1. The document discusses a study that evaluated a treatment package for reducing vocal stereotypy in a preschooler with autism. The package included a social story, discrimination training, and differential reinforcement with response cost.
2. The treatment was implemented in the child's preschool classroom by teachers and assistants. Results showed a clear decrease in vocal stereotypy compared to baseline.
3. The summary concludes that the treatment package was effective at reducing vocal stereotypy for this student in the classroom setting.
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022Readings Use your .docxjolleybendicty
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022
Readings
Use your
Social Policy and Social Programs text to complete the following:
· Read Chapter 1, "Analyzing the Social Problem Background of Social Policies and Programs," pages 7–26.Multimedia
View the following animation:
·
Bloom's Taxonomy.
Unit1Disc1 (1page site sources in APA)
The Definition of a Social Problem
Choose a social problem affecting an oppressed population you are interested in learning about. Research the history of how that issue became a social problem and report your findings. Use this unit's readings to ensure your understanding of defining a social problem. For this discussion, answer the following questions:
· What factors led to the definition of this social problem?
· Who were the key players?
Unit1Disc2 (1page site sources in APA)
Diverse Policy Viewpoints: Right or Wrong?
Explain why there is no such thing as a
right or
wrong social policy viewpoint. Provide examples from the issue you researched in the first discussion of this unit to illustrate your claims and support them with course references. Include how different groups define the same problem; accomplish this by showing how the problem would be viewed by at least three distinct groups.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Effects of a Lag Schedule with Progressive Time Delay on Sign Mand
Variability in a Boy with Autism
Bryant C. Silbaugh1
& Terry S. Falcomata2
Published online: 18 September 2018
# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2018
Abstract
For some children with autism, mand training can produce highly repetitive manding unless the environment is arranged in a
manner that promotes mand variability. Prior research demonstrated that mand training using a lag schedule and progressive time
delay increased variability in vocal manding in children with autism. Whether lag schedules have similar effects on sign mand
topographies is unknown. The current study evaluated the effects of mand training with a Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement and
progressive time delay (TD) on topographical variability and the development of a sign mand response class hierarchy in a boy
with autism. The results suggest independent use of all sign mand topographies occurred, a mand response class hierarchy was
developed, and topographically variant sign manding increased under the Lag 1 + TD schedule compared to a Lag 0 schedule of
reinforcement. Implications for practitioners, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
Keywords Lag schedule . Mand . Operant variability . Response class hierarchy . Time delay
During mand training for individuals with language delays or
deficits (e.g., autism), a response such as saying “juice” is
taught by presenting a relevant establishing operation (EO;
e.g., giving access to salty popcorn and withholding juice)
and using prompting, rapid prompt fading, and differe.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISREDUCING BEHAVIOR PROB.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
REDUCING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS THROUGH FUNCTIONAL
COMMUNICATION TRAINING
EDWARD G. CARR AND V. MARK DURAND
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT STONY BROOK, STATE UNIVERSITY OF
NEW YORK AT ALBANY, AND SUFFOLK CHILD DEVELOPMENT CENTER
It is generally agreed that serious misbehavior in children should be replaced with socially appro-
priate behaviors, but few guidelines exist with respect to choosing replacement behaviors. We
address this issue in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we developed an assessment method for
identifying situations in which behavior problems, induding aggression, tantrums, and self-injury,
were most likely to occur. Results demonstrated that both low level of adult attention and high
level of task difficulty were discriminative for misbehavior. In Experiment 2, the assessment data
were used to select replacements for misbehavior. Specifically, children were taught to solicit atten-
tion or assistance or both verbally from adults. This treatment, which involved the differential
reinforcement of functional communication, produced replicable suppression of behavior problems
across four developmentally disabled children. The results were consistent with an hypothesis stating
that some child behavior problems may be viewed as a nonverbal means of communication.
According to this hypothesis, behavior problems and verbal communicative acts, though differing
in form, may be equivalent in function. Therefore, strengthening the latter should weaken the
former.
DESCRIPTORS: disruptive behavior, assessment, classroom behavior, communication, devel-
opmentally disabled children
A major portion of child behavior therapy is
justifiably concerned with the treatment of behav-
ior problems, given that such problems can seri-
ously disrupt the educational process (O'Leary &
O'Leary, 1977; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1977)
and in some cases may lead to institutionalization
This investigation was supported in part by U.S.P.H.S.
Biomedical Research Support Grant 2 S07 RR-07067-18
to the State University of New York at Stony Brook to the
first author and a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research to the
second author. Portions of this paper were presented at the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association,
Washington, D.C., August 1982, and Anaheim, California,
August 1983. This research was based on a master's thesis
conducted by the second author under the direction of the
first author.
We thank Martin Hamburg, Executive Director, Suffolk
Child Development Center, for his generous support, and
Roseann D'Evanzo, JoAnn Giles, Terry Leykis, Cathy Sher-
edos, and Doug Walters for assistance with data collection.
Finally, we thank Alan 0. Ross, Susan G. O'Leary, K. Dan-
iel O'Leary, Crighton Newsom, Paul A. Dores, and Daniel
B. Crimmins for their helpful comments.
Requests for reprints or individual data should be sent to
Edward Carr, Department of Psychology, State University
of New York, Stony Brook, New ...
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022Readings Use your .docxjolleybendicty
Unit1 SPPHS5006 Due 10.12.2022
Readings
Use your
Social Policy and Social Programs text to complete the following:
· Read Chapter 1, "Analyzing the Social Problem Background of Social Policies and Programs," pages 7–26.Multimedia
View the following animation:
·
Bloom's Taxonomy.
Unit1Disc1 (1page site sources in APA)
The Definition of a Social Problem
Choose a social problem affecting an oppressed population you are interested in learning about. Research the history of how that issue became a social problem and report your findings. Use this unit's readings to ensure your understanding of defining a social problem. For this discussion, answer the following questions:
· What factors led to the definition of this social problem?
· Who were the key players?
Unit1Disc2 (1page site sources in APA)
Diverse Policy Viewpoints: Right or Wrong?
Explain why there is no such thing as a
right or
wrong social policy viewpoint. Provide examples from the issue you researched in the first discussion of this unit to illustrate your claims and support them with course references. Include how different groups define the same problem; accomplish this by showing how the problem would be viewed by at least three distinct groups.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Effects of a Lag Schedule with Progressive Time Delay on Sign Mand
Variability in a Boy with Autism
Bryant C. Silbaugh1
& Terry S. Falcomata2
Published online: 18 September 2018
# Association for Behavior Analysis International 2018
Abstract
For some children with autism, mand training can produce highly repetitive manding unless the environment is arranged in a
manner that promotes mand variability. Prior research demonstrated that mand training using a lag schedule and progressive time
delay increased variability in vocal manding in children with autism. Whether lag schedules have similar effects on sign mand
topographies is unknown. The current study evaluated the effects of mand training with a Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement and
progressive time delay (TD) on topographical variability and the development of a sign mand response class hierarchy in a boy
with autism. The results suggest independent use of all sign mand topographies occurred, a mand response class hierarchy was
developed, and topographically variant sign manding increased under the Lag 1 + TD schedule compared to a Lag 0 schedule of
reinforcement. Implications for practitioners, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
Keywords Lag schedule . Mand . Operant variability . Response class hierarchy . Time delay
During mand training for individuals with language delays or
deficits (e.g., autism), a response such as saying “juice” is
taught by presenting a relevant establishing operation (EO;
e.g., giving access to salty popcorn and withholding juice)
and using prompting, rapid prompt fading, and differe.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISREDUCING BEHAVIOR PROB.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
REDUCING BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS THROUGH FUNCTIONAL
COMMUNICATION TRAINING
EDWARD G. CARR AND V. MARK DURAND
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT STONY BROOK, STATE UNIVERSITY OF
NEW YORK AT ALBANY, AND SUFFOLK CHILD DEVELOPMENT CENTER
It is generally agreed that serious misbehavior in children should be replaced with socially appro-
priate behaviors, but few guidelines exist with respect to choosing replacement behaviors. We
address this issue in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we developed an assessment method for
identifying situations in which behavior problems, induding aggression, tantrums, and self-injury,
were most likely to occur. Results demonstrated that both low level of adult attention and high
level of task difficulty were discriminative for misbehavior. In Experiment 2, the assessment data
were used to select replacements for misbehavior. Specifically, children were taught to solicit atten-
tion or assistance or both verbally from adults. This treatment, which involved the differential
reinforcement of functional communication, produced replicable suppression of behavior problems
across four developmentally disabled children. The results were consistent with an hypothesis stating
that some child behavior problems may be viewed as a nonverbal means of communication.
According to this hypothesis, behavior problems and verbal communicative acts, though differing
in form, may be equivalent in function. Therefore, strengthening the latter should weaken the
former.
DESCRIPTORS: disruptive behavior, assessment, classroom behavior, communication, devel-
opmentally disabled children
A major portion of child behavior therapy is
justifiably concerned with the treatment of behav-
ior problems, given that such problems can seri-
ously disrupt the educational process (O'Leary &
O'Leary, 1977; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1977)
and in some cases may lead to institutionalization
This investigation was supported in part by U.S.P.H.S.
Biomedical Research Support Grant 2 S07 RR-07067-18
to the State University of New York at Stony Brook to the
first author and a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research to the
second author. Portions of this paper were presented at the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association,
Washington, D.C., August 1982, and Anaheim, California,
August 1983. This research was based on a master's thesis
conducted by the second author under the direction of the
first author.
We thank Martin Hamburg, Executive Director, Suffolk
Child Development Center, for his generous support, and
Roseann D'Evanzo, JoAnn Giles, Terry Leykis, Cathy Sher-
edos, and Doug Walters for assistance with data collection.
Finally, we thank Alan 0. Ross, Susan G. O'Leary, K. Dan-
iel O'Leary, Crighton Newsom, Paul A. Dores, and Daniel
B. Crimmins for their helpful comments.
Requests for reprints or individual data should be sent to
Edward Carr, Department of Psychology, State University
of New York, Stony Brook, New ...
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TOPROBLEM BEHAVIOR.docxbartholomeocoombs
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TO
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
BRANDON HERSCOVITCH, EILEEN M. ROSCOE, MYRNA E. LIBBY,
JASON C. BOURRET, AND WILLIAM H. AHEARN
NEW ENGLAND CENTER FOR CHILDREN
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY
We describe a procedure for differentiating among potential precursor responses for use in a
functional analysis. Conditional probability analysis of descriptive assessment data identified
three potential precursors. Results from the indirect assessment corresponded with those
obtained from the descriptive assessment. The top-ranked response identified as a precursor
according to the indirect assessment had the strongest relation according to the probability
analysis. When contingencies were arranged for the precursor in a functional analysis, the same
function was identified as for target behavior, supporting the utility of indirect and descriptive
methods to identify precursor behavior empirically.
DESCRIPTORS: descriptive assessment, functional analysis, precursors, problem behavior,
response-class hierarchies
_______________________________________________________________________________
Functional analysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer,
Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) involves
manipulating antecedents and consequences
for the target behavior of interest. Because a
functional analysis requires the repeated occur-
rence of a target response, it may not be
appropriate for response topographies that pose
risk of harm to others (e.g., severe aggression) or
the client (e.g., self-injury). One modification
that has addressed this concern involves a
functional analysis of precursor behavior (i.e.,
arranging contingencies for responses that
reliably precede the target behavior) based on
previous research showing that response topog-
raphies that occur in close temporal proximity
are often members of the same response class,
and by providing differential reinforcement for
earlier responses in the response-class hierarchy,
later more severe responses occur less often
(Harding et al., 2001; Lalli, Mace, Wohn, &
Livezey, 1995; Richman, Wacker, Asmus,
Casey, & Andelman, 1999).
