1) The document discusses a theory that attempts to reconcile the contrast between the emotional Stroop effect observed in laboratory experiments (slower response times to emotion words) and real-life experiences (faster reaction times to threatening stimuli).
2) It proposes that the laboratory experiments impose unnatural response demands by requiring participants to approach threatening stimuli through actions like pressing keys, rather than allowing avoidance.
3) Two experiments are described that introduce an avoidance option in the laboratory and find response latencies consistent with real-life, challenging the dominant attention theory for the emotional Stroop effect.
This document summarizes animal models of anxiety in mice. It discusses both conditioned models, which involve pairing a neutral stimulus with an aversive event like electric shock, and unconditioned models, which involve a mouse's natural reactions to stress stimuli without pain or discomfort. Two commonly used unconditioned models are described in detail: the open field test, which measures thigmotaxis and exploration, and the elevated plus maze, which conflicts a mouse's natural aversion to open spaces with its drive to explore. The document notes issues with standardization and interpretation of these tests and stresses the importance of validating any animal model of anxiety.
Misophonia is a newly termed disorder that describes individuals who have severely aversive reactivity to specific sounds. Changing ideas about diagnostic classification, the absence of cross-disciplinary work in the allied health/mental health professions, and cursory and inaccurate reporting of mental health/health information have all interacted to create an abyss of harmful misinformation. Emerging from this cloud of chaos are memes related to misophonia.
This document discusses response inhibition and delay aversion as two subtypes of impulsivity. Response inhibition is the ability to inhibit planned or ongoing behaviors when they are no longer appropriate. It can be measured using tasks like the stop-signal task. Delay aversion refers to an inability to wait for delayed rewards, causing the subjective value of rewards to decrease faster with delays. The document reviews evidence that these subtypes have distinct neural underpinnings and pharmacology, but may also interact in ways that can lead to impulsive behavior. It aims to establish the subtypes as separate concepts while proposing a framework for their integration.
Examining the Effectiveness of Observed & Derived Pathways of AvoidanceEllyn Moore
This study compared avoidance learning through observational learning (watching a video) versus derived relational learning. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to either the observed or inferred group. The observed group watched a video demonstrating avoidance learning, while the inferred group completed relational tasks to derive avoidance. Expectancy of shock, avoidance responses, and acceptance questionnaires were measured and compared between groups. The study aimed to examine the effectiveness of different pathways for acquiring avoidance learning.
Adaptationism And Molecular Biology An Example Based On ADHDFaith Brown
This document discusses issues with the adaptationist approach taken in evolutionary psychology research. It summarizes an alternative approach proposed by the authors that begins with identifying candidate genes associated with traits, then testing for patterns of selection at the DNA level before speculating about adaptations. As an example, the authors discuss research on the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene and its association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). They found evidence that a specific allele of this gene (7R) may confer advantages in conflict resolution and is more prevalent in ADHD samples. The authors argue this molecular genetic approach can help limit the number of hypotheses about adaptations that need to be considered and avoid issues with relying solely on complex clinical literature.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
Automatic Vigilance The Attention-Grabbing Power Of Negative Social InformationFinni Rice
This study tested whether people automatically pay more attention to negative social information than positive information. In three experiments, participants named the colors of positive and negative trait words displayed on a screen. Response times were consistently longer for negative traits, showing they attracted more attention even when not relevant to the task. The results support the hypothesis of "automatic vigilance" - that people have an inescapable tendency to direct more attentional resources toward potentially undesirable stimuli.
psychological theories of stuttering and causessujeetpathak12
The document discusses several theories regarding the psychological and behavioral aspects of stuttering. It summarizes theories that view stuttering as: 1) A learned behavior influenced by conditioning and reinforcement; 2) The result of an approach-avoidance conflict where the person experiences competing desires to speak and remain silent; 3) Caused by increased tension and fragmented speech patterns due to a learned preparatory set when anticipating difficult words. The document also discusses theories that stuttering arises from an imbalance between communicative demands and the developing capacities of children.
