department of Psychology, Union College; 2Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities;
3Department of Economics, New York University; 4Department of Economics, Cornell University; 5Center for
Economic and Social Research, University of Southern California; 6Department of Economics, University of
Southern California; and 7Department of Economics, Harvard University
Abstract
Behavior geneti.
A key question for personality psychologists is Are we what .docxsleeperharwell
Â
A key question for personality psychologists is: âAre we what we are because of
nature or because of nurture?â When the question is phrased in this manner,
neither answer can be correct, for the answers are not mutually exclusive. The
premise of the question itself is wrong. We are what we are because of how
nature and nurture interact; it is not a question of either/or. There clearly are
both inborn and social-cultural influences on the individual. Genetics and
environmentânature and nurtureâregulate and guide each person.
In Chapter 1 we examine some of the innate determinants of personality
and behavior. We observe that, as products of a long evolutionary history, hu-
man beings are predisposed to certain patterns of behavior. In addition, spe-
cific genetic blueprints provide the foundation for personality and behavior.
But it is evident that individualsâ personalities are greatly influenced by the
contexts that surround them and by the experiences they have had. Individu-
als brought up in different cultures or social classes behave differently. If one
wants to predict what an individual is doing or thinking at a given time, some
of the best predictors are the point in history when the individual was born and
where he or she is living. In Chapter 2 we examine some of these social and
cultural influences as well as other kinds of environmental influences.
Culture not only influences individuals; it also influences psychological the-
ories themselves. There is increasing reason to believe that the âgrand theoriesâ
of Western psychology reflect certain biases about the nature of people that
characterize Western culture.
Chapters 1 and 2 do not attempt to give complete accounts of the genetics of
personality or the social determinants of action; full courses are devoted to these
topics. Rather, we introduce the context of the person: an individual with unique
predispositions who is nevertheless modifiable and shaped by surroundings.
Innate and Environmental
Determinants of Personality 1PART
CHAPTER 1
Genetic Determinants
of Personality
CHAPTER 2
Contextual Aspects
of Personality and
Behavior
Source: Ollyy/Shutterstock.com.
3
Genetic Determinants of Personality
Charles Darwin introduced the idea that the human species is the product
of a long period of evolution in The Origin of Species and Descent of Man.
His arguments had an enormous influence on the field of personality. First,
his theory of evolution assumed scientific determinismâthat is, the theory
assumed that the most complex aspects of behavior in all species are sub-
ject to scientific and rational analysis and are not due to accident or divine
intervention. This principle was accepted by psychologists in their study of
both nonhuman and human behavior. Second, Darwin focused attention on
the function or adaptive value of biological structures and behavior. Psychol-
ogists have been guided by this viewpoint as they search for the usefu.
Social Work in Public Health, 26471â481, 2011Copyright Š .docxrosemariebrayshaw
Â
Social Work in Public Health, 26:471â481, 2011
Copyright Š Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1937-1918 print/1937-190X online
DOI: 10.1080/19371918.2011.591629
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral
Therapy: Considering Human Behaviors
within the Social and Cultural Context of
Individuals and Families
ANNIE McCULLOUGH CHAVIS
Department of Social Work, Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville,
North Carolina, USA
This article examines theoretical thoughts of social learning theory
and behavioral therapy and their influences on human behav-
ior within a social and cultural context. The article utilizes two
case illustrations with applications for consumers. It points out
the abundance of research studies concerning the effectiveness
of social learning theory, and the paucity of research studies re-
garding effectiveness and evidence-based practices with diverse
groups. Providing a social and cultural context in working with
diverse groups with reference to social learning theory adds to the
literature for more cultural considerations in adapting the theory
to women, African Americans, and diverse groups.
KEYWORDS Social learning theory, behavioral therapy, human
behavior, social context, cultural context, environment, effective-
ness, evidence-based practice, African Americans, diverse groups
INTRODUCTION
Social learning theory is one of the most recent approaches to addressing
people in need and applying the theory to human problems within a social
context. The utilization of the theory as an applicable approach to change
human behaviors began in earnest in the 1950s. Its use in the social and
behavioral sciences as a mental health intervention grew in popularity in the
Address correspondence to Annie McCullough Chavis, Fayetteville State University,
Department of Social Work, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, NC 28301. E-mail: [email protected]
uncfsu.edu
471
472 A. McCullough Chavis
late 1950s as interest in insight-oriented approaches waned. Social learning
theory is one of the most influential theories of learning and human develop-
ment and is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning. The
theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context and that people
learn from one another (Ormond, 1999); however, the theory adds a social
element. It proposes that people can learn new information and behaviors by
observing other people. Thus, the use of observational learning, imitation, or
modeling explains a wide variety of human behaviors using social learning
theory and approach. Behavioral therapy has its roots and basic principles
within social learning theory.
Centered on principles of learned behavior that occurs within a social
context, behavioral therapy focuses upon the principles of classical con-
ditioning developed by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning developed
by B. F. Skinner. Coady and Lehmann (2008) noted that Pavlov (1927)
demonstrated that, through association in .
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2254â64,.docxtawnyataylor528
Â
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22:54â64, 2012
Copyright Š Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online
DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2011.598828
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral
Therapy: Considering Human Behaviors
within the Social and Cultural Context
of Individuals and Families
ANNIE McCULLOUGH CHAVIS
Department of Social Work, Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, North Carolina, USA
This article examines theoretical thoughts of social learning theory
and behavioral therapy and their influences on human behav-
ior within a social and cultural context. The article utilizes two
case illustrations with applications for consumers. It points out
the abundance of research studies concerning the effectiveness
of social learning theory and the paucity of research studies re-
garding effectiveness and evidence-based practices with diverse
groups. Providing a social and cultural context in working with
diverse groups with reference to social learning theory adds to the
literature for more cultural considerations in adapting the theory
to women, African Americans, and diverse groups.
KEYWORDS Social learning theory, behavioral therapy, human
behavior, social context, cultural context, environment, effective-
ness, evidence-based practice, African Americans, diverse groups
INTRODUCTION
Social learning theory is one of the most recent approaches to addressing
people in need and applying the theory to human problems within a social
context. The utilization of the theory as an applicable approach to change
human behaviors began in earnest in the 1950s. Its use in the social and
behavioral sciences as a mental health intervention grew in popularity in the
late 1950s as interest in insight-oriented approaches waned. Social learning
Address correspondence to Annie McCullough Chavis, Department of Social Work,
Fayetteville State University, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, NC 28301, USA. E-mail:
[email protected]
54
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral Therapy 55
theory is one of the most influential theories of learning and human devel-
opment and is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning.
The theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context, and it
considers that people learn from one another (Ormond, 1999); however,
the theory adds a social element. It proposes that people can learn new
information and behaviors by observing other people. Thus, the use of
observational learning, imitation, or modeling explains a wide variety of
human behaviors using social learning theory and approach. Behavioral
therapy has its roots and basic principles within social learning theory.