Smith and Churchill (2002) conducted a
functional analysis of precursor behavior and
found similar outcomes from a functional
analysis of the target behavior and a functional
analysis of the hypothesized precursor behavior.
A study by Najdowski, Wallace, Ellsworth,
MacAleese, and Cleveland (2008) extended this
work by demonstrating that an intervention
based on a functional analysis of precursor
behavior was effective in eliminating partici-
pants’ precursor behavior. The implication of
these findings is that outcomes from functional
analyses of precursor responses may be used to
infer the function of more severe topographies
that occur later in the response-class hierarchy.
A potential limitation associated with both of
these studies is that indirect assessments alone
were used to identify precursor responses. Such
assessments have sometimes been found to have
poor reliab.
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether children’s imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year olds’ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., First→Second→Third) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., Up→Down→Right) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with ‘familiar’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Left→Middle→Right) as well as ‘novel’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Right→Up→Down) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
Replication of Patel, Gibson, Ratner, Besson & Holbomb (1998)Hui Xin Ng
We report a replication of Patel, Gibson, Ratner, Besson & Holbomb (1998). The results of our replication are largely consistent with the conclusions of the original study. We found evidence of a P600 component of the event-related potential (ERP) in response to syntactic violations in language and harmonic inconsistencies in music. There were some minor differences in the spatial distribution of the P600 on the scalp between the replication and the original. The experiment was pre-registered at https://osf.io/g3b5j/register/565fb3678c5e4a66b5582f6
COMPARISON OF A STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE PROTOCOL ANDTRADITIONALLynellBull52
COMPARISON OF A STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE PROTOCOL AND
TRADITIONAL LECTURE FOR TEACHING SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS
SADIE LOVETT, RUTH ANNE REHFELDT, YORS GARCIA, AND JOHNNA DUNNING
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
This study compared the effects of a computer-based stimulus equivalence protocol to a
traditional lecture format in teaching single-subject experimental design concepts to
undergraduate students. Participants were assigned to either an equivalence or a lecture group,
and performance on a paper-and-pencil test that targeted relations among the names of
experimental designs, design definitions, design graphs, and clinical vignettes was compared.
Generalization of responding to novel graphs and novel clinical vignettes, as well as the
emergence of a topography-based tact response after selection-based training, were evaluated for
the equivalence group. Performance on the paper-and-pencil test following teaching was
comparable for participants in the equivalence and lecture groups. All participants in the
equivalence group showed generalization to novel graphs, and 6 participants showed
generalization to novel clinical vignettes. Three of the 4 participants demonstrated the
emergence of a topography-based tact response following training on the stimulus equivalence
protocol.
Key words: stimulus equivalence, college students, tact, verbal behavior, topography-based
responding
_______________________________________________________________________________
Behaviorally based instructional protocols
grounded in the principles of stimulus equiva-
lence can provide instructors with an alternative
method of communicating their subject matter
of interest to students. The hallmark of stimulus
equivalence protocols is that direct training on
certain relations among instructional stimuli
will result in the emergence of untrained
relations among those stimuli (Sidman, 1994).
Early research that examined this phenomenon
focused on teaching reading comprehension
and oral reading skills to individuals with
intellectual disabilities (Sidman, 1971). For
example, Sidman and Cresson (1973) used a
stimulus equivalence protocol to teach an
individual to read three-letter words, such as
‘‘cow.’’ The learner was first trained to relate the
spoken word ‘‘cow’’ to a picture of a cow and to
relate the spoken word ‘‘cow’’ to the printed
word cow. After training, the learner was then
able to orally name the picture of the cow and
the printed word cow, and he was able to relate
the picture of the cow to the printed word cow
without a direct history of reinforcement for
relating those stimuli. According to the stimulus
equivalence paradigm, the oral naming of the
picture and printed word, which involves a
reversal of the trained relation, is referred to as
symmetry. The relation of the printed word and
the picture that had never been previously
paired is referred to as transitivity.
Instruction using the principles of stimulus
equivalence has been applied successfully i ...
Attitudes and attitude changePetty, Richard E; Wegener, Duane T;.docxcelenarouzie
Attitudes and attitude change
Petty, Richard E; Wegener, Duane T; Fabrigar, Leandre R.Annual Review of Psychology; Palo Alto Vol. 48, (1997): 609-47.
1. Full text
2. Full text - PDF
3. Abstract/Details
Abstract
TranslateAbstract
We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992-1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessibility, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.
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ABSTRACT
Headnote
We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992-1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessiblity, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.
Enlarge this image.
CONTENTS
Enlarge this image.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Because of the sheer amount of published research from 1992 to 1995, Allport's (1935) statement that "attitude" is the single most indispensable construct in social psychology may again be true. In addition, a plethora of new books (e.g. Eagly & Chaiken 1993, Perloff 1993, Petty & Krosnick 1995, Shavitt & Brock 1994, Stiff 1994) provided further testament to the vitality of the field.
Because of space limitations, many interesting applications of attitude change theory, especially in the areas of counseling and consumer psychology (e.g. Heesacker et al 1995), cannot be included in this review. We note that interest in attitude measurement remains strong. In recent years, a small cottage industry has developed around studying the best ways to ask questions in attitude surveys (e.g. Schwarz & Sudman 1996, Tanur .
PAGE Running head SAMPLE 1Sample Annotated Bibliography.docxgerardkortney
PAGE
Running head: SAMPLE
1
Sample Annotated Bibliography
Student Name Here
Walden University
Sample Annotated Bibliography
Autism
research continues to grapple with activities that best serve the purpose of fostering positive interpersonal relationships for children who struggle with autism. Children have benefited from therapy sessions that provide ongoing activities to aid autistic children’s ability to engage in healthy social interactions. However, less is known about how K–12 schools might implement programs for this group of individuals to provide additional opportunities for growth, or even if and how school programs would be of assistance in the end. There is a gap, then, in understanding the possibilities of implementing such programs in schools to foster the social and thus mental health of children with autism.
Annotated Bibliography
Kenny
, M. C., Dinehart, L. H., & Winick, C. B. (2016). Child-centered play therapy for children with autism spectrum disorder. In A. A. Drewes & C. E. Schaefer (Eds.), Play therapy in middle childhood (pp. 103–147). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
In this chapter from Play Therapy in Middle Childhood, Kenny, Dinehart, and Winick (2016) provided a case study of the treatment of a 10-year-old boy diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ADS). Kenny
et al. described the rationale and theory behind the use of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) in the treatment of a child with ASD. Specifically, children with ADS often have sociobehavioral problems that can be improved when they have a safe therapy space for expressing themselves emotionally through play that assists in their interpersonal development. The authors outlined the progress made by the patient in addressing the social and communicative impairments associated with ASD. Additionally, the authors explained the role that parents have in implementing CCPT in the patient’s treatment. Their research on the success of CCPT used qualitative data collected by observing the patient in multiple therapy sessions
.
CCPT follows research carried out by other theorists who have identified the role of play in supporting cognition and interpersonal relationships. This case study is relevant to the current conversation surrounding the emerging trend toward CCPT treatment in adolescents with ASD as it illustrates how CCPT can be successfully implemented in a therapeutic setting to improve the patient’s communication and socialization skills. However, Kenny et al. (2016) acknowledged that CCPT has limitations—children with ADS, who are not highly functioning and or are more severely emotionally underdeveloped, are likely not suited for this type of therapy
.
Kenny et al.’s (2016) explanation of this treatments’s implementation is useful for professionals in the psychology field who work with adolescents with ASD. This piece is also useful to parents of adolescents with ASD, as it discusses the role that parents can play in succe.
The Stroop EffectEffect18TitleStudent’s NamePro.docxsarah98765
The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroop’s original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
The initial experiment has been discussed in many psychological classes. Researchers in the field of experimental psychology have cited the original paper in their various studies. The application of Stroop effect in clinical practice has aided in finding treatment for patients with psychological disorders. The Stroop effect is also imperative in investigations since it acts as a feasible psychological test. Experimental findings from different tests reveal stimuli reaction due to sematic interference and sematic facilitation. Stroop conceptual framework secludes three stimuli groups (incongruent, neutral and congruent).The stimuli are used during all experiments to draw conclusions. The Stroop effect is processes within two parts of the brain; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Results from reaction to stimuli in the two brain parts are explained using a number of theories namely; selective attention, processing speed, parallel distributed processing and automacity. The Stroop effect has been a milestone in collating cognitive development with other variables viz. working memory and processing speed. Researchers have published modified Stroop tests in bilingualism. In this field, wrapped words, reverse tests and spatial tests have all been applied.
Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
Single-System Studies Mark A. Mattaini ocial work pr.docxjennifer822
Single-System
Studies
Mark A. Mattaini
ocial work practice at all system levels involves action leading to behav-
ioral or cul tural change. The primary role of social work research is to
provide knowledge that contributes to such professional action. vVhile
descriptive research about human and cultural conditions, as discussed
elsc·where in this volume, can be valuable for guiding professional action,
knowing how to most effectively support change is critical for practice. A central question
for social work research, therefore, is "what works" in practice, what works to address
what goals and issues, with what populations, under what contextual conditions. While
descriptive research ca11 suggest hypotheses, the only way to really determ ine howweU any
form of practice works is to test it, under the most rigorous conditions possible.
Experimen tal research is therefore critical for advancing social work practice.
Unfon·tunately, only a small proportion of social work research is experimental (Thyer,
200 I). Experimental research is of two types, group experiments (e.g., randomized clinical
trials [RCTs]) and single-system research (SSR, also commonly referred to as single case
resealfch, N of 1 research, or interrupted time-series experiments). Single-system experi-
mental research, however, has often been underemphasized in social work, in part because
of limited understanding of the logic of natural science among social scientists and wcial
workers.
SSR is experimental research; its purpose, as noted by Horner and colleagues (2005), is
"to document causal, or functional, relationships between independent and dependent
variables" (p. 166). The methodology has been used with all system levels-micro, mezzo,
and macro-m aking it widely appliCable for studying social work concerns. For example,
Moore, Delaney, and Dixon (2007) studied ways to enhance quality of life for quite
impaired patients with Alzheimer's disease using single-system methods and were able to
both individualize interven tions and produce generalizable knowledge from their study
in ways that perhaps no other research strategy could equal. In another example, Serna,
Schumaker, Sherman, and Sheldon (1991) worked to improve family interactions in
families with preteen and teenage children. The first several interventions they attempted
(interventions that are common in social work practice) fa iled to produce changes that
generalized to homes. Single-system procedures, however, allowed them to rigorously and
sequentially test multiple approaches until an adequately powerful intervention strategy
was refi ned. (Note that Lhis would be impossible using group methods without under-
mining the rigor of the study.)
241
242 PART II • QUANTITATIV( APPROACHES: TYPES OF STUDIES
Turning to larger systems, single-system designs can be used, for example, to examine
the relative effects of different sets of organizational and community contex.'tS .
Please respond to the followingAnalyze ONE of the Neo-Piageti.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Analyze ONE of the Neo-Piagetians’ theories of cognitive development
Examine the primary ways in which the chosen theory falls short in addressing adult learners from a different class, ethnicity, gender, and/or social context.