This document summarizes animal models of anxiety in mice. It discusses both conditioned models, which involve pairing a neutral stimulus with an aversive event like electric shock, and unconditioned models, which involve a mouse's natural reactions to stress stimuli without pain or discomfort. Two commonly used unconditioned models are described in detail: the open field test, which measures thigmotaxis and exploration, and the elevated plus maze, which conflicts a mouse's natural aversion to open spaces with its drive to explore. The document notes issues with standardization and interpretation of these tests and stresses the importance of validating any animal model of anxiety.
Misophonia is a newly termed disorder that describes individuals who have severely aversive reactivity to specific sounds. Changing ideas about diagnostic classification, the absence of cross-disciplinary work in the allied health/mental health professions, and cursory and inaccurate reporting of mental health/health information have all interacted to create an abyss of harmful misinformation. Emerging from this cloud of chaos are memes related to misophonia.
This document discusses response inhibition and delay aversion as two subtypes of impulsivity. Response inhibition is the ability to inhibit planned or ongoing behaviors when they are no longer appropriate. It can be measured using tasks like the stop-signal task. Delay aversion refers to an inability to wait for delayed rewards, causing the subjective value of rewards to decrease faster with delays. The document reviews evidence that these subtypes have distinct neural underpinnings and pharmacology, but may also interact in ways that can lead to impulsive behavior. It aims to establish the subtypes as separate concepts while proposing a framework for their integration.
Examining the Effectiveness of Observed & Derived Pathways of AvoidanceEllyn Moore
This study compared avoidance learning through observational learning (watching a video) versus derived relational learning. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to either the observed or inferred group. The observed group watched a video demonstrating avoidance learning, while the inferred group completed relational tasks to derive avoidance. Expectancy of shock, avoidance responses, and acceptance questionnaires were measured and compared between groups. The study aimed to examine the effectiveness of different pathways for acquiring avoidance learning.
Adaptationism And Molecular Biology An Example Based On ADHDFaith Brown
This document discusses issues with the adaptationist approach taken in evolutionary psychology research. It summarizes an alternative approach proposed by the authors that begins with identifying candidate genes associated with traits, then testing for patterns of selection at the DNA level before speculating about adaptations. As an example, the authors discuss research on the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene and its association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). They found evidence that a specific allele of this gene (7R) may confer advantages in conflict resolution and is more prevalent in ADHD samples. The authors argue this molecular genetic approach can help limit the number of hypotheses about adaptations that need to be considered and avoid issues with relying solely on complex clinical literature.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
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psychological theories of stuttering and causessujeetpathak12
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This document discusses how trait anxiety may influence fear learning towards compound stimuli and partially reinforced stimuli. It summarizes a previous study that found highly anxious mice exhibited more fear towards an unreinforced tone after being exposed to a light-tone compound paired with an aversive stimulus. The current study aims to test if fear may transfer more from compound stimuli to individual parts for highly anxious individuals. It describes five fear conditioning paradigms used to measure pupillary responses in participants and examine the effects of conditioning partial predictors and compound stimuli. The results found no effect of anxiety but observed prolonged fear retention towards compound stimuli and configural association of compounds.
Cognitive biases influence individuals' decision making processes. Common cognitive biases include confirmation bias, where people give more weight to information that confirms existing beliefs, and the self-serving bias, where people attribute their successes to internal factors but blame failures on external factors to maintain self-esteem. Managers should be aware of how biases like the halo effect can influence their expectations of employees. While biases can have negative effects, they may also positively influence behaviors if employees strive to disprove inaccurate expectations. Understanding perception and the factors that influence it, like experiences and motives, is important in organizational behavior.
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
This document discusses various coping strategies people use to deal with stress. It describes how coping refers to efforts to manage or reduce stress demands, and that coping flexibility in using multiple strategies is related to better psychological health. The document then analyzes several common coping patterns of limited value, including giving up, acting aggressively, indulging yourself, blaming yourself, and using defensive coping. It evaluates the adaptive value of each strategy and links many of them to increased distress and negative outcomes.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
Learning, Insight, and Innovation in Animals in the Context of EvolutionOleg Nekrassovski
This document summarizes the historical progress of research on learning, insight, and innovation in animals from an evolutionary context. It discusses key figures like Darwin, Romanes, Thorndike, and Pavlov and their major contributions. Darwin's works in the 1870s laid the groundwork for later studies by emphasizing associative learning and social learning in animals. Romanes collected many anecdotes about animal behavior but his evidence was unreliable. Thorndike established experimental methods to study learning processes like trial-and-error and imitation, refuting ideas of animal insight. Pavlov introduced new objective methods to study brain functions and conditioned reflexes.
