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This document discusses faults that can occur in synchronous generators and solutions to prevent and address those faults. It identifies common internal faults like stator and frequency fluctuations and external faults like loss of excitation. It then outlines the methodology used in the project, including literature review, software implementation, analysis of faults, and hardware implementation. Protection methods are proposed for different faults like over/under frequency, negative sequence, reverse power flow, overcurrent, and loss of excitation. The goals are to quickly sense, identify, and remove faulty parts to protect the generator.
This document outlines the design of a 200 Watt, 150 Vrms PWM bipolar inverter with the following key points:
1. The design process includes calculating component values based on design requirements, building the circuit in Multisim software, and analyzing the simulation results.
2. Key calculations include determining the required DC bus voltage to achieve the 150Vrms AC output voltage despite voltage drops, as well as component sizing based on the given power, modulation index, and carrier frequency specifications.
3. Simulation results show the generated PWM switching signals and the final inverter output voltage matching the desired 150Vrms sinusoidal waveform.
The document provides an introduction to DC power systems, including their key elements and operation. It discusses why DC power is used, defines important electrical terms, and explains the water analogy to represent key components like batteries, rectifiers, resistance, current, and flow. It also covers the building blocks of a DC power system, including surge protection, rectifiers, batteries, inverters, and more. It describes normal system operation with mains power and battery usage during mains failure or restoration. Battery management techniques like float voltage, temperature compensation, and equalizing are also summarized.
This document discusses instrumentation and controls for boiler plants. It describes the key inputs and outputs to a boiler control system for maintaining energy and mass balance. The document outlines several basic control loops for fuel, combustion air, and feedwater. It then provides more details on combustion control systems, including different control schemes and hardware. Finally, it discusses various feedwater control systems from single element to multi-element approaches for maintaining proper water levels over a range of boiler loads.
This document discusses variable frequency drives (VFDs) which vary the frequency and voltage supplied to electric motors to control their speed. It describes the key components of a VFD including the rectifier, DC bus, and inverter. The rectifier converts AC power to DC, the DC bus stores and filters it, and the inverter converts it back to AC of variable frequency to control motor speed. VFDs can operate in scalar or vector control modes, and their parameters like frequency and voltage settings must be configured for the specific motor. VFDs allow controlling motor speed without a mechanical transmission and provide braking methods like DC injection to slow motors.
Boiler Drum level measurement in Thermal Power StationsManohar Tatwawadi
The paper describes the basics of Boiler Drum water Level measurement in a Thermal Power Station. The Single element and three element control has been described in a very simple manner. Useful for the Thermal Engineers
1. A transformer's vector group describes the phase shift between its primary and secondary voltages and is determined by how its windings are connected.
2. Determining a transformer's vector group is important for connecting transformers in parallel and for differential protection schemes to avoid false trips.
3. To find a transformer's vector group without nameplate details, short circuit phases on the high voltage and low voltage sides, measure voltages in all combinations, and compare the results to standard vector group conditions.
First & second order of the control systemsSatheeshCS2
This document summarizes key concepts about first and second order control systems. It discusses:
- The characteristics of a first order system, which has one pole and is defined by its DC gain (K) and time constant (T).
- Examples of first order systems and how to determine their DC gain and time constant.
- That a second order system can have different responses depending on its parameters, such as damped or undamped oscillations.
- How to determine the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio of a second order system by comparing its transfer function to the general second order transfer function.
The document then provides example problems for determining properties of first and second order systems. It concludes by
This document discusses faults that can occur in synchronous generators and solutions to prevent and address those faults. It identifies common internal faults like stator and frequency fluctuations and external faults like loss of excitation. It then outlines the methodology used in the project, including literature review, software implementation, analysis of faults, and hardware implementation. Protection methods are proposed for different faults like over/under frequency, negative sequence, reverse power flow, overcurrent, and loss of excitation. The goals are to quickly sense, identify, and remove faulty parts to protect the generator.
This document outlines the design of a 200 Watt, 150 Vrms PWM bipolar inverter with the following key points:
1. The design process includes calculating component values based on design requirements, building the circuit in Multisim software, and analyzing the simulation results.
2. Key calculations include determining the required DC bus voltage to achieve the 150Vrms AC output voltage despite voltage drops, as well as component sizing based on the given power, modulation index, and carrier frequency specifications.
3. Simulation results show the generated PWM switching signals and the final inverter output voltage matching the desired 150Vrms sinusoidal waveform.