Suggest specific implications of applying the chosen conceptualization within a learning setting comprising adult learners. Justify your response.
.
Please respond to the followingBased on the discussion prepar.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Based on the discussion preparation for this week, suggest two biologically rooted approaches that instructors may use in order to facilitate learning of one particular task. Illustrate the process by which embodied learning would foster a deeper learning of the task in question.
.
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A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TOPROBLEM BEHAVIOR.docxbartholomeocoombs
A PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING PRECURSORS TO
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
BRANDON HERSCOVITCH, EILEEN M. ROSCOE, MYRNA E. LIBBY,
JASON C. BOURRET, AND WILLIAM H. AHEARN
NEW ENGLAND CENTER FOR CHILDREN
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY
We describe a procedure for differentiating among potential precursor responses for use in a
functional analysis. Conditional probability analysis of descriptive assessment data identified
three potential precursors. Results from the indirect assessment corresponded with those
obtained from the descriptive assessment. The top-ranked response identified as a precursor
according to the indirect assessment had the strongest relation according to the probability
analysis. When contingencies were arranged for the precursor in a functional analysis, the same
function was identified as for target behavior, supporting the utility of indirect and descriptive
methods to identify precursor behavior empirically.
DESCRIPTORS: descriptive assessment, functional analysis, precursors, problem behavior,
response-class hierarchies
_______________________________________________________________________________
Functional analysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer,
Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) involves
manipulating antecedents and consequences
for the target behavior of interest. Because a
functional analysis requires the repeated occur-
rence of a target response, it may not be
appropriate for response topographies that pose
risk of harm to others (e.g., severe aggression) or
the client (e.g., self-injury). One modification
that has addressed this concern involves a
functional analysis of precursor behavior (i.e.,
arranging contingencies for responses that
reliably precede the target behavior) based on
previous research showing that response topog-
raphies that occur in close temporal proximity
are often members of the same response class,
and by providing differential reinforcement for
earlier responses in the response-class hierarchy,
later more severe responses occur less often
(Harding et al., 2001; Lalli, Mace, Wohn, &
Livezey, 1995; Richman, Wacker, Asmus,
Casey, & Andelman, 1999).
Smith and Churchill (2002) conducted a
functional analysis of precursor behavior and
found similar outcomes from a functional
analysis of the target behavior and a functional
analysis of the hypothesized precursor behavior.
A study by Najdowski, Wallace, Ellsworth,
MacAleese, and Cleveland (2008) extended this
work by demonstrating that an intervention
based on a functional analysis of precursor
behavior was effective in eliminating partici-
pants’ precursor behavior. The implication of
these findings is that outcomes from functional
analyses of precursor responses may be used to
infer the function of more severe topographies
that occur later in the response-class hierarchy.
A potential limitation associated with both of
these studies is that indirect assessments alone
were used to identify precursor responses. Such
assessments have sometimes been found to have
poor reliab.
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether children’s imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year olds’ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., First→Second→Third) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., Up→Down→Right) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with ‘familiar’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Left→Middle→Right) as well as ‘novel’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Right→Up→Down) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
Replication of Patel, Gibson, Ratner, Besson & Holbomb (1998)Hui Xin Ng
We report a replication of Patel, Gibson, Ratner, Besson & Holbomb (1998). The results of our replication are largely consistent with the conclusions of the original study. We found evidence of a P600 component of the event-related potential (ERP) in response to syntactic violations in language and harmonic inconsistencies in music. There were some minor differences in the spatial distribution of the P600 on the scalp between the replication and the original. The experiment was pre-registered at https://osf.io/g3b5j/register/565fb3678c5e4a66b5582f6
COMPARISON OF A STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE PROTOCOL ANDTRADITIONALLynellBull52
COMPARISON OF A STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE PROTOCOL AND
TRADITIONAL LECTURE FOR TEACHING SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS
SADIE LOVETT, RUTH ANNE REHFELDT, YORS GARCIA, AND JOHNNA DUNNING
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
This study compared the effects of a computer-based stimulus equivalence protocol to a
traditional lecture format in teaching single-subject experimental design concepts to
undergraduate students. Participants were assigned to either an equivalence or a lecture group,
and performance on a paper-and-pencil test that targeted relations among the names of
experimental designs, design definitions, design graphs, and clinical vignettes was compared.
Generalization of responding to novel graphs and novel clinical vignettes, as well as the
emergence of a topography-based tact response after selection-based training, were evaluated for
the equivalence group. Performance on the paper-and-pencil test following teaching was
comparable for participants in the equivalence and lecture groups. All participants in the
equivalence group showed generalization to novel graphs, and 6 participants showed
generalization to novel clinical vignettes. Three of the 4 participants demonstrated the
emergence of a topography-based tact response following training on the stimulus equivalence
protocol.
Key words: stimulus equivalence, college students, tact, verbal behavior, topography-based
responding
_______________________________________________________________________________
Behaviorally based instructional protocols
grounded in the principles of stimulus equiva-
lence can provide instructors with an alternative
method of communicating their subject matter
of interest to students. The hallmark of stimulus
equivalence protocols is that direct training on
certain relations among instructional stimuli
will result in the emergence of untrained
relations among those stimuli (Sidman, 1994).
Early research that examined this phenomenon
focused on teaching reading comprehension
and oral reading skills to individuals with
intellectual disabilities (Sidman, 1971). For
example, Sidman and Cresson (1973) used a
stimulus equivalence protocol to teach an
individual to read three-letter words, such as
‘‘cow.’’ The learner was first trained to relate the
spoken word ‘‘cow’’ to a picture of a cow and to
relate the spoken word ‘‘cow’’ to the printed
word cow. After training, the learner was then
able to orally name the picture of the cow and
the printed word cow, and he was able to relate
the picture of the cow to the printed word cow
without a direct history of reinforcement for
relating those stimuli. According to the stimulus
equivalence paradigm, the oral naming of the
picture and printed word, which involves a
reversal of the trained relation, is referred to as
symmetry. The relation of the printed word and
the picture that had never been previously
paired is referred to as transitivity.
Instruction using the principles of stimulus
equivalence has been applied successfully i ...
Attitudes and attitude changePetty, Richard E; Wegener, Duane T;.docxcelenarouzie
Attitudes and attitude change
Petty, Richard E; Wegener, Duane T; Fabrigar, Leandre R.Annual Review of Psychology; Palo Alto Vol. 48, (1997): 609-47.
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2. Full text - PDF
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We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992-1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessibility, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.
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ABSTRACT
Headnote
We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992-1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessiblity, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.
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CONTENTS
Enlarge this image.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Because of the sheer amount of published research from 1992 to 1995, Allport's (1935) statement that "attitude" is the single most indispensable construct in social psychology may again be true. In addition, a plethora of new books (e.g. Eagly & Chaiken 1993, Perloff 1993, Petty & Krosnick 1995, Shavitt & Brock 1994, Stiff 1994) provided further testament to the vitality of the field.
Because of space limitations, many interesting applications of attitude change theory, especially in the areas of counseling and consumer psychology (e.g. Heesacker et al 1995), cannot be included in this review. We note that interest in attitude measurement remains strong. In recent years, a small cottage industry has developed around studying the best ways to ask questions in attitude surveys (e.g. Schwarz & Sudman 1996, Tanur .
PAGE Running head SAMPLE 1Sample Annotated Bibliography.docxgerardkortney
PAGE
Running head: SAMPLE
1
Sample Annotated Bibliography
Student Name Here
Walden University
Sample Annotated Bibliography
Autism
research continues to grapple with activities that best serve the purpose of fostering positive interpersonal relationships for children who struggle with autism. Children have benefited from therapy sessions that provide ongoing activities to aid autistic children’s ability to engage in healthy social interactions. However, less is known about how K–12 schools might implement programs for this group of individuals to provide additional opportunities for growth, or even if and how school programs would be of assistance in the end. There is a gap, then, in understanding the possibilities of implementing such programs in schools to foster the social and thus mental health of children with autism.
Annotated Bibliography
Kenny
, M. C., Dinehart, L. H., & Winick, C. B. (2016). Child-centered play therapy for children with autism spectrum disorder. In A. A. Drewes & C. E. Schaefer (Eds.), Play therapy in middle childhood (pp. 103–147). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
In this chapter from Play Therapy in Middle Childhood, Kenny, Dinehart, and Winick (2016) provided a case study of the treatment of a 10-year-old boy diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ADS). Kenny
et al. described the rationale and theory behind the use of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) in the treatment of a child with ASD. Specifically, children with ADS often have sociobehavioral problems that can be improved when they have a safe therapy space for expressing themselves emotionally through play that assists in their interpersonal development. The authors outlined the progress made by the patient in addressing the social and communicative impairments associated with ASD. Additionally, the authors explained the role that parents have in implementing CCPT in the patient’s treatment. Their research on the success of CCPT used qualitative data collected by observing the patient in multiple therapy sessions
.
CCPT follows research carried out by other theorists who have identified the role of play in supporting cognition and interpersonal relationships. This case study is relevant to the current conversation surrounding the emerging trend toward CCPT treatment in adolescents with ASD as it illustrates how CCPT can be successfully implemented in a therapeutic setting to improve the patient’s communication and socialization skills. However, Kenny et al. (2016) acknowledged that CCPT has limitations—children with ADS, who are not highly functioning and or are more severely emotionally underdeveloped, are likely not suited for this type of therapy
.
Kenny et al.’s (2016) explanation of this treatments’s implementation is useful for professionals in the psychology field who work with adolescents with ASD. This piece is also useful to parents of adolescents with ASD, as it discusses the role that parents can play in succe.
The Stroop EffectEffect18TitleStudent’s NamePro.docxsarah98765
The Stroop Effect Effect 18
Title
Student’s Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
Abstract
The Stroop effect is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology with numerous applications. This phenomenon occurs when an individual is given a task of identifying the color of a word rather the word itself. The concept behind this experiment is simplified although the reaction time when there is a mismatch in the color and word represents an integral study in cognitive psychology. The basic operation of the Stroop effect is to relatively measure the concentration and power of the mind. It would be easier for an individual to name the color of a word in a similar color. This means that a normal mind finds it simpler to name a color with matching sematic meaning in wording. Generally, Stroop effect measures the correlation between interference and reaction time. The first development of the Stroop effect was demonstrated in 1935 by an American psychologist named John Ridley Stroop. From his original experiment, different psychological hypothesis have been drawn. Topping to this is the development of numerous articles explaining, experimenting or expounding on this effect. The articles have been strongly based on Stroop’s original effect although different researchers have replicated his effect.
The initial experiment has been discussed in many psychological classes. Researchers in the field of experimental psychology have cited the original paper in their various studies. The application of Stroop effect in clinical practice has aided in finding treatment for patients with psychological disorders. The Stroop effect is also imperative in investigations since it acts as a feasible psychological test. Experimental findings from different tests reveal stimuli reaction due to sematic interference and sematic facilitation. Stroop conceptual framework secludes three stimuli groups (incongruent, neutral and congruent).The stimuli are used during all experiments to draw conclusions. The Stroop effect is processes within two parts of the brain; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex. Results from reaction to stimuli in the two brain parts are explained using a number of theories namely; selective attention, processing speed, parallel distributed processing and automacity. The Stroop effect has been a milestone in collating cognitive development with other variables viz. working memory and processing speed. Researchers have published modified Stroop tests in bilingualism. In this field, wrapped words, reverse tests and spatial tests have all been applied.