The Attentional Blink Paradigm in Individuals with High and Low Levels of Dep...Hannah Skinner
Individuals with high levels of depression and anxiety were tested using the Attentional Blink paradigm with a rapid serial visual presentation task containing emotionally valenced target images. Results found attentional biases for symptoms of both depression and anxiety, independently and together, across accuracy, reaction times, and pupil dilation measures. The data suggests both similarities and differences in how anxiety and depression symptoms impact attentional biases toward emotional stimuli.
Vlastos, D., Kyritsis, M., Papaioannou-Spiroulia, A., & Varela V.-A. (2017). ...Dimitris Vlastos
Oral Presentation, 22nd International Conference of the Association of Psychology & Psychiatry for Adults & Children (A.P.P.A.C.): Recent Advances in Neuropsychiatric, Psychological and Social Sciences in Psychological Research, 16th – 19th May 2017, Athens, Greece.
An Analysis of Autism as a Contingency-Shaped Disorder of Verbal Behavior
Philip W. Drash
Autism Early Intervention Center
2901 West Busch Blvd., Suite 807, Tampa , FL 33618
E-mail: inteldev@aol.com
Phone: (813) 936-7183
Roger M. Tudor
Westfield State College
Trauma at the End of Life: Somatic Experiencing and Other Touch Based Treatme...Michael Changaris
This paper explores the use of touch in working with elders. It explores neurodegenerative disorders, challenges working with individuals with cognitive changes and how to develop a treatment plan that includes safe therapeutic touch.
This document summarizes research on implicit versus explicit meta-cognition and theory of mind in animals and humans. It discusses how comparative psychology has found evidence that some animal species can monitor their mental states (meta-cognition), though they have generally not shown robust theory of mind capabilities. The document reviews studies showing that animals like dolphins and monkeys can demonstrate meta-cognitive abilities through their use of optional "uncertainty responses" during perceptual tasks, declining difficult trials when uncertainty is highest. It argues comparative psychology provides insights into the evolution of these sophisticated mental abilities in humans.
The Stroop EffectEffect18TitleStudent’s NamePro.docxsarah98765
The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroop’s original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
The initial experiment has been discussed in many psychological classes. Researchers in the field of experimental psychology have cited the original paper in their various studies. The application of Stroop effect in clinical practice has aided in finding treatment for patients with psychological disorders. The Stroop effect is also imperative in investigations since it acts as a feasible psychological test. Experimental findings from different tests reveal stimuli reaction due to sematic interference and sematic facilitation. Stroop conceptual framework secludes three stimuli groups (incongruent, neutral and congruent).The stimuli are used during all experiments to draw conclusions. The Stroop effect is processes within two parts of the brain; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Results from reaction to stimuli in the two brain parts are explained using a number of theories namely; selective attention, processing speed, parallel distributed processing and automacity. The Stroop effect has been a milestone in collating cognitive development with other variables viz. working memory and processing speed. Researchers have published modified Stroop tests in bilingualism. In this field, wrapped words, reverse tests and spatial tests have all been applied.
Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
This document discusses moving the NSW homelessness sector towards trauma-informed care. It notes that homeless populations experience high rates of trauma, especially women. Trauma-informed care focuses on safety, control, strengths and compassionate engagement through listening. Training teaches the impacts of trauma, complex trauma, and uses a neuroscience lens. It emphasizes relationship-building, predictability, stability and right-brain interactions over explicit trauma memory work. The goal is cultural change to better support consumers in a trauma-informed manner.
Rolnick's Chapter on Anxiety Disorders Arnon Rolnick
This document discusses anxiety disorders and how biofeedback can help treat them. It begins by noting that anxiety disorders are very common and that anxiety symptoms, even at subclinical levels, can negatively impact health and productivity. It then describes how anxiety has both physiological and learned psychological components. Physiologically, anxiety involves an overreactive fight-or-flight response regulated by the sympathetic nervous system. The document proposes that biofeedback can enhance cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety by helping patients learn to control physiological symptoms that are triggered by the faster, subconscious neural pathway and experienced before cognitive processing.