Centered upon principles of learned behavior that occurs within a social
context, behavioral therapy focuses upon the principles of classical condi-
tioning developed by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning developed by
B. F. Skinner. Coady and Lehmann (2008) note that Pavlo ...
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether childrenâs imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year oldsâ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., FirstâSecondâThird) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., UpâDownâRight) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with âfamiliarâ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., LeftâMiddleâRight) as well as ânovelâ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., RightâUpâDown) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
Clinical Psychology Review 26 (2006) 379â395
Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: Translation
between clinical and preclinical studies
Catharine A. Winstanley â, Dawn M. Eagle, Trevor W. Robbins
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
Abstract
Impulsivity, broadly defined as action without foresight, is a component of numerous psychiatric illnesses including attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), mania and substance abuse. In order to investigate the mechanisms underpinning impulsive
behavior, the nature of impulsivity itself needs to be defined in operational terms that can be used as the basis for empirical
investigation. Due to the range of behaviors that the term impulsivity describes, it has been suggested that impulsivity is not a
unitary construct, but encompasses a variety of related phenomena that may differ in their biological basis. Through fractionating
impulsivity into these component parts, it has proved possible to devise different behavioral paradigms to measure various aspects
of impulsivity in both humans and laboratory animals. This review describes and evaluates some of the current behavioral models
of impulsivity developed for use with rodents based on human neuropsychological tests, focusing on the five-choice serial reaction
time task, the stop-signal reaction time task and delay-discounting paradigms. Furthermore, the contributions made by preclinical
studies using such methodology to improve our understanding of the neural and neurochemical basis of impulsivity and ADHD are
discussed, with particular reference to the involvement of both the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, and frontostriatal
circuitry.
Š 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ADHD; Impulsivity; Frontal cortex; Inhibition; Serotonin; Dopamine
1. Introduction
Impulsivity is a characteristic of human behavior that can be both beneficial and detrimental to our everyday lives.
For example, the ability to act on impulse may allow us to seize a valuable opportunity, or to make a disastrous decision
that we then live to regret. Impulsivity can be viewed as a dimension of normal personality (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1977), but high levels of impulsivity are associated with psychiatric disorders such as ADHD, mania, substance abuse
and personality disorders, indicating that this personality trait can be maladaptive (DSM IV, 1994). It has been
suggested that impulsivity is not a unitary construct (Evenden, 1999; Moeller, Barratt, Dougherty, Schmitz, & Swann,
2001), and that increases in different aspects of impulsivity may represent different subtypes of ADHD (Nigg, 2003;
Sonuga-Barke, 2002).
â Corresponding author. University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-9070, USA.
Tel.: +1 214 648 5936; fax: +1 214 648 4182.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.A. Winstanley).
0272-7358/$ - see front matter Š 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All right ...
The Stroop EffectEffect18TitleStudentâs NamePro.docxsarah98765
Â
The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Studentâs Name
Professorâs Name
Course
Date
Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroopâs original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
The initial experiment has been discussed in many psychological classes. Researchers in the field of experimental psychology have cited the original paper in their various studies. The application of Stroop effect in clinical practice has aided in finding treatment for patients with psychological disorders. The Stroop effect is also imperative in investigations since it acts as a feasible psychological test. Experimental findings from different tests reveal stimuli reaction due to sematic interference and sematic facilitation. Stroop conceptual framework secludes three stimuli groups (incongruent, neutral and congruent).The stimuli are used during all experiments to draw conclusions. The Stroop effect is processes within two parts of the brain; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Results from reaction to stimuli in the two brain parts are explained using a number of theories namely; selective attention, processing speed, parallel distributed processing and automacity. The Stroop effect has been a milestone in collating cognitive development with other variables viz. working memory and processing speed. Researchers have published modified Stroop tests in bilingualism. In this field, wrapped words, reverse tests and spatial tests have all been applied.
Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
MINI REVIEW ARTICLEpublished 04 March 2015doi 10.3389.docxannandleola
Â
MINI REVIEW ARTICLE
published: 04 March 2015
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00064
Lessons from the analysis of nonhuman primates for
understanding human aging and neurodegenerative
diseases
Jean-Michel Verdier 1,2,3*, Isabelle Acquatella 1,2,3, Corinne Lautier 1,2,3, Gina Devau 1,2,3,
StĂŠphanie Trouche 1,2,3, Christelle Lasbleiz 1,2,3 and Nadine Mestre-FrancĂŠs 1,2,3
1 UniversitĂŠ de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
2 Institut National de la SantĂŠ et de la Recherche MĂŠdicale, U1198, Montpellier, France
3 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Edited by:
Patrick Lewis, University of Reading,
UK
Reviewed by:
Ricardo Insausti, University of
Castilla -la Mancha, Spain
Varun Kesherwani, University of
Nebraska Medical Center, USA
*Correspondence:
Jean-Michel Verdier, University of
Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon,
CC105, 34095 Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
univ-montp2.fr
Animal models are necessary tools for solving the most serious challenges facing medical
research. In aging and neurodegenerative disease studies, rodents occupy a place of
choice. However, the most challenging questions about longevity, the complexity and
functioning of brain networks or social intelligence can almost only be investigated in
nonhuman primates. Beside the fact that their brain structure is much closer to that of
humans, they develop highly complex cognitive strategies and they are visually-oriented
like humans. For these reasons, they deserve consideration, although their management
and care are more complicated and the related costs much higher. Despite these caveats,
considerable scientific advances have been possible using nonhuman primates. This
review concisely summarizes their role in the study of aging and of the mechanisms
involved in neurodegenerative disorders associated mainly with cognitive dysfunctions
(Alzheimerâs and prion diseases) or motor deficits (Parkinsonâs and related diseases).
Keywords: neuroscience, brain, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, nonhuman primate
WHY DO WE NEED ANIMAL MODELS?
The simplest answer to this question is to increase our general
knowledge, to experimentally test theories. Animal model use-
fulness is manifold, from the study of physiological processes to
the identification of disease-causing mechanisms. Indeed, phys-
iopathological studies are of the utmost importance for develop-
ing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches based on the discovery
of new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers, the identifica-
tion of the mechanism of action of drugs, the establishment of
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, the toxic-
ity analysis of new compounds or the assessment of clinical drug
regimens.
Many different animal models, ranging from unicellular
organisms (bacteria, yeast) to invertebrates (the roundworm
Caenorhabditis elegans or the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster)
and vertebrates (fish and mammals), are currently used for
research on aging and neurodegenerative disorders. T ...
892018 South Universityhttpsmyclasses.southuniversity.docxransayo
Â
8/9/2018 South University
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/d2l/le/content/34297/viewContent/1114063/View 1/1
Download: Video Transcript (PDF 18KB) (media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?
_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297)
The Scienti c Method
Biology consists of a great deal of knowledge. Much of that knowledge takes the form of facts that we
refer to as theories. Or perhaps this is better understood by saying that biologists treat theories as
though they were facts. But, they are special kind of fact. They are not a fact the way your social
security number is a fact. A theory is a fact that has been derived using the scienti c method.