Introduction
Macleod empties Stroop effect as one of the most popular study in cognitive science and psychology. In its basic application, the test entails ignoring a printed word then naming the color of the word. Basically naming the color printed in a word such as BLUE is surrounded by many cognitive properties. Automacity was introduced in 1886 since it is easier to read word as c.
Single-System Studies Mark A. Mattaini ocial work pr.docxjennifer822
Single-System
Studies
Mark A. Mattaini
ocial work practice at all system levels involves action leading to behav-
ioral or cul tural change. The primary role of social work research is to
provide knowledge that contributes to such professional action. vVhile
descriptive research about human and cultural conditions, as discussed
elsc·where in this volume, can be valuable for guiding professional action,
knowing how to most effectively support change is critical for practice. A central question
for social work research, therefore, is "what works" in practice, what works to address
what goals and issues, with what populations, under what contextual conditions. While
descriptive research ca11 suggest hypotheses, the only way to really determ ine howweU any
form of practice works is to test it, under the most rigorous conditions possible.
Experimen tal research is therefore critical for advancing social work practice.
Unfon·tunately, only a small proportion of social work research is experimental (Thyer,
200 I). Experimental research is of two types, group experiments (e.g., randomized clinical
trials [RCTs]) and single-system research (SSR, also commonly referred to as single case
resealfch, N of 1 research, or interrupted time-series experiments). Single-system experi-
mental research, however, has often been underemphasized in social work, in part because
of limited understanding of the logic of natural science among social scientists and wcial
workers.
SSR is experimental research; its purpose, as noted by Horner and colleagues (2005), is
"to document causal, or functional, relationships between independent and dependent
variables" (p. 166). The methodology has been used with all system levels-micro, mezzo,
and macro-m aking it widely appliCable for studying social work concerns. For example,
Moore, Delaney, and Dixon (2007) studied ways to enhance quality of life for quite
impaired patients with Alzheimer's disease using single-system methods and were able to
both individualize interven tions and produce generalizable knowledge from their study
in ways that perhaps no other research strategy could equal. In another example, Serna,
Schumaker, Sherman, and Sheldon (1991) worked to improve family interactions in
families with preteen and teenage children. The first several interventions they attempted
(interventions that are common in social work practice) fa iled to produce changes that
generalized to homes. Single-system procedures, however, allowed them to rigorously and
sequentially test multiple approaches until an adequately powerful intervention strategy
was refi ned. (Note that Lhis would be impossible using group methods without under-
mining the rigor of the study.)
241
242 PART II • QUANTITATIV( APPROACHES: TYPES OF STUDIES
Turning to larger systems, single-system designs can be used, for example, to examine
the relative effects of different sets of organizational and community contex.'tS .
Similar to 1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the ill.docx (20)
Please respond to the followingAnalyze ONE of the Neo-Piageti.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Analyze ONE of the Neo-Piagetians’ theories of cognitive development
Examine the primary ways in which the chosen theory falls short in addressing adult learners from a different class, ethnicity, gender, and/or social context.
Suggest specific implications of applying the chosen conceptualization within a learning setting comprising adult learners. Justify your response.
.
Please respond to the followingBased on the discussion prepar.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Based on the discussion preparation for this week, suggest two biologically rooted approaches that instructors may use in order to facilitate learning of one particular task. Illustrate the process by which embodied learning would foster a deeper learning of the task in question.
.
Please respond to the following in an approx. 5-6 page paper, double.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following in an approx. 5-6 page paper, double-spaced, 12 point font:
Considering everything we have learned to date about Palestine: the history of the region, the contemporary events leading to the establishment of Israel, and the different factions involved, was the failure to find a sustainable solution for all sides inevitable? Why or why not?
Your essay must have a clear thesis, and be supported by specific examples from the material we have covered (lecture, text, etc.). You must also draw on some of the primary sources (documents), in order to support your position.
I will be sending you my id and password for all the presentation lectures.
.
Please respond to the followingImagine you have recently .docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Imagine you have recently been hired to be the Chief Learning Officer (CLO) for a corporation and have been tasked to establish a corporate university.
Discuss the various types of training media you would use to educate your corporate students and how these media would be put to use.
Make sure to include a rationale and at least one citation from your reading.
.
Please respond to one (1) the followingRead the article e.docxSONU61709
Please respond to
one (1)
the following:
Read the article entitled
“Leadership Excellence: Communicate Your Vision”
. Next, assess the consequences of leaders not being able to communicate their change vision. Discuss the outcomes of a change management plan with an under-communicated vision of change. Develop a strategy for avoiding under-communicating the change vision.
View the video titled “John Kotter – Communicating a Vision for Change” (4 min 16 s) below. You may also view the video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGVe3wRKmH0
. Next, assess the means of communication that are available to us as leaders. Review Kotter’s comments regarding communication, and efficient and effective communications. As the leader of a large organization implementing a change, develop a strategy for communicating your vision of change. Discuss the tools that the organization would use as well as the frequency of communication.
.
Please respond to the followingResearch on the Internet a rec.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Research on the Internet a recent public relations campaign that was undertaken to address a corporate scandal or misbehavior by a government official or celebrity, and study what part ethics played in the campaign, whether positively or negatively. Communications professor John Marston proposed a four-step model of the process through which public relations can influence public opinion. These steps include research, action, communication, and evaluation. Explain in detail how Marston’s four-step approach can be used to shape public opinion on the story you researched.
Research on the Internet a celebrity who has generated negative publicity in recent years for his/her sponsoring company. Businesses choose celebrities to endorse their products for a variety of reasons. Unfortunately, some of these celebrities act in ways that generate a lot of negative publicity for themselves and, by extension, for the sponsors who pay them. In the case of the celebrity you researched, explain in detail what actions you would take in this situation and why you would take them.
.
Please respond to Question One (bolded) and one additional ess.docxSONU61709
Please respond to
Question One
(bolded) and
one additional essay
question under
Question Two
of your choice. Please provide a complete essay response for both questions. Each response should be at least two pages (double- spaced, 12 pitch, Times New Roman). One reference page should accompany your work in APA format. Please place your name on each page. No late work will be accepted.
Question One:
As a student researcher, please introduce one theorist from the list below and describe what major components he or she has offered to those attempting to understand the development of children and/or families? Please include a photo of the selected theorist and critique his or her theory. For example, please discuss the strengths
and limitations of the individual’s theory.
Albert Bandura
David Liu
Erik Erikson
Harriette Pipes McAdoo
Jean Piaget
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lev Vygotsky
Question Two: (Choose One Question To Answer Below)
•
Linda Espinosa
•
Maria Montessori
•
Robert Coles
•
Sigmund Freud
•
Terry Cross
•
Urie Bronfenbrenner
What happens to children who experience consistent and high levels of stress and Cortisol? https://www.medstargeorgetown.org/ourservices/psychiatry/treatments/child-and-adolescent- psychiatryprogram/
How can parents work to protect children from Contaminants at School? http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/translational/peph/podc asts/school/index.cfm
Many children love being in or around water, whether it’s a backyard pool or a local beach. But without proper safety measures, water can be dangerous for young children. Please identify one academic journal article related to water safety? How can parents make water safety a priority? Please review this site: https://www.redcross.org/gethelp/how-to-prepare-for-emergencies/types-of-emergencies/watersafety.html
How could the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, also known as the WIC program, assist a single parent with limited income? What foods are eligible under this program?
hat steps can parents take to keep their children healthy?
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life- coping/children.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019- ncov%2Fprepare%2Fchildren.html
According to the NIEHS and EPA how can parents help prevent lead poisoning in children and youth? What is your state or local area doing to help eradicate lead poisoning?
*Student should utilize the referenced links above as well as other scholarly documents to develop their responses.
*Students must include a reference page for each question in APA format.
Important: Work submitted without a reference page
will not
be graded.
.
Please respond to the following in a substantive post (3–4 paragraph.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following in a substantive post (3–4 paragraphs):
Explain the primary reasons project management causes a cultural change.
Describe the impact of that cultural change on integrative information technology.
Provide at least one example of a cultural change that project management can cause.
Be sure to provide full citations and references
.
Please respond to the followingDebate if failing to reje.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Debate if “failing to reject the null” is the same as “accepting the null.” Support your position with examples of acceptance or rejection of the null.
Be sure to respond to at least one of your classmates’ posts.
Click here to watch the video
Reply Quote
.
Please respond to the followingCharts and graphs are used.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Charts and graphs are used quite often in newspapers, magazines, books, and various online articles. There are pros and cons to using these types of visual representations.
Describe one pro and one con for using a graph or chart. Share an example of a time when this type of visual changed your mind about something or gave you a deeper understanding of a topic or current event.
.
Please respond to the followingAppraise the different approac.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Appraise the different approaches (e.g., biological, psychological, sociocultural, etc.) that may influence the myriad of methods by which adults construct learning. Suggest key instructional strategies that you might use that favor an integrated approach to teaching within a diverse learning context. Provide examples of such strategies in use in order to support your response.
.
Please respond to the following discussion with a well thought out r.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following discussion with a well thought out response with relating to at least one source (cite using APA). Post your main post within midnight Thursday.
How could you use milestones and/or Earned Value Management as a measure of success in a project?
What limitation does just offering milestones provide as a means of project reporting?
Define some best practices with monitoring project quality.
Choose at least one quality tool and explain how it may be used in a project.
.
Please respond to each classmate if there is a need for it and als.docxSONU61709
Please respond to each classmate if there is a need for it and also any suggestion and comment that u may think are need it in order to correct the rough draft for the final use it
1)Hey---------, I like your introduction, your thesis is clear and it is in the last sentence of the intro. I think that the big theme of this story is to hold on to our traditional ancestral values, or at least respect these values because they are important and we clearly see it in the story. I would suggest to watch out for spelling errors and to work a little more on your conclusion, I would recommend giving more summary and more details in explaining your thesis.
2) hello -----,
I like your explination and view of this short story. Other then giving a little more detail from the story I think you did great. What made you choose this story to write about?
After reading you paper what made you choice this story? I like how you talk about the story and how you break everything down. I know you wanted to keep everything original I believe you could have adding just a little more to your paper. I can completely understand how writing papers can be hard keep up the amazing work.
3)Hi, -----------
I also had chosen the same story to write about. I thought you had done a good job. I know its hard to think of so many words, about the the same thing. But my understanding is we werent allowed to use out side sources. We were only allowed to use our book. May be I misunderstood, which is very possible. Did you agree with the villagers for destroying the school, because their path was blocked off?
Running head: FICTION ANALYSIS: DEAD MEN’S PATH 1
FICTION ANALYSIS: DEAD MEN’S PATH 4
Fiction Analysis:Dead Men's Path
Estrella Gonzalez
South University
ENG1300 SU01 Composition III/Literature
Joseph Walker
Fiction Analysis:Dead Men's Path Comment by Joseph: Start actual paper at the top of a new page.