The document provides an introduction to DC power systems, including their key elements and operation. It discusses why DC power is used, defines important electrical terms, and explains the water analogy to represent key components like batteries, rectifiers, resistance, current, and flow. It also covers the building blocks of a DC power system, including surge protection, rectifiers, batteries, inverters, and more. It describes normal system operation with mains power and battery usage during mains failure or restoration. Battery management techniques like float voltage, temperature compensation, and equalizing are also summarized.
This document discusses instrumentation and controls for boiler plants. It describes the key inputs and outputs to a boiler control system for maintaining energy and mass balance. The document outlines several basic control loops for fuel, combustion air, and feedwater. It then provides more details on combustion control systems, including different control schemes and hardware. Finally, it discusses various feedwater control systems from single element to multi-element approaches for maintaining proper water levels over a range of boiler loads.
This document discusses variable frequency drives (VFDs) which vary the frequency and voltage supplied to electric motors to control their speed. It describes the key components of a VFD including the rectifier, DC bus, and inverter. The rectifier converts AC power to DC, the DC bus stores and filters it, and the inverter converts it back to AC of variable frequency to control motor speed. VFDs can operate in scalar or vector control modes, and their parameters like frequency and voltage settings must be configured for the specific motor. VFDs allow controlling motor speed without a mechanical transmission and provide braking methods like DC injection to slow motors.
Boiler Drum level measurement in Thermal Power StationsManohar Tatwawadi
The paper describes the basics of Boiler Drum water Level measurement in a Thermal Power Station. The Single element and three element control has been described in a very simple manner. Useful for the Thermal Engineers
1. A transformer's vector group describes the phase shift between its primary and secondary voltages and is determined by how its windings are connected.
2. Determining a transformer's vector group is important for connecting transformers in parallel and for differential protection schemes to avoid false trips.
3. To find a transformer's vector group without nameplate details, short circuit phases on the high voltage and low voltage sides, measure voltages in all combinations, and compare the results to standard vector group conditions.
First & second order of the control systemsSatheeshCS2
This document summarizes key concepts about first and second order control systems. It discusses:
- The characteristics of a first order system, which has one pole and is defined by its DC gain (K) and time constant (T).
- Examples of first order systems and how to determine their DC gain and time constant.
- That a second order system can have different responses depending on its parameters, such as damped or undamped oscillations.
- How to determine the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio of a second order system by comparing its transfer function to the general second order transfer function.
The document then provides example problems for determining properties of first and second order systems. It concludes by
Mr. C.S.Satheesh, M.E.,
Servomotor
Control motors
Two Phase AC Servo Motor
Three Phase AC Servo Motor
DC Servo Motor
AC Servo Motor
Control Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchro
Synchros
This manual "CFC for S7" provides you with the information you require to use the
CFC configuration tool in conjunction with CPUs in SIMATIC S7 programmable
controllers (PLCs).
three level diode clamp inverter. that converts any type of DC ( rectified, PV cell, battery etc.) to AC supply. we made by mosfet and ardiuno . in this ppt we present the Simulink model of a three-level inverter and the hardware presentation of the inverter.
Instrumentation & Measurement: An Introduction about Measurement SystemsMuhammad Junaid Asif
This document provides an overview of measurement systems and different types of measuring instruments. It defines a measurement system as one that can provide information about a physical quantity or variable. A measurement system typically consists of a measuring instrument but can also be a combination of separate elements. When selecting a measuring instrument, factors like the instrument's static and dynamic characteristics, environmental conditions, cost and personnel skills should be considered. Instruments are classified as active or passive, null-type or deflection-type, analogue or digital, indicating or with signal output, and smart or non-smart. Examples of each type are provided.
This chapter discusses digital control systems. It describes the components of a digital control loop including digital controllers, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and digital-to-analog converters (DACs). ADCs convert analog signals to digital words, while DACs convert digital words to analog signals. Proper sampling and holding is required for interfacing between analog and digital systems. The sampling frequency must be high enough to avoid aliasing, with a recommended rate of 6-25 times the bandwidth of the controlled process.
1. Indicating instruments measure electrical quantities by deflecting a pointer on a calibrated scale. They use a deflection system to produce a force proportional to the measured value, a control system to limit deflection, and a damping system to prevent oscillations.
2. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments have a coil mounted between magnet poles that deflects proportional to current. They are used as ammeters, voltmeters, and galvanometers. As an ammeter, the coil is connected across a low resistance shunt; as a voltmeter, it is connected in series with a high resistance.
3. Moving iron instruments can measure AC using an iron core acted on by a coil
Siemens s7 300-400-hb-cpu312_ifm_bis_318-2dp_eDien Ha The
Siemens,
Catalog Thiết Bị Tự Động Siemens, Catalog Thiết Bị Tự Động
Catalog Phụ Kiện Siemens, Catalog Phụ Kiện,
Catalog Siemens, Catalog,
https://www.dienhathe.com,
Chi tiết các sản phẩm khác của Siemens tại https://dienhathe.com
Xem thêm các Catalog khác của Siemens tại https://dienhathe.info
Để nhận báo giá sản phẩm Siemens vui lòng gọi: 0907.764.966
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another. They contain two main parts: a sensing element that detects a physical change, and a transduction element that converts the sensor's output into an electrical signal. Selection of a transducer depends on the physical quantity to be measured, the transducer principle best suited for the input, and the required accuracy. Transmitters take readings from primary sensors or transducers and convert them into standard signals that can be transmitted over longer distances to monitors or controllers. They work by producing a potential difference when AC current flows through a wire, causing the wire to radiate electromagnetic waves. Common types of transmitters include pressure, temperature, flow, and level transmitters. The
Main dimension & rotor design of squirrel cage Induction Motor.pdfMohammadAtaurRahmanA
Here,
Diameter of stator
Length of Stator
No. of stator turns per phase
No. of the stator slots
No. of rotor slots
Area of Cross-section of Stator conductor
Area of Cross-section of Rotor Bars(as squirrel cage)
Area of the cross-section of End-Ring
Length of the Air-gap
are calculated step by step .
MATLAB Simulation on Speed Control of Four Quadrant DC Drive Using ChopperADARSH KUMAR
MATLAB Simulation on Speed Control of Four Quadrant DC Drive Using Chopper
Abstract - This paper deals with the speed of dc motor can be control by using chopper is to designed the four quadrant speed control model. the speed control of dc motor provide designed model for four quadrant in both direction i.e. clockwise direction, counter clockwise direction along with braking of the dc motor .this operation will not superior than ac motor , compare with dc motor because the ac motor changing the rotation of motor is unmanageable and complicated to design as compared with the dc motor. Therefore for the smooth in operation we can used the insulate gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). For speed control of dc motor in both direction the chopper circuit is designed by using IGBT. The pulse width modulation (PWM) is used foe switching operation of IGBT. The PWM designed signal model can be generated by using IC LM324 (quart op-amp). To control the direction and the speed of motor, the four quadrant speed control technique is not a complicated
Sensors are devices that receive and respond to external stimuli. They can be classified as passive or active, absolute or relative, based on their operating principles and energy requirements. Sensors have characteristics like transfer function, span, accuracy, calibration, hysteresis, nonlinearity, repeatability, and resolution that describe their performance. Environmental factors like temperature, humidity can affect sensor stability and accuracy over time. An example temperature sensing application using a thermistor sensor interfaced with an analog to digital converter is provided.
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE, INDUCTION MACHINE & SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE|DAY 11|BA...Prasant Kumar
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE
#DC MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#INDUCTION MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MACHINE
#CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR
#CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR
#BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electrical machine Day 11, Construction of DC, Induction motor, Synchronous generator, Synchronous motor, alternator, Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Introduction of Machine
Classification of Machine
Construction of DC, Induction & Synchronous machine
Working Principle
EMF Equation of all machine
A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on Direct Current
It has two main parts :
Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.
Electrical machine Day 11,Construction of DC, Induction motor, Synchronous generator, Synchronous motor,alternator,Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Introduction of Machine
Classification of Machine
Construction of DC, Induction & Synchronous machine
Working Principle
EMF Equation of all machine
A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on Direct Current
It has two main parts :
Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.
YOKE
It is the outermost part of a DC motor. It is made of cast iron or cast steel.
It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
Provide low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
Pole core
These are made of cast steel laminations.
The main purpose is to hold the field windings .
The end portion of the pole is called pole shoe.
FIELD WINDING
They are enameled copper wires wound around the poles
When current passes through series connected windings then adjacent poles attain opposite polarity
Armature core
This is the rotating part of the machine
It is a cylindrical structure with slots around its outer periphery.