The scienti c method always starts with an observation. And notice carefully that we use the singular
word, observation, and not the plural 'observations', even if a thousand events were observed. The
observation leads to a question. Questions come in many shapes and forms, but the scienti c method
needs to pose only very speci c questions. This is because the question must be able to be worded as a
hypothesis. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a speci c statement in which a cause and effect
scenario is central. For an example, follow along with the scenarios presented in the assigned textbook
readings. You will see that a hypothesis can never be an open ended question. It must be speci c. For
example, this is a hypothesis: If I put a cover over a ame, it will go out. This is not a hypothesis: Why
does the ame go out when I put a cover over it? After you have created a hypothesis, you design
experiments to see if you can support your hypothesis. Keep in mind that in the biological sciences,
while you can support a hypothesis, you can never prove one. This is one of the most misunderstood
concepts in science. You will never account for every possible condition for a given hypothesis;
therefore, you can never prove it beyond any shadow of doubt.
îĽ
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/content/enforced/34297-2405986/media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297
CHAPTER 5
Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection
Stated more precisely, natural selection is the differential success (survival and reproduction) of individuals within the population that results from their interaction with their environment. As outlined by Darwin, natural selection is a product of two conditions: (1) that variation occurs among individuals within a population in some âheritableâ characteristic, and (2) that this variation results in differences among individuals in their survival and reproduction as a result of their interaction with the environment. Natural selection is a numbers game. Darwin wrote:
Among those individuals that do reproduce, some will leave more offspring than others. These individuals are considered more fit than the others because they contribute the most to the next g.
The Carbon Cycle - A-Level Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon Emission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words. Carbon Tax Essay | Economics - Year 12 HSC | Thinkswap. Elsevier - Carbon Template. Carbon essay - Carbon is one of the most important elements in the .... (PDF) Essay: Carbon Emissions Trading: Is It Possible?. Carbon Dioxide in Organisms and Ecosystems Essay | Carbon Dioxide .... Carbond Dioxide Essay | Ocean Acidification | Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Essay-STU - How the U. Healthcare System Can Help Decrease .... Several Research Topics of Carbon Footprint Order Quantity | Scientific.Net. Carbon template - For Authors. Carbon Essay | PDF. Sources And Sinks Of Carbon Dioxide Environmental Sciences Essay .... Carbon cycle and climate change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Carbon essay - Grade: A - Review the evidence and explanations for a .... Full Marks A-Level Biology Essay - Carbon dioxide may affect organisms .... Carbon foot print essay - reportspdf739.web.fc2.com. Carbon Cycle Writing Prompt by Chelle's Corner | TpT. Carbon Emissions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 .... The Earth And Beyond - GCSE Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon cycle essay | TorneosLTC. Water and carbon essay - ####### To what extent is human activity .... The Management Of Carbon Monoxide In Nigeria Environmental Sciences ....
World War 1 Essay | Essay on World War 1 for Students and Children in .... First World War of 1914-1918 - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. World War 1 - PHDessay.com. Was World War 1 Inevitable? Free Essay Example. Causes of World War 1 Essay | Essay on Causes of World War 1 for .... World War 1 Essay | World War I | Canada. Causes of world war 1 essay - Write my essay for me with Professional .... History essay why did world war one happen - GCSE History - Marked by .... World War 1 Essay Introduction â Telegraph. Essays about the causes of world war 1. What caused the First World War? - A-Level History - Marked by Teachers.com. An Issue of World War I - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Essay on First World War (Some schools part3) - GCSE History - Marked .... Origins of wwi essay. Causes of World War I World war one took place between 1914 and 1918 ....
More Related Content
Similar to Adaptationism And Molecular Biology An Example Based On ADHD
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Clinical PsycholAlleneMcclendon878
Â
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Clinical Psychology Review
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/clinpsychrev
Clinical psychology is an applied evolutionary science
Steven C. Hayesa,â, Stefan G. Hofmannb, David Sloan Wilsonc
a University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States of America
b Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
c Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, United States of America
H I G H L I G H T S
⢠There has been a historical breach between evolutionary science and clinical psychology.
⢠The expansion of evolutionary science beyond genetic evolution makes it more relevant to applied psychology than in the past.
⢠A multi-dimensional and multi-level extended evolutionary synthesis can bring consilience to clinical psychology as a field.
⢠Learning, behavior, symbolic thought, consciousness and culture are central to an extended evolutionary synthesis.
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Evolution
Variation
Selection
Multi-level selection
Extended evolutionary synthesis
Conscious evolution
Evidence-based therapy
Processes of change
A B S T R A C T
Historically there has been only a limited relationship between clinical psychology and evolutionary science.
This article considers the status of that relationship in light of a modern multi-dimensional and multi-level
extended evolutionary approach. Evolution can be purposive and even conscious, and evolutionary principles
can give guidance and provide consilience to clinical psychology, especially as it focuses more on processes of
change. The time seems ripe to view clinical psychology as an applied evolutionary science.
Clinical psychology is an empirically and professionally well-es-
tablished branch of the health and life sciences, but its intellectual
connection to evolutionary science is historically limited. A few min-
utes with a search engine will reveal that the vast scientific literature on
psychopathology, psychotherapy, processes of change, or diagnosis,
seldom mentions evolutionary principles as topics of critical con-
temporary relevance.
This simple fact presents a paradox of disconnection. On the one
hand, belief in evolution by behavioral scientists, indeed by scientists of
all kinds, is nearly universal (Pew Research Center, 2009). It is difficult
to find clear written statements by any clinical psychologist of note
suggesting that their field, or their specific approach to their field, does
not comport with an evolutionary perspective. On the other hand, it is
relatively uncommon to find evolutionary principles being studied or
used within well-established clinical psychological perspectives, or
within mental health more broadly (Nesse, 2019). With only a few
exceptions (c.f., Hayes & Hofmann, 2018), introductory texts in clinical
psychology say little about principles of evolutionary science other than
description of genetics in the obligatory chapter on the biological b ...
Current Directions in PsychologicalScience2015, Vol. 24(4).docxannettsparrow
Â
Current Directions in Psychological
Science
2015, Vol. 24(4) 304 â312
Š The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0963721415580430
cdps.sagepub.com
Behavior genetics is the study of the manner in which
genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes
(traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental
illness, and social attitudes. In a seminal article published
in this journal, Turkheimer (2000) noted three robust
empirical regularities that had by then emerged from the
literature on behavior genetics. He dubbed these regu-
larities the âThree Laws of Behavior Genetics.â They are:
1. All human behavioral traits are heritable. [That is,
they are affected to some degree by genetic
variation.]
2. The effect of being raised in the same family is
smaller than the effect of genes.
3. A substantial portion of the variation in complex
human behavioral traits is not accounted for by
the effects of genes or families.