Dead Men's Path by China Achebe delves into the implications of making choices. Achebe uses symbolism to bring home his views on the repercussions that choices people make can have on their lives. Achebe presents a society that is torn apart in two divides: between the tradition on one hand and modernity on the other hand. The society is not willing to welcome the new progressive thoughts that have been brought by the missionaries(Achebe, 2009). Through the use of symbolism, Achebe makes a cataclysmic flowing story that has much deeper imnsights than the superficial representations in words. What are some of the dangers of disregarding the opinions that is supported by majority in the society? Achebe’s Dead Men's Path answers this question using symbolic presentations. Comment by Joseph: Set off titles. Comment by Joseph: Be careful of the spelling of names. Comment by Joseph: You don’t need a citation for simple plot summary. Comment by J.
please respond to both discussion in your own words in citation plea.docxSONU61709
please respond to both discussion in your own words in citation please need it in your own words
1.The Florida bog frog could be a small and uncommon land and water proficient. This species features a yellowish-brown upper body, a yellow stomach, brown eardrum, yellow throat, a contract ridge that runs along the side down the back, and littler webbed feet with bigger toes . There's restricted data accessible approximately the reproduction of the Florida bog frog. Florida bog frogs breed between the months of April and August. Amid the breeding season, marsh frogs will let out boisterous “chucks” to pull in a mate.Florida bog frogs occupy numerous regions including shallow, acidic spring leaks; boggy floods of streams; .The most risk to the Florida marsh frog is the degradation of its habitat. Bog frogs flourish best in early succession vegetation.
2.The Florida mouse is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is the only species in the genus Podomys, which is the single mammal genus endemic to Florida. I like this mouse because it reminds me of Mickey Mouse created by Walt Disney, and redirect me to its amusement parks in Orlando, Florida. This mouse also caught my attention because it looks so funny and different from the rest of the mice. The Florida mouse is found only in a limited area in central peninsular Florida and one small area in the Florida panhandle. The mouse inhabits some of Florida's hottest and driest regions in the high pinelands, sandhills, flatlands, and coastal scrub. They average between 5 to 8 inches long, and their tails are between 2 to 3.5 inches long, weighing between 1/2 ounce to 1 ounce. The Florida mouse has soft silky fur that is brown or brownish-orange in color. Its underparts are white. Their ears are large and furless. Their tails are long, and their back paws are large and have 5 pads. Their teeth are sharp, and they use them for gnawing.
The Florida mouse is nocturnal and is active throughout the year except on unusually cold nights. The mouse can climb but is primarily a terrestrial species. They communicate by emitting high pitched squeals, and when they are excited, they thump the ground with their front paws producing a drumming sound. The Florida mouse also has a distinctive odor, almost like a skunk. A baby of a Florida mouse is called a pinkie, kitten, or pup. The females are called doe and males buck. A Florida mouse group is called a nest, colony, harvest, horde, or mischief.
The Florida mouse is an omnivore, and its diet consists of acorns when available, insects, seeds, nuts, fungi, crickets, ticks, fruit, berries, and other plant material and vertebrates. A 1987 report indicates the mouse feeds on engorged ticks (
Ornithodorus turicata americanus
) that parasitize gopher frogs (
Rana areolata
) and gopher tortoises.
According to the official State of Florida's Endangered and Threatened Species List of wildlife, the Florida mouse is considered as State Species of Special Conce.
please respond In your own words not citations1. The Miami blu.docxSONU61709
please respond In your own words not citations
1. The Miami blue butterfly may be a little butterfly .The Miami blue butterfly can be found in tropical pine rock-lands, and beach side in Florida. The Miami blue was thought extinct until it was rediscovered in 1999 . In spite of many changes the Bahia Honda populace held on until 2010, when it vanished, maybe due to a combination of dry spell, cold temperatures, and being eaten by non-native green iguanas. They was rediscovered in Key West National Natural life Asylum in 2006. The are one of Florida most endangered species. I love butterflies because they're colorful with wings of distinctive patterns. I love how they change from caterpillars to cocoons to butterflies. Its so relate able to life , always changing and evolving . Its astonishing that the butterfly emerges from the unpleasant small caterpillar and shapes a cocoon and after that rises as a butterfly
2.Six families of dragonflies exist in Florida with most found near ponds and other freshwater sources. Dragonflies feature large eyes that make up most of their head and a muscular body that helps the insects use their large wings to fly. Sometimes you'll see dragonflies hovering near blacktop parking lots, but for the most part, the insects stay near water except when they look for a mate. They then return to the water to breed and deposit eggs.
Adult dragonflies will eat any insect as long as they can catch it. Dragonfly nymphs live in the water, and they usually wait on aquatic vegetation.
From the nymph stage to the adult stage, the dragonfly has a significant, positive ecological impact. Dragonfly eggs are laid and hatched in or near water, so their lives impact both water and land ecosystems. Once hatched, dragonfly nymphs can breathe underwater, and they use a motion similar to jet propulsion to move through their environment. This enables them to eat harmful aquatic organisms such as mosquito larvae. The nymph will continue contributing to this ecosystem for one to five years before becoming a mature adult. The adult dragonfly has enormous compound eyes that are useful in searching for flying insects. While flying, it uses its six legs to scoop food out of the air. Clasping the prey in its front legs, it then eats the insect in flight.
Dragonflies play ecological roles not only as predators but also as prey of birds, frogs, and other creatures. The presence of dragonflies indicates freshwater. One of the most useful dragonfly facts is that they reside low in the food chain, so a scientific study of their numbers and their health can reveal changes in water ecosystems more quickly than studying other animals or plants. Some national parks are beginning to use this species to survey and document the health of the park's water ecosystems. Since dragonflies eat mosquitoes and other insects, they help gardeners and outdoor enthusiasts. This also helps the environment because it allows humans to reduce the u.
Please respond in 300 words the followingWe see SWOT present.docxSONU61709
Please respond in 300 words the following
We see SWOT presented in a 4 block matrix:
Internal: S/W
External: O/Th
Choose a department in a hospital, such as labor and delivery, and provide an analysis that involves both internal and external matrices.
Use an outside resource for your initial post. Seek information through healthcare news articles and journals. Write in third person and do not use “I think or in my opinion”. Keep your information factual and follow APA standards on referencing
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Please respond to the followingReflect on the usefulness .docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Reflect on the usefulness of a portfolio to provide evidence of accomplishments to pursue career goals.
Determine if this approach may be more effective than others.
Make sure to include a rationale and at least one citation from your reading.
.
Please respond to the followingLeadership talent is an or.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Leadership talent is an organization-wide goal. Discuss how the responsibilities of the development of leadership talent should be partitioned among Human Resources staff and line managers. Be sure to address both the identification and development of future leadership.
.
Please respond to the followingHealth care faces critic.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
Health care faces critical staffing shortages. Imagine you are part of the executive management team researching health care shortages.
Outline some of the staffing shortages in the market where you live. Are they consistent with national trends?
Design a strategy that describes how your organization would alleviate some staffing shortages, including whether you would hire licensed practical nurses instead of registered nurses. Include concepts from readings throughout your program or from peer-reviewed journal articles.
.
Please respond to the followingMNCs, IOs, NGOs, and the E.docxSONU61709
Please respond to the following:
MNCs, IOs, NGOs, and the European Union are nonstate actors in the role of pushing foreign policy to combat terrorism. Discuss 1 or 2 ways in which the national strategy influences any of these nonstate actors.
Analyze the benefits or disadvantages for the United States with regard to the agency's position on foreign aid. Provide 1 or 2 examples to support your response.
.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the ill.docx
1. 1. Elaborate on the coca-cocaine commodity value chain and the
illegal drug industry in Latin America. In doing so, discuss the
parallels with the dynamics of legal international trade under
the influence of increasing globalization and economic
integration.
2. Please discuss in your own words (no quotes) the Mexican
Cartels and how they have defied U.S. Drug Policies. In doing
so, discuss Operation Intercept, and Operation Condor.
3. Please discuss in detail the fight against violence and terror
on the Southwest Border of the United States. In doing so, also
list and discuss the three points keyed in on by Kingpins and
corruption (2017).
4. Please define, describe, and discuss what is meant by “A Line
in the sand.” Then, summarize the Majority Report by the
United States House Committee on Homeland Security
Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Management.”
Your conclusion should provide some solution to the problem of
southwest border security.
2. EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 37, No.
3, 2014
Pages 407–430
An Evaluation of a Treatment Package
Consisting of Discrimination Training and
Differential Reinforcement with Response Cost
and a Social Story on Vocal Stereotypy for a
Preschooler with Autism in a
Preschool Classroom
Amanda P. Laprime and Gretchen A. Dittrich
Simmons College
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the use of a treatment
package com-
prised of a social story, discrimination training, and differential
reinforcement
with response cost on the vocal stereotypy of one preschooler
diagnosed with
an autism spectrum disorder. The study took place in a
preschool classroom
of a public school and was implemented by the classroom
teacher and staff.
A changing criterion design was employed to evaluate
experimental control.
The results of this study demonstrated a clear decrease in vocal
stereotypy as
compared to baseline.
Keywords: Vocal Stereotypy, Response Cost, Differential
3. Reinforcement,
Changing-Criterion Design
A defining characteristic of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
involves repetitive vocalizations or body movements, otherwise
de-
fined as stereotyped behavior (American Psychiatric
Association,
2000). Rapp and Vollmer (2005) conducted a review of the
literature
and concluded that the majority of stereotypic behaviors are
main-
tained by automatic reinforcement. Skinner defined verbal
behav-
iors as “behavior reinforced through the mediation of other
persons”
(1957, p.2). Though repetitive vocal responses may
topographically
appear to be verbal, if the consequences maintaining such
responses
are not mediated by a listener, they then could instead be
defined as
vocal stereotypy maintained by automatic reinforcement.
Vaughn and
Michael (1982) defined automatic reinforcement as a
contingency not
mediated by a listener. Therefore, vocal stereotypy may be
maintained
This study was conducted by the first author in partial
fulfillment of the requirements
for the Ph.D. degree in behavior analysis at Simmons College.
We thank the staff at the
LABBB Collaborative for their dedication and hard work with
their students and this
study.
4. Address correspondence to Amanda Laprime, Department of
Behavior Analysis, Sim-
mons College, 300 Fenway, Boston, MA 02115; e-mail:
[email protected]
408 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
by the sensory byproduct it produces (Ahearn, Clark,
MacDonald, &
Chung, 2007). Because the reinforcing consequence cannot
always be
separated from the response, stereotypic behaviors may be
difficult to
extinguish. Vocal stereotypy is especially problematic in that
the audi-
tory product of the response is often challenging to block or
place on
sensory extinction. In addition, stereotypy may often persist
when the
individual is alone or void of social contingencies (Falcomata,
Roane,
Hovanetz, Kettering, & Keeney, 2004; Iwata, Dorsey, Silfer,
Bauman,
& Richman, 1982,1994; Rincover, 1978).
Based on the difficulty of separating the auditory byproduct of
vocal stereotypy and the response itself (i.e., the movement of
the vo-
cal musculature), behavior change of vocal stereotypy achieved
by
sensory extinction may be attributed to punishment
contingencies and
not extinction (Ahearn et al., 2007). Ahearn and colleagues
5. evaluated
the efficacy of a punishment contingency on reducing vocal
stereoty-
py with response interruption and redirection. The participants
were
given vocal demands contingent on any instance of vocal
stereotypy,
which effectively reduced responding for all four participants
(Ahern
et al., 2007). Rapp and colleagues (Rapp, Patel, Ghezzi,
O’Flaherty, &
Titterington, 2009) extended the literature on mild punishment
proce-
dures by assessing whether vocal stereotypy could be brought
under
stimulus control of arbitrary stimuli. Their results demonstrated
that
vocal stereotypy was suppressed in the presence of a red card
after
the implementation of the response cost contingency when the
card
was present. The authors concluded that the negative
punishment
procedure was effective at establishing the red card as a
discrimina-
tive stimulus related to punishment (SDP) by being paired with
both
positive and negative punishment (Rapp et al., 2009).