It houses conductors in the slots.
It provides easy path for magnetic flux
The document discusses protective relays used in power systems. It describes how electrical energy is generated, transmitted, and distributed and some common causes of faults like weather, equipment failures, and human errors. It explains different types of faults and their effects. The need for protection systems is outlined to minimize equipment damage, safety hazards, and power interruptions. Components of a protection system like current transformers, potential transformers, relays, and circuit breakers are identified. The document discusses various types of protection schemes and relay functions. It describes zones of protection, selectivity, and speed requirements of relays. Reliability aspects like dependability and security are also covered.
This document provides an overview of modeling systems using Laplace transforms. It discusses:
1) Converting time functions to the frequency domain using Laplace transforms and inverse Laplace transforms
2) Finding transfer functions (TF) from differential equations to model systems
3) Using partial fraction expansions to simplify transfer functions for inverse Laplace transforms
4) Examples of using Laplace transforms to solve differential equations and model various mechanical and electrical systems.
INTRODUCTION TO LVDT,RVDT and Potentiometer SACHINNikam39
This document discusses different types of displacement transducers, including linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) and rotary variable differential transformers (RVDTs). It provides details on their construction, working principles, advantages, disadvantages, and applications. LVDTs and RVDTs both work on the principle of mutual induction to convert mechanical motion or vibrations into an electrical output signal. LVDTs are used to measure linear displacement, while RVDTs are used to measure angular displacement. Potential applications mentioned include automation, power turbines, aircraft, hydraulics, and more.
The document lists the main parts of a transformer as: metallic core, holding frame, winding, on load tap changer, bushings and terminals, radiator wings/cooling tubs, breather, Buchholz relay, explosion valve, control panel, and tank. It provides the names of the core components that make up a transformer.
A variable frequency drive (VFD) controls the speed of HVAC fans and pumps by adjusting the motor's frequency and voltage, allowing it to run at less than 100% power when full speed isn't needed. This saves energy compared to an on/off motor and reduces wear. A VFD converts AC power to DC then back to variable frequency AC to power the motor. Specifying a VFD with standard features like harmonics reduction from a reputable manufacturer like Siemens can significantly improve energy efficiency for HVAC systems.
This document provides an overview of various types of signal generators and signal analyzers used in electronics. It describes the basic components and functions of audio and radio frequency signal generators, function generators, square wave and pulse generators. It also discusses considerations for choosing a signal generator such as frequency range, output voltage, resolution, accuracy, and stability. Signal analyzers described include audio/radio frequency wave analyzers, harmonic distortion analyzers, and spectrum analyzers.
This document provides an overview of waveform generators and special function integrated circuits. It discusses various waveform generator circuits like sine wave generators using RC phase shift oscillators and Wien bridge oscillators. It also discusses multivibrators circuits like astable and monostable multivibrators that can generate square waves. In addition, it covers the 555 timer IC which can be used in monostable and astable configurations to generate pulses, and function generator ICs like the ICL8038 that can produce sine, square and triangular waves.
Mr. C.S.Satheesh, M.E.,
Servomotor
Control motors
Two Phase AC Servo Motor
Three Phase AC Servo Motor
DC Servo Motor
AC Servo Motor
Control Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchro
Synchros
This manual "CFC for S7" provides you with the information you require to use the
CFC configuration tool in conjunction with CPUs in SIMATIC S7 programmable
controllers (PLCs).
three level diode clamp inverter. that converts any type of DC ( rectified, PV cell, battery etc.) to AC supply. we made by mosfet and ardiuno . in this ppt we present the Simulink model of a three-level inverter and the hardware presentation of the inverter.
Instrumentation & Measurement: An Introduction about Measurement SystemsMuhammad Junaid Asif
This document provides an overview of measurement systems and different types of measuring instruments. It defines a measurement system as one that can provide information about a physical quantity or variable. A measurement system typically consists of a measuring instrument but can also be a combination of separate elements. When selecting a measuring instrument, factors like the instrument's static and dynamic characteristics, environmental conditions, cost and personnel skills should be considered. Instruments are classified as active or passive, null-type or deflection-type, analogue or digital, indicating or with signal output, and smart or non-smart. Examples of each type are provided.