This is a guide for Doctors/Therapists/Audiologists/OT's who are seeing individuals with Misophonia. Individuals with Misophonia may also download this and bring to their doctors!
Understanding and challenging behaviours.docxwrite5
Challenging behaviour can be defined as behaviour that endangers an individual or others and interferes with daily activities. There are several forms of challenging behaviour including physical, anti-social, self-harming, and verbal behaviours. Psychological theories like social learning theory and cognitive theory can help explain why challenging behaviours occur. Life experiences, situational factors, peer pressure, family issues, and lack of communication skills can all contribute to challenging behaviour. Understanding the root causes of behaviours through different perspectives can help psychologists develop interventions.
Scottish Journal of Residential Child Care 2016- Vol 15-1 (2) (1)Andrew Constable
The document discusses sensory processing issues in trauma-affected children and how the physical environment of children's residential homes can impact them. It notes that trauma can lead to sensory memories and hypersensitivity. The environment should aim to reduce arousal and provide safe spaces. The author adapted a sensory checklist to survey 3 homes, finding opportunities to improve tactile areas, visual stimuli like paint colors, smells, noises, and movement spaces. Recommendations included adding sensory toys and maintaining space distinctions.
The document discusses the Stroop color-word interference test. It is a neuropsychological test used to measure selective attention and cognitive flexibility. It involves naming the ink color of words describing colors, with the goal being to ignore the word meaning and focus only on the ink color. Performance is measured by comparing response times on congruent versus incongruent trials, with longer response times on incongruent trials indicating poorer cognitive inhibition. The test is discussed as having applications in evaluating executive functioning and neurological conditions.
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
Minimalist Neutral Floral Lined Printable Paper DigitBrittany Brown
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a full essay on this topic without the proper context and understanding of the specific assignment requirements. Here is a brief overview:
Muscle injuries are common among athletes and can sideline them from competition and training. Some key points an essay may explore include:
- Common types of muscle injuries like strains, tears, contusions and how they occur from overuse or sudden movements.
- The healing process for muscle injuries and how proper treatment like RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation) can aid recovery.
- Risk factors for muscle injuries like fatigue, poor flexibility, training errors or equipment issues. Prevention strategies to reduce risks.
- Impact of
Project Concept Paper. Online assignment writing service.Brittany Brown
The document provides instructions for requesting writing help from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
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The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
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Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroop’s original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
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Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
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The document discusses the Stroop color-word interference test. It is a neuropsychological test used to measure selective attention and cognitive flexibility. It involves naming the ink color of words describing colors, with the goal being to ignore the word meaning and focus only on the ink color. Performance is measured by comparing response times on congruent versus incongruent trials, with longer response times on incongruent trials indicating poorer cognitive inhibition. The test is discussed as having applications in evaluating executive functioning and neurological conditions.
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This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
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Muscle injuries are common among athletes and can sideline them from competition and training. Some key points an essay may explore include:
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2. studies, researchers have used a vocal response rather than a
manual response. However, the vocal response also constitutes an
unnatural, if not a counternatural, reaction in the face of threat.
One does not first react to the snake in the grass or to the attacking
dog by calling aloud its color or other characteristics. To recap, we
hypothesize that the slowdown documented by the ESE is not
genuine but mainly reflects the cost of the unnatural experimental
demand to approach a negative stimulus.
The ESE: A Brief Review of Current Research
and Models
The canonical experimental setup of the emotional Stroop task
is well known. People simply name the ink color of words.
Notably, the words are not color words. They are drawn from two
lists, negative (threat, emotion) words and neutral words. When
testing clinical populations, words associated with the particu-
lar pathology replace the generic threat or negative words.
Again, the ESE is defined by the difference in color naming
performance between the emotion words and the neutral words.