Researchers have also examined the effects of negative punish-
ment on vocal stereotypy; specifically, response cost was found
to be
effective at reducing vocal stereotypy in individuals with ASDs.
Fal-
comata and colleagues (2004) compared noncontingent
reinforcement
7. ization, a token was removed. By the end of the day, if at least
one
token remained on the board, a preferred snack was delivered.
Re-
sults demonstrated a decrease in perseverative vocalizations for
the
one participant (Kostinaset al., 2001). In a similar study,
Truchlicka
and colleagues (1998) decreased errors during spelling exams
and
increased accuracy in spelling performance in three participants
fol-
lowing implementation of a token-based response cost system.
Fur-
thermore, the authors concluded that the token economy with
the
response cost component was en effective intervention for use
in edu-
cational settings, such as a middle school.
Social stories have also been used in conjunction with response
cost and token board systems (Kuttler, Myles, & Carlson, 1998).
So-
cial stories describe a situation and the contingencies related to
de-
sired responses for that situation. The contingencies are
described
in a manner by which they are easily understood by the person
for
whom the social story was written (Grate & Garand, 1993).
Social sto-
ries were demonstrated to increase the effects of contingencies
related
to token economies (Kuttler et al., 1998). Additionally, social
stories
are often recommended not as a behavior change agent, but
8. instead
to help facilitate a better social understanding of the
contingencies
related to improvements in behavior and functioning in social
situ-
ations (Kokina & Kern, 2010). The American Psychiatric
Association
(2000) has suggested that social stories may address the need
for
predictability for children with autism in social situations and
that
visually cued instruction that may be more discernable than
verbal
instructions (Quill, 1997). This may be additionally important
in situ-
ations such as public school settings, where students may not
have
constant support and are required to share their teachers. In a
meta-
analysis conducted by Kokina and Kern (2010) on the use of
social
stories, the authors found that 21% of the participants in studies
that
employed social stories included preschoolers, while 60% of the
par-
ticipants were elementary aged. The majority of the studies
surveyed
utilized social stories which focused on a reduction of
inappropriate
behaviors and an increase in social skills (Kokina & Kern,
2010). The
research on social stories have described their effects as
potentially ef-
fective, at best (e.g., Ali & Frederickson, 2006; Rust & Smith,
2006), yet
they are often viewed positively by teachers and parents as a
9. feasible
and effective intervention (Smith, 2001). However, meta-
analytic data
410 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
suggest that they social stories are often utilized in conjunction
with
behavior change procedures leading to difficult with
determining the
isolated effects of social stories on behavior alone (Kokina &
Kern,
2010). While response cost systems with token boards and
social sto-
ries have been demonstrated to be effective at decreasing
behaviors,
such as precursors to tantrum behavior, perseverative
vocalizations,
and calling out in the classroom (Kostinas et al., 2001; Kuttler
et al.,
1998), to date, the efficacy of a treatment package utilizing
these meth-
ods has not been evaluated with vocal stereotypy in a public
school
classroom.
When evaluating methods to decrease behavior, reinforcement-
based procedures, either alone or in conjunction with
punishment
procedures, may be considered. For example, differential
reinforce-
ment interventions have been empirically demonstrated to
mitigate
the negative side effects of punishment or extinction procedures
10. (Catania, 1997). However, the combination of punishment
procedures
with differential reinforcement has been demonstrated to be
more ef-
fective at reducing problematic behavior than differential
reinforce-
ment alone (Buckley & Newchok, 2005; Kostinas et al., 2001).
Differ-
ential reinforcement of low rates of behavior (DRL), first
described by
Fester and Skinner (1957), effectively reduced disruptive
behaviors in
individuals with disabilities, including but not limited to
requests for
teacher attention (Austin & Bevan, 2011), stereotypy (Singh,
Dawson,
& Manning, 1982), and physical and verbal aggression
(Alderman
& Knight, 1997). A DRL procedure involves the delivery of
positive
reinforcement contingent uponthe frequency of a target behavior
oc-
curring less than or equal to a predetermined limit during a
specified
period of time (Deitz, 1977). A DRL procedure is often used
when be-
haviors occur too often to be susceptible to other reinforcement
con-
tingencies (e.g., differential reinforcement of other behavior;
Martin
& Pear, 2010).
Kostinas and colleagues (2001) compared the effects of a DRL
procedure to a DRL with a response cost procedure on
perseverative
verbal behavior in an adult diagnosed with obsessive-
11. compulsive dis-
order. Results demonstrated that the DRL with response cost
proce-
dure produced greater reductions in perseverative speech than
the
DRL procedure alone (Kostinas et al., 2001). The authors
concluded
that DRL alone did not effectively reduce perseverative
verbaliza-
tions, and that the absence of inappropriate responses may be
the re-
sult of the participant avoiding negative consequences (i.e., the
loss
of a token), rather than accessing positive reinforcement
(Kostinas
et al., 2001). Though the authors did not discuss the function of
the
problem behavior, in the case of behaviors maintained by
automatic
411VOCAL STEREOTYPY
reinforcement, it may be difficult to either substitute a
functionally
equivalent reinforcer or find a reinforcer that will compete with
the
byproduct of stereotypy when using differential reinforcement
alone
(Falcomata et al., 2004).
The purpose of the current study was to extend the literature on
establishing SDP control of vocal stereotypy using arbitrary
stimuli and
a DRL with a token-based response cost procedure. A social
12. story was
used to describe the contingencies in place during the
experimental
sessions. All experimental sessions were conducted within a
public
school environment, with public school staff implementing the
pro-
cedures.
Method
Participant and Setting
David was a 4-year-old male who had been diagnosed with
an autism spectrum disorder. He had been diagnosed at the age
of
2-years-old. One year prior to the study, the Early Intervention
De-
velopmental Profile (Rogers et al., 1981) had been
administrated to
David. His social emotional skills were scored at the age
equivalent
of 33 months, self-care 25 months, cognition was scored at 30
months,
perceptual fine motor was 24 months, gross motor was 32
months,
receptive language was 24–31 months, and expressive language
was
scored at 26 months. The most recent speech and language
testing was
conducted during the study. Results from the Clinical
Evaluation of
Language Fundamentals® preschool second edition (Semel,
Wiig, &
Secord, 2008) suggested that David had a receptive language
index of
13. 61 (which was 2 standard deviations below the mean), and the
results
of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test fourth edition (Lloyd &
Dunn,
2007) yielded a score of 74 (which was also 2 standard
deviations from
the mean).
He had been nominated for the study by his classroom teacher
and mother due to the high rate of vocal stereotypy at both
school and
home. David attended an integrated preschool classroom in a
pub-
lic elementary school. Four to six other students with
developmental
disabilities attended his classroom five days per week. During
two
of the five days the classroom was integrated with neurotypical
pre-
schoolers. The classroom included one special education teacher
and
three classroom assistants. The special education teacher had
taught
in a preschool classroom for children with autism for 11 years
and
had a master’s of science in intensive special needs at the time
of the
study. She had taken post-masters classes in Applied Behavior
Anal-
ysis (ABA) after completing her degree. The other three
classroom
412 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
14. assistants had a range of education from a high school diploma
to
an associates and bachelor’s degree. They had been working for
6 to
14 years with children with developmental disabilities. None of
the
classroom assistants had any classes or specific training in ABA
other
than workshops intermittently provided by their employer.
All sessions were conducted in the preschool classroom
through-
out the school day. The classroom included three individual
student
work areas divided by partitions, a circle area comprised of a
rug and
individual seats, and three tables, each identified by their shape
and
color. Sessions were conducted by the classroom assistant or
teacher
who was working with David for that period of time, and the
class-
room assistant or teacher also worked with one or two other
students
while running the experimental sessions. The study was
conducted
from September through February of the academic school year,
ex-
cluding programmed school breaks and weekends.
Response Measurement and Data Collection
Vocal stereotypy was defined as any instance in which David
engaged in non-contextual vocal word or sound output for three
con-
secutive seconds. An example included, David verbally
15. repeating the
plot of a television show during lunch while looking at his food.
A
non-example included if David responded to a question,
attempted
to ask a question, or engaged in contextual or non-contextual
vocal
output when making eye contact with an adult.
Partial interval recording (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1980) data
were collected during two to four experimental sessions per
day. Per-
centage of intervals in which vocal stereotypy occurred was
calcu-
lated by dividing the number of intervals in which vocal
stereotypy
occurred by the total number of intervals and multiplying by
100 per-
cent. Intervals were between 1 to 2 min in length for a total of 5
to
10 min depending on the experimental condition. The length of
the
intervals was determined at the onset of the experiment after the
re-
sults of the descriptive assessment demonstrated a high
frequency of
vocal stereotypy with little to no breaks in between episodes.
While
average frequency was not formally recorded, a 1 min session
was
determined to be the initial interval to evaluate if such a
measure
was representative of the overall occurrence of vocal stereotypy
and
was determined to be feasible for the staff in terms of data
collection.
16. The total session time was determined based on two criteria,
first,
sessions would start at small enough intervals so David would
access
reinforcement frequently, second, the total session duration was
long
enough to be effective while being manageable for
implementation by
classroom staff.
413VOCAL STEREOTYPY
Experimental Design
A changing conditions design (Kazdin, 1982) with an embed-
ded changing criterion design (Weis & Hall, 1971) was
employed to
evaluate the effects of discrimination training and differential
rein-
forcement of low rates (DRL) of behavior with response cost on
vocal
stereotypy. Criterion was initially set at 80% based on baseline
lev-
els of responding. The criterion was increased by 20%
systematically
when David engaged at or below criterion specific levels of
respond-
ing for two consecutive sessions. In order to demonstrate a
functional
relationship the criterion was increased to a previously attained
level
and then systematically decreased again.
Descriptive Assessment
17. Antecedent, behavior, consequence (Bijou & Baer, 1963) data
were recorded by the classroom behavioral consultant prior to
the
beginning of the study during targeted weekly observations.
Each ob-
servation occurred for approximately 30 min. The classroom
staff col-
lected daily data on (a) percent of intervals in which vocal
stereotypy
occurred for up to five 5 min sessions, (b) the activity (Figure
1), and
(c) the day of the week (Figure 2). An analysis of these
variables was
Figure 1. Average percentage of 1 min intervals during a 5 min
session where
vocal stereotypy occurred across classroom activities during
descriptive as-
sessment.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
18. 80
90
100
Group PT Snack Choice Story Music Circle Lunch Cooking 1:1
Work
OT
Group
Art
Activity
Pe
rc
en
ta
g
e
of
I
n
te
rv
al
s
20. events that potentially maintained vocal stereotypy. The results
of the
assessment suggested that vocal stereotypy was maintained by
posi-
tive automatic reinforcement. This conclusion was made for the
fol-
lowing reasons: (a) teachers reported that no consequence
appeared
to result in an increase or decrease in the occurrence of the
behavior,
and that when left alone, David was likely to engage in
continuous
vocal stereotypy; (b) responding was variable with no clear
trend
throughout the assessment (see Figure 3), and no clear patterns
in re-
sponding among days, activities, or time; and (c) responding
occurred
at lower levels during activities in which there were other
auditory
stimuli present (see Figure 1).
At the onset of the study, the behavioral consultant met with
the guardian and the teacher to determine goals for the
intervention.