This chapter discusses digital control systems. It describes the components of a digital control loop including digital controllers, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and digital-to-analog converters (DACs). ADCs convert analog signals to digital words, while DACs convert digital words to analog signals. Proper sampling and holding is required for interfacing between analog and digital systems. The sampling frequency must be high enough to avoid aliasing, with a recommended rate of 6-25 times the bandwidth of the controlled process.
1. Indicating instruments measure electrical quantities by deflecting a pointer on a calibrated scale. They use a deflection system to produce a force proportional to the measured value, a control system to limit deflection, and a damping system to prevent oscillations.
2. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments have a coil mounted between magnet poles that deflects proportional to current. They are used as ammeters, voltmeters, and galvanometers. As an ammeter, the coil is connected across a low resistance shunt; as a voltmeter, it is connected in series with a high resistance.
3. Moving iron instruments can measure AC using an iron core acted on by a coil
Siemens s7 300-400-hb-cpu312_ifm_bis_318-2dp_eDien Ha The
Siemens,
Catalog Thiết Bị Tự Động Siemens, Catalog Thiết Bị Tự Động
Catalog Phụ Kiện Siemens, Catalog Phụ Kiện,
Catalog Siemens, Catalog,
https://www.dienhathe.com,
Chi tiết các sản phẩm khác của Siemens tại https://dienhathe.com
Xem thêm các Catalog khác của Siemens tại https://dienhathe.info
Để nhận báo giá sản phẩm Siemens vui lòng gọi: 0907.764.966
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another. They contain two main parts: a sensing element that detects a physical change, and a transduction element that converts the sensor's output into an electrical signal. Selection of a transducer depends on the physical quantity to be measured, the transducer principle best suited for the input, and the required accuracy. Transmitters take readings from primary sensors or transducers and convert them into standard signals that can be transmitted over longer distances to monitors or controllers. They work by producing a potential difference when AC current flows through a wire, causing the wire to radiate electromagnetic waves. Common types of transmitters include pressure, temperature, flow, and level transmitters. The
Main dimension & rotor design of squirrel cage Induction Motor.pdfMohammadAtaurRahmanA
Here,
Diameter of stator
Length of Stator
No. of stator turns per phase
No. of the stator slots
No. of rotor slots
Area of Cross-section of Stator conductor
Area of Cross-section of Rotor Bars(as squirrel cage)
Area of the cross-section of End-Ring
Length of the Air-gap
are calculated step by step .
MATLAB Simulation on Speed Control of Four Quadrant DC Drive Using ChopperADARSH KUMAR
MATLAB Simulation on Speed Control of Four Quadrant DC Drive Using Chopper
Abstract - This paper deals with the speed of dc motor can be control by using chopper is to designed the four quadrant speed control model. the speed control of dc motor provide designed model for four quadrant in both direction i.e. clockwise direction, counter clockwise direction along with braking of the dc motor .this operation will not superior than ac motor , compare with dc motor because the ac motor changing the rotation of motor is unmanageable and complicated to design as compared with the dc motor. Therefore for the smooth in operation we can used the insulate gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). For speed control of dc motor in both direction the chopper circuit is designed by using IGBT. The pulse width modulation (PWM) is used foe switching operation of IGBT. The PWM designed signal model can be generated by using IC LM324 (quart op-amp). To control the direction and the speed of motor, the four quadrant speed control technique is not a complicated
Sensors are devices that receive and respond to external stimuli. They can be classified as passive or active, absolute or relative, based on their operating principles and energy requirements. Sensors have characteristics like transfer function, span, accuracy, calibration, hysteresis, nonlinearity, repeatability, and resolution that describe their performance. Environmental factors like temperature, humidity can affect sensor stability and accuracy over time. An example temperature sensing application using a thermistor sensor interfaced with an analog to digital converter is provided.
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE, INDUCTION MACHINE & SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE|DAY 11|BA...Prasant Kumar
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE
#DC MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#INDUCTION MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE CONSTRUCTION IN HINDI
#CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MACHINE
#CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
#CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR
#CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR
#BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electrical machine Day 11, Construction of DC, Induction motor, Synchronous generator, Synchronous motor, alternator, Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Introduction of Machine
Classification of Machine
Construction of DC, Induction & Synchronous machine
Working Principle
EMF Equation of all machine
A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on Direct Current
It has two main parts :
Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.
Electrical machine Day 11,Construction of DC, Induction motor, Synchronous generator, Synchronous motor,alternator,Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Introduction of Machine
Classification of Machine
Construction of DC, Induction & Synchronous machine
Working Principle
EMF Equation of all machine
A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on Direct Current
It has two main parts :
Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.