It has become the tool of choice for fine-tuned diagnosis in a
gamut of pathologies from generalized anxiety (e.g., Mathews
& MacLeod, 1985; Mathews, Mogg, Kentish, & Eysenck, 1995;
Mogg & Bradley, 2005) to trait anxiety (e.g., Mogg, Kentish, &
Bradley, 1993; Rutherford, MacLeod, & Campbell, 2004), obsessive-
compulsive disorders (e.g., Paunovic, Lundh, & Ost, 2002; Constans,
McCloskey, Vasterling, Brailey, & Mathews, 2004), depression
(e.g., Mogg & Bradley, 2005; Mitterschiffthaler et al., 2008),
social phobia (Amir, Freshman, & Foa, 2002; Andersson, Westöö,
Johansson, & Carlbring, 2006), and posttraumatic stress disorders
(e.g., Paunovic et al., 2002; Constans et al., 2004). The common
pattern observed in these as well as in other studies (see Algom et
al., 2009; Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, &
van Ijzendoorn, 2007; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996, for
reviews) is the selective slowdown, at test, with items associated
with threat, emotion, or pathology.
Whence the slowdown? It is well known that emotion stimuli
grab attention, but the particular direction of the effect observed in
the laboratory is neither trivial nor readily understood. Given that
threat is such a potent attractor of attention, one would expect rapid
reaction rather than sluggish reaction to its attributes. In an early
study, Pratto and John (1991) were indeed surprised to find the
emotional slowdown. The demand on attention does not convinc-
ingly explain the delayed response to color. After all, a single word
in view hardly exhausts human attention resources. We also note
that there are laboratory tests of attention under emotion in which
the responses are faster rather than slower to the target attribute
(Bar-Haim et al., 2007; MacLeod, Mathews, & Tata, 1986).
Nevertheless, the most widely accepted theory of the ESE
implicates processes of attention (e.g., Dalgleish, 2005; Williams
et al., 1996). Its point of departure is the common inference that
people inadvertently read the task-irrelevant words, thereby com-
promising exclusive attention to the target ink colors. Notably,
attention theory argues that the negative words command attention
more than do the neutral words. The ESE thus is the cost exacted
on color performance by the enhanced attention to the threatening
content of the word. Note that this attention bias account lacks
reference to the natural reflex of avoidance or of freezing in the
face of threat stimuli.
An alternative view attributes the ESE precisely to such re-
sponse tendencies. The constraints on behavior imposed in the
laboratory (one can react to the negative stimulus only by pressing
a key or naming a color) engender a temporary disruption of the
response. This freezing, if for a fraction of a second, is known as
the ESE (Algom, Chajut, & Lev, 2004; Fox et al., 2001; McKenna
& Sharma, 2004; see also, De Houwer, 2003; Öhman, Flykt, &
Esteves, 2001). Such a freezing in the face of threat is a quite
natural reaction under the circumstances. However, freezing is
gratuitous when further response options are available. For in-
stance, if the option of avoidance is provided, freezing might well
be replaced by a swift (backing) response to negative stimuli.
Under such settings, the responses to negative stimuli might well
be faster than those to neutral stimuli, producing a reverse ESE.
It is worth pausing to examine the role of color-word interplay
when considering this alternative, response bias view of the ESE.
On this view, too, the meaning of the task-irrelevant word is
engaged in the emotional Stroop task. Had people ignored the
carrier words, there would not have been a content-dependent
difference in color naming (⫽ESE). Observing an ESE therefore
shows that it was the word rather than the nominal color that
determined the (speed of the) response. Colors per se do not
mandate differential responding across hue (e.g., one does not
respond to a green rectangle faster than one does to a blue or a
brown one given equal salience); only when the colors write words
of differing valence do systematic differences in responding
emerge. People’s responses thus depend on word content and not
on the incidental color presented (assigned typically in a random
fashion). The unique contribution of the response bias account is
that it predicts the direction of the differences in responding.
Responding to the color of a negative stimulus is relatively slow
when the response entails approaching (or not retreating from) the
stimulus (ESE). However, the same response is relatively fast
when it entails backing away from the stimulus (reverse ESE).
One must be a bit circumspect when applying approach–
avoidance analysis. The need for caution comes from a somewhat
inconsistent literature regarding the frame of reference or the
origin of the movements: self versus stimulus (cf. Markman &
Brendl, 2005). Pulling a lever is an approach response with respect
to the self, but an avoidance response vis-à-vis the stimulus. In the
vast physiological literature on the orienting response, as well as in
the great bulk of the behavioral studies on coping with danger, the
point of reference is the threatening stimulus. We espouse this
frame of reference and consider it to be the valid one from an
ecological point of view. Therefore, pressing a key in the face of
a negative stimulus is an approach behavior incurring performance
costs (cf. Wentura, Rothermund, & Bak, 2000).