Goals identified were as follows: 1) the intervention would
begin
with the criterion set so that David could contact reinforcement
(i.e., 5
min sessions comprised of 1 min intervals), and 2) the session
length
would be systematically increased to 10 min total
duration(comprised
of five 2-min intervals). The terminal duration was set to
approximate
the duration of work sessions in kindergarten, to which David
21. was
transitioning the following year.
Figure 2. Average percentage of 1 min intervals across 5 min
sessions where
vocal stereotypy occurred across days of the week.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Pe
rc
en
ta
23. cc
u
re
d
Day of the Week
415VOCAL STEREOTYPY
Staff Training
The classroom teacher and assistants were trained to implement
all experimental conditions by the classroom behavioral
consultant
who was also the primary experimenter of the study. During the
first
phase of training, the consultant reviewed the written behavior
plan
of implementation procedures with the teacher and assistants. In
the
second phase, the behavioral consultant modeled the
implementation
of the experimental conditions for the staff in vivo. In the third
phase,
each staff was individually observed implementing the
experimental
conditions and then given immediate feedback. The classroom
teach-
er and staff were required to go through the training sequence
prior to
running the experimental procedures.
24. Figure 3. Percentage of intervals in which vocal stereotypy
occurred during
baseline (BL) and treatment (DRL/RC) across 1 min intervals
during 5 min ses-
sions, 1.5 min intervals during 7 min sessions, and 2 min
intervals during 10
minute sessions. Arrows indicate criterion (C=criterion) levels
on the graph.
C1 represents 80% of intervals, C2 represents 60% of intervals,
C3 represents
40% of intervals, C4 represents 20% of intervals, C5 represents
40% of inter-
vals, C6 represents 20% of intervals, C7 represents 0% of
intervals, and C8
represents 20% of intervals.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
26. rv
al
s
Sessions
C1
C2
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 91 101 111 121 131 141 151 161 17181
416 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
Procedures
General Procedures. Across all experimental conditions, class-
room teachers and staff were instructed to implement the
treatment
procedures two to four times per day. The frequency was
determined
based on teacher reports of how often they could implement the
pro-
cedures, based on staffing and the number of students in the
class-
room (which changed at times).
David’s school day was broken up into activities in which there
were no specified programmed consequences for vocal
stereotypy
and activities in which programmed consequences were imple-
mented following the occurrence of vocal stereotypy. The
27. teacher
and classroom assistants met with the behavioral consultant to
de-
termine these activities. Playground, choice time, and free play
were
isolated as times when David was allowed to engage in vocal
stereo-
typy without the occurrence of a programmed consequence.
Circle,
small group activities, lunch, snack, and individual work time
were
determined to be times when vocal stereotypy competed with
other
desired responses, and it was therefore targeted for decrease
utilizing
the treatment package.
It was determined that changes in criteria would be communi-
cated to the classroom staff by the behavioral consultant after
an anal-
ysis of the current data. The behavioral consultant was
scheduled to
be in the classroom one to two times per week. For this reason,
David
may have met criteria and then remained in that phase of the
study
until the next time the behavioral consultant was in the
classroom for
consultation. Therefore, the number of days in a particular
phase of
the study was variable.
Baseline. The baseline condition occurred throughout the entire
school day. During baseline, staff redirected David to have a
quiet
voice (via verbal instruction paired with a finger put to the lip)
28. con-
tingent on any instance of vocal stereotypy. The social story,
token
board, and bracelets were not utilized during baseline.
Discrimination training. The no programmed consequence
condi-
tion was labeled the green condition, and a green circle was
placed
on the classroom schedule for those activities in which there
would
be no programmed consequence for vocal stereotypy. The
DRL/RC
condition was identified as the red condition, and the activities
that
resulted in the programmed consequence for vocal stereotypy
were
labeled with a red circle on the classroom schedule. The red and
green
colors were to serve as conditional stimuli associated with
differen-
tial consequences. In addition, the labels on the schedules
served as
prompts for the classroom staff regarding which experimental
con-
dition to run. It was determined that during some designated red
417VOCAL STEREOTYPY
activities it was not feasible for the red condition to be
implemented
due to insufficient staffing; therefore, during these times the
green
condition was implemented. It is important to note that the red
29. and
green designations were a guide for classroom staff, but the red
con-
dition did not occur for every occurrence of a red activity, due
to
staffing issues.
At the start of any scheduled activity in the classroom, the staff
instructed David on the condition specific contingency and
provided
him with the corresponding social story (Appendix B). At any
time
during the day in which the classroom staff did not run the red
condi-
tion, they implemented the green condition.
The DRL/RC condition was comprised of three phases. The pur-
pose of the phases was to systematically increase the amount of
time
in which the treatment package was implemented while
systematical-
ly decreasing the amount of intervals in which David could
engage in
vocal stereotypy. The first phase was implemented to establish
stimu-
lus control of vocal stereotypy across 5 min sessions. The
purpose of
the second and third phases was to systematically increase the
dura-
tion of time in which he was not engaging in vocal stereotypy.
Within
the first and second phase, the number of intervals in which
David
could engage in vocal stereotypy and receive contingent
reinforce-
ment was systematically decreased (i.e., the DRL). The purpose
30. of the
third phase was to evaluate if low levels of vocal stereotypy
could be
maintained across a longer session duration.
DRL and response cost (DRL/RC). At the start of the condition,
the
social story (Appendix B) was given to David and he was
instructed
to read it aloud. Simultaneously, a red wristband or watch was
put on
David’s wrist to signal the onset of the red condition. Staff
presented
a token board filled with five tokens and a prize box filled with
pre-
viously identified preferred items. The timer was set for the
phase
specific interval and started. If at any point during the interval
David
engaged in vocal stereotypy, the staff showed him the token
board
and removed a token. They then prompted a quiet voice by
holding a
finger up in front of their lips and counting to three, and
repeated this
procedure until David remained quiet for three consecutive
seconds.
Instructions were reintroduced regarding the contingency in
place. If
David engaged in vocal stereotypy at any other time during the
same
interval, the staff redirected him one time by holding a finger
up in
front of their lips.
At the end of the condition specific time, if David had kept the
31. criterion specific number of tokens, the green condition was
imple-
mented and he was given access to the prize box and all
tangibles
in the box for a predetermined reinforcement time. If David did
not
418 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
have the specified number of tokens remaining on the token
board,
the contingency for reinforcement was described. If the program
was
going to be run immediately again, the red condition continued;
if
the program could not be run again, the green condition was
imple-
mented.
Phase 1. During phase 1 of the DRL/RC, all sessions were com-
prised of five 1 min intervals for a total of a 5 min session.
Contingent
on meeting the criteria, reinforcement time was 1 min. The
phase began
with a predetermined criterion of 80% or less of intervals with
vocal
stereotypy (C1). Once this criterion was met, the criterion
decreased to
60% or less of intervals with vocal stereotypy (C2). Upon
meeting this
criterion, the criterion decreased to 40% or less of intervals
with vocal
stereotypy (C3). The next two criteria changes involved a
decrease to
32. 20% or less of intervals with vocal stereotypy (C4) and a
reversal back
to 40% or less of intervals with vocal stereotypy (C5).
Phase 2. During phase 2 of the DRL/RC, all sessions were com-
prised of five 1.5 min intervals for a total of a 7.5 min session.
Con-
tingent on meeting the criteria, reinforcement time was 1–2 min.
The
phase began with a predetermined criterion of 20% or less of
intervals
with vocal stereotypy, and once this was met, the criterion was
de-
creased to 0% or less of intervals with vocal stereotypy.
Figure 4. Average percentage of intervals where vocal
stereotypy occurred
across experimental conditions.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
33. 90
100
Baseline
Criterion 1
Phase 1:
Criterion 2
Phase 1:
Criterion 3
Phase 1:
Criterion 4
Phase 2:
Criterion 5
Phase 2:
Criterion 6
Phase 2:
Criterion 7
Phase 3:
Criterion 8
Pe
rc
en
ta
g
35. u
re
d
Experimental Condition
Phase 1:
419VOCAL STEREOTYPY
Phase 3. During phase 3 of the DRL/RC, all sessions were com-
prised of five 2 min intervals for a total of a 10 min session.
Contingent
on meeting the criteria, reinforcement time was 2–3 min. The
criterion
for this phase was 20% or less of intervals with vocal
stereotypy.
No programmed consequence. At the start of the no programmed
consequence condition, the social story (Appendix B) was given
to
David and he was instructed to read it aloud. Simultaneously, a
green
wristband or watch was put on David’s wrist to signal the onset
of
the green condition, and David was instructed of the condition
spe-
cific contingency. There was no programmed consequence for
any in-
stance of vocal stereotypy.
Interobserver Agreement
36. Interobserver agreement (IOA) was collected for 25% of
sessions.
The behavioral consultant simultaneously recorded occurrences
of
vocal stereotypy independent of the classroom staff. Data were
com-
pared to identify the number of agreements and disagreements
IOA
was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the
sum of
agreements and disagreements and multiplying by 100 to
determine a
percentage. Agreement was 97% (range of 60% to 100%). The
low data
point at 60% occurred during session 16 of baseline, when the
behav-
ioral consultant recorded repeated occurrences of vocal
stereotypy
during only one interval, but the classroom staff recorded the
repeat-
ed occurrences of stereotypy as occurring across consecutive
intervals
(i.e., although the repeated stereotypy occurred during the same
in-
terval, the staff recorded each instance in a new interval).
Feedback
on data collection was given to the staff following the recording
error.
Recording errors were not observed during any subsequent
observa-
tions, nor with any other classroom staff; therefore, additional
train-
ing was not conducted.
Social Validity
37. Social validity was assessed with a 7-point Likert scale consist-
ing of 10 questions and a brief open-ended comments section
(Ap-
pendix A). The form was adapted from the Treatment
Acceptability
Rating Form-Revised (TARF-R; Reimers & Wacker, 1988).
David’s
guardian, teacher, classroom staff, and home-based behavioral
con-
sultant recorded data on social validity at the end of the study.
Results
Experimental conditions. The results of the baseline condition
and
DRL/RC are shown in Figures 3 and 4. During baseline, David’s
vo-
cal stereotypy occurred at moderate levels during recorded
sessions,
420 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
averaging 60% of five 1 min partial intervals. When
discrimination
training and DRL/RC was implemented, vocal stereotypy
stabilized
with little variability at 56% of five 1min partial intervals on
average
in criterion 1 of phase 1. Criterion increases resulted in
decreases in
vocal stereotypy to 37% of five 1 min partial intervals on
average in
criterion 2 of phase 1, 26% of five 1 min partial intervals on
38. average in
criterion 3 of phase 1, and 15% of five 1 min partial intervals
on aver-
age in criterion 4 of phase 1. When the criterion was decreased
vocal
stereotypy increased to 28% of five 1 min partial intervals on
aver-
age in criterion 5 of phase 1.A return to the previous criterion
and an
increase in the duration of the session resulted in a decrease in
vocal
stereotypy to 12% of five 1.5 min partial intervals on average in
crite-
rion 6 of phase 2. The last criterion increase resulted in an
additional
decrease in vocal stereotypy to 10% of five 1.5 min partial
intervals on
average in criterion 7 of phase 2. A return to the previous
criterion and
an increase in the duration of the session resulted in a slight
decrease
in vocal stereotypy to 8% of five 2 min partial intervals in
criteria 8 of
phase 3 (see Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Social validity. Results from the social validity assessment (Ap-
pendix A) indicated that staff rated the procedures as a socially
ac-
ceptable way to decrease vocal stereotypy (mean of 5 out of 5
possible
points), while being easy to implement (mean of 4.5 out of 5
possible
points), and minimally intrusive to the participant (mean of 4.75
out
of 5 possible points). The raters also indicated that the
procedures
39. resulted in an improved rate of appropriate vocalizations both
dur-
ing (mean of 5 out of 5 possible points) and outside of session
(mean
of 4.75 out of 5 possible points respectively), and did not result
in
adverse side effects for the participant (mean of 5 out of 5
possible
points).