These observations surprised many outsiders to the
field of behavior genetics at the time, yet they remain an
accurate broad-brush summary of the empirical evidence
15 years later, as shown by a recent meta-analysis of
virtually all twin studies ever conducted (Polderman
et al., 2015). Indeed, they have attained the status of ânull
hypothesesââthe most reasonable a priori expectations
to hold in the absence of contrary evidence (Turkheimer,
Pettersson, & Horn, 2014).
The original Three Laws summarized results from stud-
ies of twins, adoptees, and other kinships. These research
designs have many valuable uses, but they cannot discover
particular genomic regions or specific variants that are
causally responsible for downstream phenotypic variation.
Since the completion of the Human Genome Project,
numerous studies of behavioral traits have directly mea-
sured DNA variation among individuals in an attempt to
take this logical next step. While there are many types of
genetic variants, most studies have assayed single-nucleo-
tide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are sites in the genome
where single DNA base pairs carried by distinct individuals
580430CDPXXX10.1177/0963721415580430Chabris et al.The Fourth Law of Behavior Genetics
research-article2015
Corresponding Author:
Christopher F. Chabris, Department of Psychology, Union College, 807
Union St., Schenectady, NY 12308
E-mail: [email protected]
The Fourth Law of Behavior Genetics
Christopher F. Chabris1, James J. Lee2, David Cesarini3,
Daniel J. Benjamin4,5,6, and David I. Laibson7
1Department of Psychology, Union College; 2Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities;
3Department of Economics, New York University; 4Department of Economics, Cornell University; 5Center for
Economic and Social Research, University of Southern California; 6Department of Economics, University of
Southern California; and 7Department of Economics, Harvard University
Abstract
Behavior geneti.
A key question for personality psychologists is Are we what .docxsleeperharwell
Â
A key question for personality psychologists is: âAre we what we are because of
nature or because of nurture?â When the question is phrased in this manner,
neither answer can be correct, for the answers are not mutually exclusive. The
premise of the question itself is wrong. We are what we are because of how
nature and nurture interact; it is not a question of either/or. There clearly are
both inborn and social-cultural influences on the individual. Genetics and
environmentânature and nurtureâregulate and guide each person.
In Chapter 1 we examine some of the innate determinants of personality
and behavior. We observe that, as products of a long evolutionary history, hu-
man beings are predisposed to certain patterns of behavior. In addition, spe-
cific genetic blueprints provide the foundation for personality and behavior.
But it is evident that individualsâ personalities are greatly influenced by the
contexts that surround them and by the experiences they have had. Individu-
als brought up in different cultures or social classes behave differently. If one
wants to predict what an individual is doing or thinking at a given time, some
of the best predictors are the point in history when the individual was born and
where he or she is living. In Chapter 2 we examine some of these social and
cultural influences as well as other kinds of environmental influences.
Culture not only influences individuals; it also influences psychological the-
ories themselves. There is increasing reason to believe that the âgrand theoriesâ
of Western psychology reflect certain biases about the nature of people that
characterize Western culture.
Chapters 1 and 2 do not attempt to give complete accounts of the genetics of
personality or the social determinants of action; full courses are devoted to these
topics. Rather, we introduce the context of the person: an individual with unique
predispositions who is nevertheless modifiable and shaped by surroundings.
Innate and Environmental
Determinants of Personality 1PART
CHAPTER 1
Genetic Determinants
of Personality
CHAPTER 2
Contextual Aspects
of Personality and
Behavior
Source: Ollyy/Shutterstock.com.
3
Genetic Determinants of Personality
Charles Darwin introduced the idea that the human species is the product
of a long period of evolution in The Origin of Species and Descent of Man.
His arguments had an enormous influence on the field of personality. First,
his theory of evolution assumed scientific determinismâthat is, the theory
assumed that the most complex aspects of behavior in all species are sub-
ject to scientific and rational analysis and are not due to accident or divine
intervention. This principle was accepted by psychologists in their study of
both nonhuman and human behavior. Second, Darwin focused attention on
the function or adaptive value of biological structures and behavior. Psychol-
ogists have been guided by this viewpoint as they search for the usefu.
Social Work in Public Health, 26471â481, 2011Copyright Š .docxrosemariebrayshaw
Â
Social Work in Public Health, 26:471â481, 2011
Copyright Š Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1937-1918 print/1937-190X online
DOI: 10.1080/19371918.2011.591629
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral
Therapy: Considering Human Behaviors
within the Social and Cultural Context of
Individuals and Families
ANNIE McCULLOUGH CHAVIS
Department of Social Work, Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville,
North Carolina, USA
This article examines theoretical thoughts of social learning theory
and behavioral therapy and their influences on human behav-
ior within a social and cultural context. The article utilizes two
case illustrations with applications for consumers. It points out
the abundance of research studies concerning the effectiveness
of social learning theory, and the paucity of research studies re-
garding effectiveness and evidence-based practices with diverse
groups. Providing a social and cultural context in working with
diverse groups with reference to social learning theory adds to the
literature for more cultural considerations in adapting the theory
to women, African Americans, and diverse groups.
KEYWORDS Social learning theory, behavioral therapy, human
behavior, social context, cultural context, environment, effective-
ness, evidence-based practice, African Americans, diverse groups
INTRODUCTION
Social learning theory is one of the most recent approaches to addressing
people in need and applying the theory to human problems within a social
context. The utilization of the theory as an applicable approach to change
human behaviors began in earnest in the 1950s. Its use in the social and
behavioral sciences as a mental health intervention grew in popularity in the
Address correspondence to Annie McCullough Chavis, Fayetteville State University,
Department of Social Work, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, NC 28301. E-mail: [email protected]
uncfsu.edu
471
472 A. McCullough Chavis
late 1950s as interest in insight-oriented approaches waned. Social learning
theory is one of the most influential theories of learning and human develop-
ment and is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning. The
theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context and that people
learn from one another (Ormond, 1999); however, the theory adds a social
element. It proposes that people can learn new information and behaviors by
observing other people. Thus, the use of observational learning, imitation, or
modeling explains a wide variety of human behaviors using social learning
theory and approach. Behavioral therapy has its roots and basic principles
within social learning theory.
Centered on principles of learned behavior that occurs within a social
context, behavioral therapy focuses upon the principles of classical con-
ditioning developed by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning developed
by B. F. Skinner. Coady and Lehmann (2008) noted that Pavlov (1927)
demonstrated that, through association in .
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2254â64,.docxtawnyataylor528
Â
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22:54â64, 2012
Copyright Š Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online
DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2011.598828
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral
Therapy: Considering Human Behaviors
within the Social and Cultural Context
of Individuals and Families
ANNIE McCULLOUGH CHAVIS
Department of Social Work, Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, North Carolina, USA
This article examines theoretical thoughts of social learning theory
and behavioral therapy and their influences on human behav-
ior within a social and cultural context. The article utilizes two
case illustrations with applications for consumers. It points out
the abundance of research studies concerning the effectiveness
of social learning theory and the paucity of research studies re-
garding effectiveness and evidence-based practices with diverse
groups. Providing a social and cultural context in working with
diverse groups with reference to social learning theory adds to the
literature for more cultural considerations in adapting the theory
to women, African Americans, and diverse groups.