YOKE
It is the outermost part of a DC motor. It is made of cast iron or cast steel.
It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
Provide low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
Pole core
These are made of cast steel laminations.
The main purpose is to hold the field windings .
The end portion of the pole is called pole shoe.
FIELD WINDING
They are enameled copper wires wound around the poles
When current passes through series connected windings then adjacent poles attain opposite polarity
Armature core
This is the rotating part of the machine
It is a cylindrical structure with slots around its outer periphery.
It houses conductors in the slots.
It provides easy path for magnetic flux
The document discusses protective relays used in power systems. It describes how electrical energy is generated, transmitted, and distributed and some common causes of faults like weather, equipment failures, and human errors. It explains different types of faults and their effects. The need for protection systems is outlined to minimize equipment damage, safety hazards, and power interruptions. Components of a protection system like current transformers, potential transformers, relays, and circuit breakers are identified. The document discusses various types of protection schemes and relay functions. It describes zones of protection, selectivity, and speed requirements of relays. Reliability aspects like dependability and security are also covered.
This document provides an overview of modeling systems using Laplace transforms. It discusses:
1) Converting time functions to the frequency domain using Laplace transforms and inverse Laplace transforms
2) Finding transfer functions (TF) from differential equations to model systems
3) Using partial fraction expansions to simplify transfer functions for inverse Laplace transforms
4) Examples of using Laplace transforms to solve differential equations and model various mechanical and electrical systems.
INTRODUCTION TO LVDT,RVDT and Potentiometer SACHINNikam39
This document discusses different types of displacement transducers, including linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) and rotary variable differential transformers (RVDTs). It provides details on their construction, working principles, advantages, disadvantages, and applications. LVDTs and RVDTs both work on the principle of mutual induction to convert mechanical motion or vibrations into an electrical output signal. LVDTs are used to measure linear displacement, while RVDTs are used to measure angular displacement. Potential applications mentioned include automation, power turbines, aircraft, hydraulics, and more.
The document lists the main parts of a transformer as: metallic core, holding frame, winding, on load tap changer, bushings and terminals, radiator wings/cooling tubs, breather, Buchholz relay, explosion valve, control panel, and tank. It provides the names of the core components that make up a transformer.
A variable frequency drive (VFD) controls the speed of HVAC fans and pumps by adjusting the motor's frequency and voltage, allowing it to run at less than 100% power when full speed isn't needed. This saves energy compared to an on/off motor and reduces wear. A VFD converts AC power to DC then back to variable frequency AC to power the motor. Specifying a VFD with standard features like harmonics reduction from a reputable manufacturer like Siemens can significantly improve energy efficiency for HVAC systems.
This document provides an overview of various types of signal generators and signal analyzers used in electronics. It describes the basic components and functions of audio and radio frequency signal generators, function generators, square wave and pulse generators. It also discusses considerations for choosing a signal generator such as frequency range, output voltage, resolution, accuracy, and stability. Signal analyzers described include audio/radio frequency wave analyzers, harmonic distortion analyzers, and spectrum analyzers.
This document provides an overview of waveform generators and special function integrated circuits. It discusses various waveform generator circuits like sine wave generators using RC phase shift oscillators and Wien bridge oscillators. It also discusses multivibrators circuits like astable and monostable multivibrators that can generate square waves. In addition, it covers the 555 timer IC which can be used in monostable and astable configurations to generate pulses, and function generator ICs like the ICL8038 that can produce sine, square and triangular waves.
1. An oscillator generates an alternating signal without an external input by using positive feedback to convert DC energy into an AC signal at a specific frequency.
2. Oscillators are classified by waveform, frequency range, components used, and include signal generators, function generators, and sweep generators.
3. The Barkhausen criterion establishes the conditions for oscillation as a loop gain greater than 1 and a total phase shift of 0 or a multiple of 360 degrees.
A signal generator produces standardized electronic signals that can be modulated in amplitude, frequency, or other properties. It is used to test electronic devices and components. A standard signal generator generates stable, controllable voltages that can be amplitude or frequency modulated. It is commonly used to test radios and transmitters. A function generator produces common waveform types like sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waves over a wide frequency range for testing purposes.