Discussion
In the current study, discrimination training paired with a
DRL/RC contingency effectively reduced the occurrence of
automat-
ically reinforced vocal stereotypy in a public school preschool
class-
room. The results of the intervention were achieved across a
time pe-
riod of 5 months, demonstrating the efficacy of the intervention.
The
results of the current study were similar to those of previous
studies
(e.g., Falcomata et al., 2004; Rapp et al., 2009) and suggested
that re-
sponse cost and discrimination training effectively reduced
vocal
stereotypy. In addition, these procedures could be implemented
in
a setting that was not experimental, with less experimental con-
trol, and still result in substantial reductions in interfering
problem
behaviors.
40. 421VOCAL STEREOTYPY
Although there was some variability in the data, overall, the
contingent removal of a token paired with the opportunity to
earn a
prize box for low rates of vocal stereotypy was effective at
reducing
vocal stereotypy, even when the intervention was not
implemented
the same number of times daily. It appeared that the presence of
the
red bracelet enhanced the discrimination of the contingency
when the
DRL/RC was in effect; therefore, the red bracelet came to exert
SDP
control over vocal stereotypy. Rapp and colleagues (2009)
suggested
that establishing SDP control might be useful in educational
settings
because it may result in a teacher or trainer needing to provide
fewer
consequences to maintain low levels of problem behavior.
While the
current study did not record data on vocal stereotypy in the
presence
of the red bracelet without the DRL/RC contingency, low levels
of re-
sponding were maintained across 10 min sessions (Figure 3).
These
data support that establishing stimulus control of automatically
main-
tained problem behavior in the presence of arbitrary stimuli and
not
teachers, may reduce the need for intensive teacher supports to
main-
tain low levels of responding in educational settings.
41. Additionally, the red bracelet may have come to exert SD
control
over other responses that resulted in social positive
reinforcement;
therefore, in the presence of the red bracelet, positive tangible
rein-
forcement (i.e., prize box) for behaviors other than vocal
stereotypy
may have competed with the hypothesized automatic
reinforcement
derived from the vocal stereotypy. Teacher reports indicated
that to-
ward the end of the study, David occasionally refused the prize
box
and asked to engage in the current activity and continue to wear
the
red bracelet (i.e., restart the response cost). One hypothesis is
that by
reducing the interference of vocal stereotypy, other activities in
the
classroom became conditioned reinforcers. Alternatively, the
tokens
themselves may have become conditioned reinforcers and
keeping
them may have been as reinforcing as earning the prize box,
thus sup-
porting the role of tokens as mediating reinforcement to the
ultimate
reinforcer.
Teacher reports also indicated that there were days when David
engaged in vocal stereotypy and then asked the teachers for the
red
bracelet. The response product of vocal stereotypy may have
become
42. aversive due to being paired with the response cost contingency
dur-
ing the DRL/RC condition. Previous researchers (i.e., Rappet
al., 2009;
Lerman & Vorndran, 2002) demonstrated that verbal reprimands
be-
came effective punishers after being paired with a response
cost. A
similar effect may have occurred in the current study, except
that the
response product of the vocal stereotypy may have become an
effec-
tive punisher after the systematic pairing with the response cost.
422 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
The results of the current study contributed to the literature re-
garding effective treatment of vocal stereotypy in several ways.
First,
outcomes replicated and extended the results of previous
research
(i.e., Falcomata et al., 2004; Rapp et al., 2009) which
demonstrated
the effectiveness of establishing SDP control via a negative
punish-
ment procedure. Second, the current data demonstrated the
utility of
employing differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior
(DRL)
paired with mild punishment procedures to decrease
automatically
maintained problem behavior that was not susceptible to other
dif-
ferential procedures due to initial high rates of response. Lastly,
43. the
current procedures were implemented throughout the day in a
public
school preschool classroom. The classroom was integrated two
days
per week and staffed by individuals with minimal experience
with be-
havior analysis, and no experience conducting research. The
obtained
data suggested that the current procedures were not only
effective
but could be implemented in a natural environment without
exten-
sive training in behavior analysis or research methods.
Anecdotal reports suggested that David’s vocal verbal behav-
ior increased in the classroom. Though no formal data were
collected,
during observations David consistently used full sentences to
tact the
occurrence of classroom events, intraverbals to answer
questions, and
mands for attention. The DRL/RC contingency was also
implemented
by David’s guardians in the home and community, and they
reported
similar effects as the current study.
Several limitations to the current study should be noted. First,
a formal functional analysis was not conducted; therefore, other
vari-
ables may have maintained David’s vocal stereotypy. Future
studies
should ensure a function-based treatment prior to employing
punish-
ment procedures. Second, criterion changes did not occur
44. immedi-
ately after David met criterion for the phase. The experimenter
was
only available to visit the classroom one to two times per week.
Based
on this schedule, the phase was changed when the experimenter
was
able to go into the classroom, score the data, and then inform
the class-
room staff of the next phase. This resulted in some phases
where Da-
vid met criterion and remained in the phase for many
consecutive
sessions (e.g., criterions 5 and 8), or met criterion but then
remained in
the phase and variable responding occurred (e.g., criterions 1, 2,
3, 4,
6, and 7). While it is unclear if the delayed criterion change
influenced
response variability, substantial changes were evident,
demonstrating
that the procedures were efficacious in a less controlled
environment.
An additional limitation to the current study was that two
students with developmental disabilities joined the classroom
dur-
ing the second phase of the study. Variability in those data may
be
423VOCAL STEREOTYPY
attributed to less sessions daily as well as increases in staff to
stu-
46. vocal stereotypy was not measured in the green condition;
therefore,
it is unclear if vocal stereotypy remained the same when not
under
SDP control of the red bracelet or decreased across all
conditions. If
data were recorded during the green condition and there was a
de-
crease in responding compared to baseline, it would suggest that
the
classroom itself came to exert some SDP control of vocal
stereotypy.
If vocal stereotypy remained at the same levels in the green
condi-
tion as in baseline, reductions during the red condition may also
be
attributed to an abolishing operation in effect (Laraway,
Syncerski,
Michael, & Poling, 2003). David was able to engage in
behaviors that
produced automatic reinforcement at other times before and
after the
onset of the red condition (i.e., during any time he wore the
green
bracelet); therefore, he may have temporarily satiated on the
response
product of vocal stereotypy, resulting in a momentary decrease
in
the value of such reinforcement and reducing the occurrence of
vocal
stereotypy.
An additional limitation was that David’s guardians were im-
plementing the system in the home and community. Reports
from
the guardian and home-based behavioral consultant suggested
47. that,
within the home and community settings, the intervention
remained
at the beginning phases (i.e., 5 min sessions with 1 min
intervals)
and that the procedures may have been altered slightly due to
the
parents’ needs in the home and community. This may have pro-
duced a confound in two ways: 1) changing contingencies may
have
424 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
mitigated some of the effects in the classroom, increasing
variability
in vocal stereotypy and requiring that David contact the
contingen-
cies in the classroom before coming under control of the
classroom-
specific contingencies in place, and 2) the effects of the
intervention
may have been artificially increased, and generalization across
dif-
ferent staff and settings in the school may have been due to
expo-
sure to the contingencies in locations and with persons outside
of the
school, suggesting that some programming for generalization
was in
fact occurring.
The results of the current study provided many areas that war-
rant further investigation. First, future research should evaluate
if
48. changes in responding would remain suppressed without the
token
system and only the presence of the red bracelet. Second, the
occur-
rence of appropriate vocalizations should be measured. Previous
re-
search (i.e., Ahearn et al., 2007; Rapp et al., 2009) found that
there were
increases in appropriate vocalizations along with decreases in
vocal
stereotypy when implementing punishment procedures for vocal
ste-
reotypy. Future researchers should also compare the effects of
estab-
lishing stimulus control with arbitrary stimuli (i.e., the red
bracelet) or
stimuli in the environment that may naturally come to exert
stimulus
control (i.e., the classroom activity or location). For example,
when
one walks into the library, there is SDP control over the volume
of one’s
voice due to a history of punishment from the librarian in the
library.
One research question would be to evaluate generalization and
sup-
pression of vocal stereotypy over time with naturally occurring
stim-
uli being paired with the DRL/RC contingency as compared to
the red
bracelet or some other arbitrary stimulus. Lastly, it should be
evalu-
ated if the green condition is necessary for the development of
strong
SDP control. The results of the current study have many
implications
49. for practitioners, in terms of assessing and treating vocal
stereotypy in
an applied setting, with classroom staff implementing the
procedures.
The treatment package was developed based on the literature
but also
addressed desired outcomes reported by the guardian and
teacher
and the available resources of the behavioral consultant, the
teacher,
and the classroom staff.
In the current study, David’s vocal stereotypy was brought
under control of the colored bracelets, with the addition of a
cor-
responding response cost system and social story. While
effective,
the intervention was implemented at various times per day with
different staff, and across multiple settings within the school.
Re-
sults demonstrated that the effects of the intervention were
general-
ized without direct training and that the effects were maintained
throughout vacations, during days with fewer sessions, and
without
425VOCAL STEREOTYPY
constant oversight by a graduate-level behavioral clinician.
Further-
more, results suggested that a DRL with response cost
procedure
may be an effective way to reduce behaviors maintained by
auto-
50. matic reinforcement, without the use of extinction-based
procedures
or the side effects typically associated with punishment
procedures.
It remains imperative that behavioral consultants work with
guard-
ians, teachers, and classroom staff to develop efficacious
interven-
tions that can be successfully implemented with intermittent
over-
sight from the consultant.
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429VOCAL STEREOTYPY
Appendix A
Social Validity Scale
Token System + Red Bracelet
After implementing the procedures or watching the implemen-
tation of the procedures in the classroom, please answer all
questions
honestly and to the best of your ability. His will help to
interpret the
57. overall social validity of the study for future reference.
1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree,
5 = strongly agree
1. I like the token system + red bracelet procedure. 1 2 3
4 5
2. I think this procedure was easy to implement. 1 2 3
4 5
3. I am satisfied with my students/child’s response
to the procedure.
1 2 3 4 5
4. The token system + red bracelet reduced my stu-
dent/child’s vocal stereotypy during the session.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I thought the token system + red bracelet proce-
dure was intrusive.
1 2 3 4 5
6. The token system + red bracelet program was a
socially appropriate intervention for my student/
child.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I think token system + red bracelet training re-
sulted in an improved rate of appropriate vocal-
izations during the session.
58. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I think token system + red bracelet resulted in
an improved rate of appropriate vocalizations out-
side of the sessions.
1 2 3 4 5
9. My child/student will benefit in the long run
from the procedures implemented in this study.
1 2 3 4 5
10. I think token system + red bracelet training
produced negative emotional reactions in my stu-
dent/child.
1 2 3 4 5
Please feel free to write in any additional comments regarding
the
study here:
430 LAPRIME and DITTRICH
Appendix B
Red Condition Social Story:
Green Condition Social Story:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further