Finally, a word is in order to clarify our use of the term
attentional-attraction, or attentional-capture, whether in the atten-
tion or in the response account. According to one view (e.g., Pratto
& John, 1991; Williams, Mathews, MacLeod, 1996), emotion
stimuli are noticed earlier (preattentively?) than are neutral stimuli.
According to another view (Fox et al., 2001; McKenna & Sharma,
2004), emotion stimuli hold attention longer than do neutral stim-
uli (e.g., it is difficult to disengage attention from threat). Our
current discussion does not speak to this issue. Consequently, we
use the terms in a theoretically neutral fashion to mean that
task-irrelevant information (emotion content) impacted perfor-
mance with respect to the target dimension (color).
1568 RESEARCH REPORTS
3. To recap, the attention view is insensitive to the type of response
involved, approach or avoidance. On that view, the ESE is the
product of the disproportionate amount of attention captured by
negative words. In contrast, the response-based view does appre-
ciate the role of the behavioral options available when facing
threat. On this view, whether one observes an ESE or a reverse
ESE depends on the type of response made. The question at issue
is then the nature of the ESE: Does the slowdown reflect an
attentional bias or a response bias?
The Present Study
In a pair of experiments, we used the standard ESE stimuli.
Words in color were presented singly for view, and the task for the
participant was to identify the ink color. However, two notable
features distinguished our experiments. First, we did provide
avoidance as well as approach response options (Bamford & Ward,
2008). Second, the testing was in vivo, observing the natural
movement of the entire body under realistic conditions. The par-
ticipant was simply walking toward the monitor displaying the
stimulus or walking away from it. These conditions provided for a
powerful tool for theoretical resolution.
Experiment 1
The participant was standing in the middle of the room. A word
in color, emotional or neutral, was displayed on a screen facing the
participant at one end. The participant was instructed to respond to
certain colors by stepping forward, thus approaching the stimulus on
the screen. She or he was instructed to respond to other colors by
stepping backward, avoiding the stimulus on the screen. Figure 1
illustrates the experimental setup, stimuli, and responses.
If the slowdown observed with emotion items is response con-
tingent, it is expected to emerge only with the approaching re-
sponses (⫽ESE). In this case, the slowdown is the cost of impos-
ing a gesture that runs counter to the instinctual one of retreating
from negative stimuli. However, a full reversal of the pattern is
expected with the avoidance responses. For these responses, reac-
tions to negative stimuli are predicted to be faster than those to
neutral stimuli (commensurate with everyday behavior). A reverse
ESE was expected for avoidance.
Method
Participants. Thirty-five undergraduate students from the
Open University of Israel with normal or corrected-to-normal
vision participated. They were naı̈ve concerning the purpose of the
experiment.
Apparatus, stimuli, and procedure. We used a commercial
dance mat for an electric platform (110 cm ⫻ 90 cm, Dance-
Dance-Revolution Super Deluxe Pad product). The pad was
hooked up with a Dell Pentium computer through its game port
with synchronization (and all other event timing) governed by a
directRT Precision Timing Software (Version 2008.1.0.11). Time
resolution of this system was 8 ms, on average (on a par with the
typical resolution for standard key pressing), The stimuli were
displayed on the grayish background of a 17 in. (43.18 cm)
flat-screen color monitor (with an 85 Hz refresh rate, set at a
resolution of 1,024 pixels ⫻ 768 pixels). The participant stood at
the central position of the pad, facing the screen placed at the
longer end of the rectangular pad. The screen was placed at the
participant’s eye level, approximately 1.2 m from the face. A word
in color appeared on the screen and remained present until the
participant’s (dominant) leg touched the pad at the adjacent posi-
tion in front of the starting position or behind it. This duration
(from stimulus onset to completion of the stepping) served as the
main dependent variable. The participant then returned to the
starting position, and the next trial began after 2 s.