The document provides information about the basic electronics course offered at Matrusri Engineering College. It includes the course objectives, outcomes, topics covered in different modules and units. The key topics covered are characteristics of diodes and transistors, biasing of BJT and FET, feedback amplifiers, oscillators, operational amplifiers and data converters. Feedback concepts like types of negative feedback, effects on gain, bandwidth and impedances are discussed. RC phase shift, Wien bridge, LC and crystal oscillators are qualitatively described.
This presentation summarizes an operational amplifier based function generator that can produce sine, square, triangular, and sawtooth waveforms. It describes the working of the square wave generator using an op-amp and capacitor to charge and discharge, producing a switching output. A triangular wave is generated by charging and discharging a capacitor with a constant current. This triangular wave can then be shaped into a sine wave using a diode clipping circuit. The function generator can output different frequencies and amplitudes and is used to test electronic equipment.
Design and Development of Gate Signal for 36 Volt 1000Hz Three Phase InverterIJMER
The sinusoidal PWM gating signals generation is most popular PWM method, which reduce
harmonic reduction in output. SPWM can be generated by FPGA, micro controller and micro processor but
this kind of device needs programming and coding hence avoided in using power system of aircraft. This
paper present an experiment using SPWM method to generate 1000 Hz gating signals suitable for 36 Volt ,
1000 Hz, 3 phase, three wire supply. Discrete components design approach is chosen to provide noise
immunity at higher amplitude level of signal and a large flexibility to adjust and process various operating
parameters of signals. The circuit is proved with commercial components however MIL version of
components can be easily incorporated in design in later stage
A sweep frequency generator is a type of signal generator that generates a sinusoidal output signal whose frequency is automatically varied or swept between two selected frequencies. It uses two oscillators - a master oscillator that produces a constant frequency and a voltage-controlled oscillator whose frequency varies. A mixer combines the outputs of the two oscillators to produce a sinusoidal output whose frequency is swept between the frequencies of the two oscillators. Sweep frequency generators are primarily used to measure the responses of amplifiers, filters, and other electrical components over various frequency bands.
A sweep frequency generator generates a sinusoidal output whose frequency is automatically varied or swept between two selected frequencies. One complete cycle of the frequency variation is called a sweep. Sweep frequency generators are primarily used to measure the responses of amplifiers, filters, and electrical components over various frequency bands. The frequency is varied either linearly or logarithmically over the entire sweep range, while the signal amplitude remains constant.
1) There are several methods to control the output voltage of single phase inverters including external control of AC output voltage, external control of DC input voltage, and internal control of the inverter.
2) Internal control of the inverter through pulse width modulation is commonly used as it requires no additional components. Pulse width modulation controls the output voltage by adjusting the ON and OFF periods of the inverter components.
3) Harmonic reduction can be achieved through techniques like multiple pulse modulation, sinusoidal pulse modulation, and combining output voltages from multiple inverters with transformer connections. Internal control of the inverter through advanced PWM techniques is effective in minimizing harmonics in the output voltage.
This document summarizes a student presentation on function generators. It discusses that function generators can produce sine, square, triangular, ramp and pulse waveforms over a wide frequency range. It describes analog and digital function generators and how they work using digital to analog conversion, filtering and waveform generation integrated circuits controlled by a microcontroller. It provides details on specifications like waveform distortion levels, modulation, output amplitude and impedance. Function generator working is explained as using a capacitor charged and discharged by a current source to generate triangle waves which can then be shaped into other waveforms.
A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software that generates different types of electrical waveforms like sine, square, triangular, and sawtooth shapes over a wide range of frequencies. It has features like continuous tuning over wide frequency bands, output amplitudes, and modulation capabilities. Function generators are used to test and develop electronic equipment by providing signal sources, and produce waveforms by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source.
A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software that generates different types of electrical waveforms like sine, square, triangular, and sawtooth shapes over a wide range of frequencies. It has features like continuous tuning over wide frequency bands, output amplitudes, and modulation capabilities. Function generators are used to test and develop electronic equipment by providing signal sources, and produce waveforms by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source.
Function generators are electronic test equipment that generate common waveforms like sine, square, and triangular waves over a wide frequency range. They are used to test and develop electronic equipment. Simple function generators generate waveforms by charging and discharging a capacitor with a constant current source, while more advanced arbitrary waveform generators can produce any digitally defined shape using direct digital synthesis techniques. Function generators provide important features like continuous tuning over a broad frequency band, modulation capabilities, and the ability to sweep output frequencies.