KEYWORDS Social learning theory, behavioral therapy, human
behavior, social context, cultural context, environment, effective-
ness, evidence-based practice, African Americans, diverse groups
INTRODUCTION
Social learning theory is one of the most recent approaches to addressing
people in need and applying the theory to human problems within a social
context. The utilization of the theory as an applicable approach to change
human behaviors began in earnest in the 1950s. Its use in the social and
behavioral sciences as a mental health intervention grew in popularity in the
late 1950s as interest in insight-oriented approaches waned. Social learning
Address correspondence to Annie McCullough Chavis, Department of Social Work,
Fayetteville State University, 1200 Murchison Road, Fayetteville, NC 28301, USA. E-mail:
[email protected]
54
Social Learning Theory and Behavioral Therapy 55
theory is one of the most influential theories of learning and human devel-
opment and is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning.
The theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context, and it
considers that people learn from one another (Ormond, 1999); however,
the theory adds a social element. It proposes that people can learn new
information and behaviors by observing other people. Thus, the use of
observational learning, imitation, or modeling explains a wide variety of
human behaviors using social learning theory and approach. Behavioral
therapy has its roots and basic principles within social learning theory.
Centered upon principles of learned behavior that occurs within a social
context, behavioral therapy focuses upon the principles of classical condi-
tioning developed by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning developed by
B. F. Skinner. Coady and Lehmann (2008) note that Pavlo ...
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether childrenâs imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year oldsâ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., FirstâSecondâThird) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., UpâDownâRight) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with âfamiliarâ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., LeftâMiddleâRight) as well as ânovelâ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., RightâUpâDown) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
Clinical Psychology Review 26 (2006) 379â395
Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: Translation
between clinical and preclinical studies
Catharine A. Winstanley â, Dawn M. Eagle, Trevor W. Robbins
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
Abstract
Impulsivity, broadly defined as action without foresight, is a component of numerous psychiatric illnesses including attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), mania and substance abuse. In order to investigate the mechanisms underpinning impulsive
behavior, the nature of impulsivity itself needs to be defined in operational terms that can be used as the basis for empirical
investigation. Due to the range of behaviors that the term impulsivity describes, it has been suggested that impulsivity is not a
unitary construct, but encompasses a variety of related phenomena that may differ in their biological basis. Through fractionating
impulsivity into these component parts, it has proved possible to devise different behavioral paradigms to measure various aspects
of impulsivity in both humans and laboratory animals. This review describes and evaluates some of the current behavioral models
of impulsivity developed for use with rodents based on human neuropsychological tests, focusing on the five-choice serial reaction
time task, the stop-signal reaction time task and delay-discounting paradigms. Furthermore, the contributions made by preclinical
studies using such methodology to improve our understanding of the neural and neurochemical basis of impulsivity and ADHD are
discussed, with particular reference to the involvement of both the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, and frontostriatal
circuitry.
Š 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ADHD; Impulsivity; Frontal cortex; Inhibition; Serotonin; Dopamine
1. Introduction
Impulsivity is a characteristic of human behavior that can be both beneficial and detrimental to our everyday lives.
For example, the ability to act on impulse may allow us to seize a valuable opportunity, or to make a disastrous decision
that we then live to regret. Impulsivity can be viewed as a dimension of normal personality (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1977), but high levels of impulsivity are associated with psychiatric disorders such as ADHD, mania, substance abuse
and personality disorders, indicating that this personality trait can be maladaptive (DSM IV, 1994). It has been
suggested that impulsivity is not a unitary construct (Evenden, 1999; Moeller, Barratt, Dougherty, Schmitz, & Swann,
2001), and that increases in different aspects of impulsivity may represent different subtypes of ADHD (Nigg, 2003;
Sonuga-Barke, 2002).
â Corresponding author. University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-9070, USA.
Tel.: +1 214 648 5936; fax: +1 214 648 4182.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.A. Winstanley).
0272-7358/$ - see front matter Š 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All right ...
The Stroop EffectEffect18TitleStudentâs NamePro.docxsarah98765
Â
The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Studentâs Name
Professorâs Name
Course
Date
Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroopâs original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
The initial experiment has been discussed in many psychological classes. Researchers in the field of experimental psychology have cited the original paper in their various studies. The application of Stroop effect in clinical practice has aided in finding treatment for patients with psychological disorders. The Stroop effect is also imperative in investigations since it acts as a feasible psychological test. Experimental findings from different tests reveal stimuli reaction due to sematic interference and sematic facilitation. Stroop conceptual framework secludes three stimuli groups (incongruent, neutral and congruent).The stimuli are used during all experiments to draw conclusions. The Stroop effect is processes within two parts of the brain; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Results from reaction to stimuli in the two brain parts are explained using a number of theories namely; selective attention, processing speed, parallel distributed processing and automacity. The Stroop effect has been a milestone in collating cognitive development with other variables viz. working memory and processing speed. Researchers have published modified Stroop tests in bilingualism. In this field, wrapped words, reverse tests and spatial tests have all been applied.
Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
MINI REVIEW ARTICLEpublished 04 March 2015doi 10.3389.docxannandleola
Â
MINI REVIEW ARTICLE
published: 04 March 2015
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00064
Lessons from the analysis of nonhuman primates for
understanding human aging and neurodegenerative
diseases
Jean-Michel Verdier 1,2,3*, Isabelle Acquatella 1,2,3, Corinne Lautier 1,2,3, Gina Devau 1,2,3,
StĂŠphanie Trouche 1,2,3, Christelle Lasbleiz 1,2,3 and Nadine Mestre-FrancĂŠs 1,2,3
1 UniversitĂŠ de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
2 Institut National de la SantĂŠ et de la Recherche MĂŠdicale, U1198, Montpellier, France
3 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France
Edited by:
Patrick Lewis, University of Reading,
UK
Reviewed by:
Ricardo Insausti, University of
Castilla -la Mancha, Spain
Varun Kesherwani, University of
Nebraska Medical Center, USA
*Correspondence:
Jean-Michel Verdier, University of
Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon,
CC105, 34095 Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
univ-montp2.fr
Animal models are necessary tools for solving the most serious challenges facing medical
research. In aging and neurodegenerative disease studies, rodents occupy a place of
choice. However, the most challenging questions about longevity, the complexity and
functioning of brain networks or social intelligence can almost only be investigated in
nonhuman primates. Beside the fact that their brain structure is much closer to that of
humans, they develop highly complex cognitive strategies and they are visually-oriented
like humans. For these reasons, they deserve consideration, although their management
and care are more complicated and the related costs much higher. Despite these caveats,
considerable scientific advances have been possible using nonhuman primates. This
review concisely summarizes their role in the study of aging and of the mechanisms
involved in neurodegenerative disorders associated mainly with cognitive dysfunctions
(Alzheimerâs and prion diseases) or motor deficits (Parkinsonâs and related diseases).
Keywords: neuroscience, brain, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, nonhuman primate
WHY DO WE NEED ANIMAL MODELS?