The stimuli were 16 negative words, the Hebrew equivalents of
suicide, terrorist, danger, horror, destruction, death, war, choking,
injured, sabotage, poison, attack, burn, pus, panic, and murder,
and 16 neutral ones, shirt, glove, hat, scarf, vest, shoe, sweater,
coat, umbrella, overall, boots, dress, skirt, tie, sandal, and sock, of
approximately equal frequency.1
The words appeared in a rela-
tively large font size (Arial 78 point type) to make them easily
visible from the distance of 1.2 m. They were presented in four
colors, red, green, blue, and brown (calibrated to appear prototyp-
ical and of equal salience through a Deluxe Paint II palette). For
each participant, two ink colors were assigned an approach re-
sponse (stepping forward upon detecting that color), and the re-
maining two were assigned an avoidance response (stepping back-
ward upon detecting the color). The assignment of colors to the
approach and avoidance responses was random and different
across participants.
Each of the 32 words was presented in each of the four colors
twice, making for a block of 128 stimuli in all. The order of
stimulus presentation was random and different for each partici-
pant.
Results
Errors amounted to a minuscule 1.9% and did not differ across
conditions (F ⬍ 1). For reaction times, the four columns of Figure 2
give the respective means for correct identification of the ink
colors. The left-hand half of Figure 2, presenting the approach
responses, reproduces the typical laboratory result of a slowdown,
of 11 ms on average, with the emotion items, t(34) ⫽ 1.92, p ⬍
.05, d ⫽ 0.33. However, there is a wholesale reversal of this
1
The words in original Hebrew are available upon request from Eran
Chajut.
Figure 1. The setup of Experiment 1: The participant stepped forward or
backward in response to the ink color of emotion or neutral words.
1569
RESEARCH REPORTS
4. pattern in the right-hand half of Figure 2, when the participants
identified the colors via avoidance responses. For avoidance, re-
sponses to emotion items were faster by 9 ms, on average, than
responses to neutral items, t(34) ⫽ 2.4, p ⬍ .05, d ⫽ 0.46. The
interaction of word valence (negative, neutral) and type of re-
sponse (approach, avoidance) documented further the full reversal
in the pattern of responding, F(1, 34) ⫽ 7.392, p ⬍ .01, p
2
⫽
0.194.
Discussion
The human instinct is to freeze or retreat when facing threat or
negative information. When an approach response is imposed in
the laboratory, the inevitable outcome is a slowdown in responding
(the ESE). Jettisoning this counterinstinctual demand reproduces
in the laboratory the evolution-honed reflex of speedy avoidance
of negative stimuli. To provide cross validation support for these
conclusions, in the next experiment, we presented the same stimuli
but changed the response options to those of pushing or pulling a
joystick (Chen & Bargh, 1999; Eder & Rothermund, 2008).
Experiment 2
Method
Participants. An independent group of 33 participants from
the Open University of Israel performed in this experiment.
Apparatus, stimuli, and procedure. The participant was sit-
ting at a distance of 60 cm from the screen and responded to the
ink colors by pushing a joystick forward with both hands or by
pulling the joystick back, away from the screen. We used an IBM
compatible analogue joystick, Logitec-Attack 3, under the control
of directRT software with the same time resolution as in Experi-
ment 1 (cf. Eder & Rothermund, 2008). Because the participants
activated the joystick with both hands, the approach and avoidance
responses engaged their entire torso in addition to their hands. The
size of the font was set smaller, at Arial 32 point type. In all other
respects, we used the procedures of Experiment 1.
Results
Errors were negligible again, amounting to 2.1% overall. They
did not differ across conditions (F ⬍ 1). The respective latencies
for correct responses are shown in Figure 3 for the four conditions.
The pattern of results for the joystick responses reproduced fully
the results observed for the walking responses of Experiment 1. An
emotional slowdown of 17.3 ms, t(32) ⫽ 2.1, p ⬍ .05, d ⫽ 0.37,
was recorded for the approach responses, but a speedup of 22.7 ms
favoring the same emotion items was recorded for the avoidance
responses, t(32) ⫽ 3.3, p ⬍ .005, d ⫽ 0.58. The interaction of
stimulus valence and type of response, F(1, 32) ⫽ 8.96, p ⬍ .01,
p
2
⫽ .22, confirmed the full reversal of the reaction time pattern
with the opposing responses.
Figure 2. The results of Experiment 1: Mean reaction times for walking forward or backward in response to
the ink color of emotion and neutral items. The bars signify one standard error around the mean.
Figure 3. The results of Experiment 2: Mean reaction times for pushing a joystick forward or pulling it
backward in response to the ink color of emotion and neutral items. The bars signify one standard error around
the mean.
1570 RESEARCH REPORTS
5. Discussion
The results of Experiment 2 reinforce the contingent nature of
the speed of reaction to threat. What counts is whether one ap-
proaches or retreats from the threat stimulus, not the means (walk-
ing, pushing, or pulling) by which one accomplishes those actions.
This pattern generalizes across the gamut of muscular responses.
General Discussion
The present results reconcile the seemingly contradictory pat-
terns of behavior in the face of a threat observed in the laboratory
and everyday life. They demonstrate that the slowdown observed
in the laboratory is an incidental byproduct of a stipulation that
excludes avoidance as a permissible response. Our results invite a
new perspective on the entire body of ESE research, in particular
on the focal observation of slowdown. We show that the slowdown
is a contingent outcome and, hence, of fairly limited applicability.
Theories based on the phenomenon of slowdown should be revis-
ited accordingly. For practice, an immediate corollary is that
experiments should include both approach and avoidance re-
sponses for a full scrutiny of behavior under threat.
The present results undermine the traditional attention theory of
the ESE. According to this theory, the extra amount of attention
drawn by the negative word slows down the color response—
regardless of the way that the color task is executed. Therefore, the
responses to negative items are expected to be sluggish for both
approach and avoidance. Attention theory does not make an appeal
to the approach–avoidance distinction. Because this variable did
make a difference, the present results are incompatible with atten-
tion theory.
The roots of attention theory lie in an association forged with the
classic Stroop effect, the “gold standard” (MacLeod, 1992, p. 12)
of all attention measures. However, the association is dubious. The
classic Stroop task includes color words, not threat words. The
hallmark of the classic Stroop task is the partition of stimuli into
congruent (the word names its ink color) and incongruent (word
and color mismatch) classes whose difference defines the effect.
The ESE does not include congruent and incongruent items (the
word cancer printed in red is neither more nor less congruent than
the word street in red). In the classic Stroop task, the same item
appears in congruent and incongruent combinations, a singularly
potent control that excludes stimulus-based responding or biases.
In the ESE, by contrast, different lists of words are compared, with
responding determined by the respective values of valence (see
Algom et al., 2004; Algom, Zakay, Monar, & Chajut, 2009;
Larsen, Mercer, Balota, 2006; and McKenna & Sharma, 2004, for
a discussion of these and further differences between the ESE and
the Stroop effect). The ESE is essentially a threat- or emotion-
related phenomenon, not an attention phenomenon (beyond the
initial failure of selectivity to the ink color).
The present findings and conclusions fit well with recent con-
ceptions that attribute cognitive-affective values not only to the
stimuli but also to the responses of the individual. According to
this view, approach and avoidance responses are subject to eval-
uative coding as positive or negative actions. These codes can then
match or mismatch the valence values of the pertinent stimuli.
Responses are faster when there is a match than when there is a
mismatch (Eder & Rothermund, 2008). Again, our results are
compatible with the evaluative coding view, so that they can also
be considered an example of the affective Simon effect (De Hou-
wer & Eelen, 1998). This much granted, our analysis in terms
biologically evolved approach and avoidance might be more par-
simonious.
The speedy avoidance responses observed in our study might
well reflect a generic tendency of dealing with unwanted events, a
tendency widely documented in the clinical psychology of every-
day life (Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Follette, & Strosahl, 1996;
Karekla, Forsyth, & Kelly, 2004; Kashdan, Barrios, Forsyth, &
Steger, 2006). Experimental avoidance thus is a measure of expe-
riential avoidance. It reflects the unwillingness of anxious individ-
uals, in particular, to remain in contact with negative stimuli. The
modified test of the ESE introduced in the present study can form
the base of a potent tool for accessing experiential avoidance in
individuals with different levels of anxiety.
References
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Received February 10, 2010
Revision received June 1, 2010
Accepted June 7, 2010 䡲
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