The simplest answer to this question is to increase our general
knowledge, to experimentally test theories. Animal model use-
fulness is manifold, from the study of physiological processes to
the identification of disease-causing mechanisms. Indeed, phys-
iopathological studies are of the utmost importance for develop-
ing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches based on the discovery
of new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers, the identifica-
tion of the mechanism of action of drugs, the establishment of
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, the toxic-
ity analysis of new compounds or the assessment of clinical drug
regimens.
Many different animal models, ranging from unicellular
organisms (bacteria, yeast) to invertebrates (the roundworm
Caenorhabditis elegans or the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster)
and vertebrates (fish and mammals), are currently used for
research on aging and neurodegenerative disorders. T ...
892018 South Universityhttpsmyclasses.southuniversity.docxransayo
Â
8/9/2018 South University
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/d2l/le/content/34297/viewContent/1114063/View 1/1
Download: Video Transcript (PDF 18KB) (media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?
_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297)
The Scienti c Method
Biology consists of a great deal of knowledge. Much of that knowledge takes the form of facts that we
refer to as theories. Or perhaps this is better understood by saying that biologists treat theories as
though they were facts. But, they are special kind of fact. They are not a fact the way your social
security number is a fact. A theory is a fact that has been derived using the scienti c method.
The scienti c method always starts with an observation. And notice carefully that we use the singular
word, observation, and not the plural 'observations', even if a thousand events were observed. The
observation leads to a question. Questions come in many shapes and forms, but the scienti c method
needs to pose only very speci c questions. This is because the question must be able to be worded as a
hypothesis. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a speci c statement in which a cause and effect
scenario is central. For an example, follow along with the scenarios presented in the assigned textbook
readings. You will see that a hypothesis can never be an open ended question. It must be speci c. For
example, this is a hypothesis: If I put a cover over a ame, it will go out. This is not a hypothesis: Why
does the ame go out when I put a cover over it? After you have created a hypothesis, you design
experiments to see if you can support your hypothesis. Keep in mind that in the biological sciences,
while you can support a hypothesis, you can never prove one. This is one of the most misunderstood
concepts in science. You will never account for every possible condition for a given hypothesis;
therefore, you can never prove it beyond any shadow of doubt.
îĽ
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/content/enforced/34297-2405986/media/week1/SU_W1_L1.pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=X4ZxS4reQPabhOYfLa2QhfkZb&ou=34297
CHAPTER 5
Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection
Stated more precisely, natural selection is the differential success (survival and reproduction) of individuals within the population that results from their interaction with their environment. As outlined by Darwin, natural selection is a product of two conditions: (1) that variation occurs among individuals within a population in some âheritableâ characteristic, and (2) that this variation results in differences among individuals in their survival and reproduction as a result of their interaction with the environment. Natural selection is a numbers game. Darwin wrote:
Among those individuals that do reproduce, some will leave more offspring than others. These individuals are considered more fit than the others because they contribute the most to the next g.
The Carbon Cycle - A-Level Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon Emission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words. Carbon Tax Essay | Economics - Year 12 HSC | Thinkswap. Elsevier - Carbon Template. Carbon essay - Carbon is one of the most important elements in the .... (PDF) Essay: Carbon Emissions Trading: Is It Possible?. Carbon Dioxide in Organisms and Ecosystems Essay | Carbon Dioxide .... Carbond Dioxide Essay | Ocean Acidification | Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Essay-STU - How the U. Healthcare System Can Help Decrease .... Several Research Topics of Carbon Footprint Order Quantity | Scientific.Net. Carbon template - For Authors. Carbon Essay | PDF. Sources And Sinks Of Carbon Dioxide Environmental Sciences Essay .... Carbon cycle and climate change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Carbon essay - Grade: A - Review the evidence and explanations for a .... Full Marks A-Level Biology Essay - Carbon dioxide may affect organisms .... Carbon foot print essay - reportspdf739.web.fc2.com. Carbon Cycle Writing Prompt by Chelle's Corner | TpT. Carbon Emissions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 .... The Earth And Beyond - GCSE Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Carbon cycle essay | TorneosLTC. Water and carbon essay - ####### To what extent is human activity .... The Management Of Carbon Monoxide In Nigeria Environmental Sciences ....
World War 1 Essay | Essay on World War 1 for Students and Children in .... First World War of 1914-1918 - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. World War 1 - PHDessay.com. Was World War 1 Inevitable? Free Essay Example. Causes of World War 1 Essay | Essay on Causes of World War 1 for .... World War 1 Essay | World War I | Canada. Causes of world war 1 essay - Write my essay for me with Professional .... History essay why did world war one happen - GCSE History - Marked by .... World War 1 Essay Introduction â Telegraph. Essays about the causes of world war 1. What caused the First World War? - A-Level History - Marked by Teachers.com. An Issue of World War I - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Essay on First World War (Some schools part3) - GCSE History - Marked .... Origins of wwi essay. Causes of World War I World war one took place between 1914 and 1918 ....
âAn Inconvenient Truth Summary Essay Example | GraduateWay. An Inconvenient Truth Reaction Paper Free Essay Example. Notes on An Inconvenient Truth. An inconvenient truth vs global warming swindle essay. An inconvenient truth book summary - lavaloxa. Inconvenient truth summary essay consider. My Humanities' Class | Created especially for my FTC students. âReaction Paper-An Inconvenient Truth by Al Gore Sample Essay Example .... An Inconvenient Truth Essay by aamclcp on DeviantArt. Inconvenient Truth Study Guide. An inconvenient truth personal comment.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Â
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
⢠The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
⢠The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate âany matterâ at âany timeâ under House Rule X.
⢠The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Â
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Â
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Hanâs Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insiderâs LMA Course, this piece examines the courseâs effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Â
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECDâs Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
Â
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
Â
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Â
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
1.4 modern child centered education - mahatma gandhi-2.pptx
Â
Adaptationism And Molecular Biology An Example Based On ADHD
1. selves to the Pleistocene). There is the additional problem that en-
vironments and selection pressures that are no longer extant â
âthe Pleistocene world of nomadic foragersâ (Symons 1989)
evoked at several points by Andrews et al. â cannot be directly
studied. As a result, arguments linking the demonstration of adap-
tation or exaptation to such contexts are inherently limited to plau-
sibility arguments rather than direct empirical tests. Where is the
empirical evidence that a âsweet toothâ was adaptive in the âcalor-
ically limited ancestral environment,â that ancient social contracts
vulnerable to free riders were countered by evolved âcheater-de-
tection modules,â or that men of the EEA gained fitness advan-
tages in choosing mates with high waist-hip ratios? There is a large
gulf between the rigorously collected and analyzed survey data or
lab experiments of evolutionary psychology, and the just-so stories
about the EEA that provide the âadaptiveâ component of âadap-
tive designâ arguments.
Problems (2) and (3) are rather more complex (Smith 1998;
Smith et al. 2001). The standard evolutionary psychology ap-
proach to revealing adaptive design is to construct an argument
linking (a) ancestral selection pressures that pose (b) a specific
adaptive problem with (c) a specialized cognitive module evolved
for solving just that adaptive problem. The specialized module in
turn implies: (d) a specific set of genes coding for its underlying
neurological circuits. In principle, the argument is sound and pro-
vides a satisfying causal structure linking adaptations to selective
pressures in a tight lock-and-key manner reminiscent of the re-
leasing stimuli and fixed-action patterns of classical ethology. In
practice, however, we can only guess at (a) and (b), and rarely have
any evidence at all for (d). Cognitive psychologists themselves are
bitterly divided about the degree to which (c) holds in higher-level
forms of human cognition.
In addition, there is the problem of how to analyze an evolved
mechanism (cognitive and otherwise) that generates facultative
responses to a variety of âadaptive problems,â including ones that
are relatively novel. Andrews et al. tackle this question by propos-
ing that we distinguish cases of adaptation from exaptation. In
essence, if we can build a case for the specificity of linked selec-
tive pressure, adaptive problem, and cognitive mechanism (ele-
ments [a]â[c] above), then we have a bona fide adaptation; but if
the cognitive mechanism or adaptive problem is insufficiently spe-
cific, even if the effects of patterned behavior produced by this
mechanism are adaptive, then we have an exaptation â in the case
of learning, an exapted learning mechanism (ELM). But the dis-
tinction between these two options in any specific case is ambigu-
ous at best, and a semantic issue at worst (Smith 1998). Andrews
et al. discuss this issue, using the example of driving a car and op-
tical flow, but ultimately waffle by concluding (see target article,
Note 3) that it all depends on how the researcher âcarves upâ be-
havior. My point is that Andrews et al., and standard evolutionary
psychology theory, are analytically hampered by their glorious vi-
sion of a set of tightly defined adaptive problems, cognitive mod-
ules, and one-mechanism-at-a-time adaptive responses. This may
work fine for certain behavioral phenomena, but is inadequate for
analyzing less tightly coupled systems.
One alternative to this âdemonstrate special design, or else itâs
just an ELMâ approach is to analyze adaptive behavioral variation
as forms of phenotypic adaptation that in any specific instance
may draw on a variety of cognitive mechanisms and other adap-
tive processes (including cultural transmission and evolution).
This is admittedly less precise but very often far more realistic.
Abundant evidence suggests that humans are particularly well de-
signed for engaging in processes of phenotypic adaptation, using
what in behavioral biology are termed conditional strategies, or in
psychological language might be labeled broad-purpose learning
mechanisms. Humans also adapt to a considerable extent via
processes of cumulative cultural evolution â a phenomenon on
which Andrews et al. are conspicuously silent.
These various attributes of human behavioral adaptation pre-
sumably reflect a hominid evolutionary history characterized by
severe environmental fluctuation (Potts 1998), and colonization of
an unprecedented variety of habitats (Foley 1996) via generation
of novel technological and institutional responses. It is critical to
remember that this behavioral diversity has been generated and
maintained within a single evolving species, was essentially com-
plete even before the origin and spread of agriculture (Kelly
1995), and was highly adaptive as measured by both environmen-
tal fit and reproductive outcomes. This suggests that human be-
havioral adaptive mechanisms are not limited to the highly spe-
cific and inflexible mechanisms discussed by Andrews et al. â the
âstone-age mindsâ maladapted to post-Pleistocene conditions so
often portrayed in the evolutionary psychology literature.
In sum, the research program advocated by Andrews et al. (and
mainstream evolutionary psychology) looks far better in the ab-
stract â as philosophy â than in practice â as a guide to either em-
pirical research or theory building. By adopting a more realistic
research strategy, evolutionary psychology could contribute a
great deal to understanding behavioral adaptations and exapta-
tions, but only in conjunction with other traditions such as behav-
ioral ecology (Winterhalder & Smith 2000) and cultural evolution
theory (Henrich & McElreath 2003).
Adaptationism and molecular biology:
An example based on ADHD
James Swansona, Robert Moyzisa, John Fossellab, Jin
Fanb, and Michael I. Posnerb
a
UC Irvine Child Development Center, Irvine, CA 92612; b
Sackler Institute,
Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021.
jmswanso@uci.edu rmoyzis@uci.edu mip2003@med.cornell.edu
Abstract: Rather than starting with traits and speculating whether selec-
tive forces drove evolution in past environments, we propose starting with
a candidate gene associated with a trait and testing first for patterns of se-
lection at the DNA level. This can provide limitations on the number of
traits to be evaluated subsequently by adaptationism as described by An-
drews et al.
In a small example about Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disor-
der (ADHD), Andrews et al. evaluated the hypothesis of Jensen
et al. (1997) that âthe presence of ADHD traits in some childrenâ
represents placement on the âresponse-readyâ rather than the
âproblem-solvingâ end of a dimension of behavior that may have
been beneficial in past environments but detrimental in current
environments. Andrews et al. concluded from this: âBecause
ADHD appears to lack special design for response readiness, the
evidence seems to be more consistent with the hypothesis that
ADHD is a maladaptive spandrel that persists despite selection,
not because of itâ (sect. 5.2).
As specialists in the area of ADHD, we respectfully offer some
technical objections, including (1) disagreement with the asser-
tions that âsymptoms or consequences of ADHD have been found
to hold an advantageâ (Goldstein & Barkley 1998) and that ADHD
is a disorder characterized by âa group of individuals, all of whom
share the same failure of adaptationâ (i.e., a deficit in behavioral
inhibition) (Barkley 2001) â which seems to suffer from the com-
mon error of inclusion (i.e., assuming that all individuals with a
heterogeneous disorder exhibit a characteristic of the group); and
(2) disagreement with the acceptance of the null hypothesis about
adaptation, which may suffer from the use of multiple tests.
We have used a molecular biological approach (Swanson et al.
1998a; 1998b) that may (1) avoid the many (see Sergeant et al. 1999)
and often petty (see Swanson et al. 1998c) disagreements about a
complex clinical literature, and (2) limit the number of alternatives
to be considered in a psychological approach. We are aware of views
that complex behaviors may involve so many genes (Plomin et al.
1994) and require analyses of genotypes so expensive as to make our
approach impractical. But these views are changing (see Pennisi
2002), and here we present a concrete example.
Commentary/Andrews et al.: Adaptationism â how to carry out an exaptationist program
530 BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2002) 25:4
2. We started with a candidate gene, the dopamine receptor D4
(DRD4) gene (Swanson et al. 2000a). This gene is extremely poly-
morphic in the human population as a result of an âimperfectâ 48
base-pair variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) in exon 3
that codes for the third cytoplasmic loop in a DA receptor that has
regional localization in brain regions (e.g., anterior cingulate
gyrus) involved in control of attention and movement (see Posner
& Raichle 1994). Two to eleven repeats (R) have been identified,
but the most common alleles in the worldwide human population
are the 4R (~68%) and 7R (~15%) variants. We found the 7R al-
lele to be increased in ADHD samples (LaHoste et al. 1996;
Swanson et al. 1998c), and many other investigators replicated this
finding (see Collier et al. 2000 and Faraone et al. 2001). Next, we
used genotype as an independent variable. In a study of ADHD
children (Swanson et al. 2000b) we found that the 7R-present sub-
group did not exhibit some characteristic signs of cognitive deficit
(slow and variable responding) that were manifested by the 7R-
absent subgroup, and in a reaction time study of normal adults, we
found that the 7R allele may confer an advantage in conflict reso-
lution (Fossella et al. 2002). Subsequently, we focused on varia-
tion in a nonclinical sample of 600 chromosomes by sequencing
the exon 3 VNTR (Ding et al. 2002) and used established statis-
tical methods from evolutionary biology to test the hypothesis of
selection at the DNA level based on nucleotide motif, allele fre-
quency, linkage disequilibrium, and patterns of variation pre-
dicted by the âOut of Africaâ theory. Based on this, we proposed
that the 4R allele was the ancestral DNA sequence and that the
7R allele originated about 50,000 years ago as a rare mutational
event (requiring multiple recombinations, gene conversions, and
single nucleotide mutations to be derived from the 4R sequence),
yet rose to high levels attributable to positive Darwinian selection.
With this in hand, we then sequenced DNA from a clinical sam-
ple to investigate why an allele with the âfingerprintsâ of selection
is overrepresented in individuals with ADHD, which led to the
suggestion that the 4R and 7R alleles probabilities are the result
of âbalanced selectionâ (Grady et al. 2002).
Given evidence of selection at the DNA (nucleotide) level,
speculation about the traits (and the association with ADHD) can
be limited and tested in the context of the type of program pro-
posed by Andrews et al. One could speculate that individuals with
ADHD and the 7R genotype had personality traits such as novelty
seeking that drove migration out of Africa and enriched the 7R al-
lele in groups that populated the Americas (Chen et al. 1999). An-
other possibility, based on Darwinâs (1874) hypothesis that selec-
tion will be the result of âany advantage which certain individuals
have over others of the same sex and species solely in respect of
reproduction,â is that individuals with ADHD and the 7R geno-
type may have manifested traits affecting sexual selection and
mating behavior that resulted in increases in the 7R allele de-
pending on the cultural milieu (Ding et al. 2002). Specific types
of cultural selection in males favoring nurturing fathers (âdadsâ)
or non-nurturing fathers (âcadsâ) could account for the higher
prevalence of the 7R allele in some ethnic groups than in others
(Harpending & Cochran 2002), and determining the allele fre-
quencies of DRD4 7R in cultures known to exhibit variation in
particular behaviors could be used to test this.
To follow this molecular biological approach and limit the num-
ber of traits to be evaluated in a psychological approach, we pro-
pose the following steps: (1) identify a candidate gene associated
with a trait (or a condition such as ADHD); (2) evaluate the DNA
nucleotide sequence of the gene to see if any allele has the âfin-
gerprintâ of selection; (3) identify the protein change that was pro-
duced by the sequence change from the ancestral coalescent DNA
sequence; (4) determine the functional significance of the struc-
tural difference; and then (5) propose and test hypotheses about a
restricted set of plausible traits that may be influenced by these dif-
ferences in DNA variants and might have contributed to selection.
Adaptation for, exaptation as
Nicholas S. Thompson
Departments of Psychology and Biology, Clark University, Worcester, MA
01610. nthompson@clarku.edu
Abstract: The expression exapted as is offered as a substitute for the tar-
get articleâs exaptation for and exaptation to on the grounds that exapted
as is less likely to foster the pernicious intuition that natural selection de-
signs for future consequences.
I am grateful for Andrews et al.âs clarifications concerning adap-
tionism, particularly for their point that the recognition of exapta-
tions is secondary to and dependent on the recognition of adapta-
tions. I also endorse their conclusion that Darwinian explanatory
stories should more frequently contain fortuitous consequences as
steps in the evolution of traits. Our own preliminary theory of the
evolution of babiesâ cries was a theory of that type, invoking the
fortuitous consequences of the evolution of the speech apparatus
in babies as a determinate of the form of babiesâ cries and adultsâ
sensitivities to them (Dessureau et al. 1998; Thompson et al. 1996;
1998; see also, Falcon et al. 2002).
Because I think Andrews et al.âs article will have wide influence,
I hope these authors will reconsider â perhaps even recant â their
use of the expressions exapted to and exapted for in favor of the al-
ternative exapted as. Different expressions afford different patterns
of thinking. I fear that the expressions exapted to and exapted for
will make much mischief in the years to come by fostering the idea
that exapted traits are produced on account of their future utility.
Natural selection is a scientific metaphor or âmodelâ (Thomp-
son 2000; Thompson & Derr 1995; Williams 1966). It is used to
explain how organisms, as they have descended through time,
have come to more or less match to the demands of the circum-
stances in which they have lived. The model is akin to the process
by which breeders eventually create organisms matched to their
needs by breeding some members of a herd, flock, or stand of or-
ganisms instead of others in the same herd, flock, or stand. In the
model, breeders choose organisms for their properties â high-but-
terfat cows over low, good-flying pigeons over bad, sweet-tasting
corn over bland. These choices determine the breeding future of
the individuals chosen or not chosen. In nature, the survival and
breeding of organisms is taken to occur for the same reason: be-
cause something selected them on the basis of their properties.
Without both its parts, the formulation âOrganism O has been
selected for Property Pâ is dangerously incomplete. In the context
of natural selection, it is meaningless to say what organisms we se-
lected if we do not say what properties we selected them for. By
itself, an individual-by-individual enumeration of the organisms
that the breeder permitted to breed would tell us nothing much
about how the selection regimen was going to change the flock.
Furthermore, in an evolutionary context, to say that we selected
organisms for P is useless if we fail to specify which sorts of or-
ganisms we obtained by that selection regimen. Selection claims
display a sort of referential opacity. An organism that is selected
for P may display a variety of other properties that the breeder (or
nature) might not have selected, if he or she had the choice, be-
cause they had fortuitous consequences on the fitness of his/her
stock (cf. Williams 1966). Understanding evolution as a historical
process requires our knowing what sorts of other properties âcame
alongâ when we were engaged in our selection for P.
The philosopher of biology Elliot R. Sober (1984) has given
much careful thought to this problem. He writes:
[T]he idea of selection for and against characteristic . . . [may be un-
derstood in terms of] a toy my niece once enjoyed playing with before
it was confiscated to serve the higher purposes of philosophy. [The toy
is a transparent plastic cylinder with three horizontal layers.] Each hor-
izontal layer contains holes of the same size. The holes on each level are
larger than those on the level below. The balls also vary in size. If the
balls are at the top, shaking the toy distributes them to their various lev-
els. This is a selection machine. Balls are selected for their smallness.
Commentary/Andrews et al.: Adaptationism â how to carry out an exaptationist program
BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2002) 25:4 531