The document discusses oscillators and feedback amplifiers. It defines positive and negative feedback, and describes their effects on gain. Oscillators generate an output signal without an external input through the use of positive feedback in an amplifier circuit. The two main types of oscillators are sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators. Common oscillator circuits discussed include the RC phase shift oscillator, Hartley oscillator, and common emitter amplifier configuration.
The document discusses sweep frequency generators, which generate a sinusoidal output signal that is automatically varied or swept between two selectable frequencies. It describes the key components of a sweep frequency generator, including the master oscillator which produces a constant frequency signal, and a voltage controlled oscillator whose output frequency varies. The outputs of these oscillators are combined using a mixer to produce the swept frequency output signal. Sweep frequency generators are used to measure the responses of amplifiers, filters, and other electronic components over different frequency bands.
The document discusses different types of oscillators. It begins by defining an oscillator as an electronic circuit that generates a periodic waveform without an external signal, using feedback to convert DC to AC. It then provides examples of oscillator applications and describes different oscillator types including RC oscillators like the Wien bridge and phase-shift oscillators, and LC oscillators. The document focuses on explaining the working principles of the Wien bridge and phase-shift RC oscillators, deriving equations for their oscillation frequencies.
Electrical signal processing and transmissionBishal Rimal
The document discusses operational amplifiers and electrical signal processing. It begins by defining an operational amplifier as a differential amplifier that amplifies the difference between voltages at its two input terminals. It then discusses key characteristics of op-amps like input resistance, output resistance, and bandwidth. The document also covers op-amp configurations like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and instrumentation amplifiers. It discusses applications of op-amps in signal amplification, integration, differentiation and noise reduction. Finally, it provides an overview of optical communication systems and how data is transmitted using optical fibers.
An oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates an alternating current signal through feedback and amplification. The oscillator contains a feedback path where part of the output signal is fed back to the input. For oscillation to be sustained, the feedback signal must be larger than and in phase with the input signal. Common waveforms produced by oscillators include sinusoidal and square waves. Oscillators are classified by the waveform type and frequency range. Sine wave oscillators use inductors and capacitors (LC oscillators) or crystals to control frequency, while relaxation oscillators produce square waves. Oscillators are essential components in electronic devices and are used as stable frequency sources in applications like timers, calculators, and oscilloscopes.
This document discusses types and applications of inverters. It begins with an introduction defining inverters as devices that produce AC power from DC power using switching components. It then covers the history of inverters from early mechanical designs to modern solid state designs. The document classifies inverters based on output waveform, power source, load type, PWM technique, and number of output levels. It also discusses harmonics and describes common types of PV inverters and switching devices used. Applications covered include PV systems, wind turbines, variable frequency drives, and UPS systems.
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Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
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Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
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6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
1. TOPIC–AC SIGNAL SOURCES
SUBJECT – M & I (MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION )
PREPARED BY - GANDHA DHAIRYA (180433117005)
BRANCH – IC
SEMESTER – 4TH
COLLEGE – SHANTILAL SHAH
ENGG.,BHAVNAGAR
2. INTRODUCTION
■ AC Signal generators provide a variety of waveforms for testing of electronic circuits at low
power levels.There are various types of signal generators, but the following characteristics are
common to all types:
■ 1. Always a stable generator with desired frequency signals should be generated.
■ 2. Generated signal amplitude should be regulated over a wide range from very small to
relatively large level.
■ 3. Generated signal should be free from any distortions.There are many variations of the above
requirements, especially for specialised signal generators such as function generators, pulse
generators and pulse frequency generators.
■ Sine wave generators, both in audio and radio frequency ranges are called oscillators.
■ Although, the terminology is not universal, the term oscillator is generally used for an
instrument that provides only a sinusoidal output signal.
■ The term function generator is applied to an instrument that provides several output
waveforms, including sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and pulse trains as well as
amplitude modulation of the output signal.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
2
3. Sinusoid Basics
3
General form of the sinusoid:
v(t) =Vm sin(2pf t + f) [V]
• Vm is the amplitude
• f is the frequency
• f is the phase
• 2Vm =Vpp (peak-to-peak)
t
We usually write w = 2pf, and w is the angular frequency. But note that what
you set on the function generator is f, not w.
v(t)
Vm Vpp
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
4. Sinusoid Basics
4
A sinusoid may also have a dc offset.
v(t) =Vm sin(2pf t) [V] +Vdc
v(t)
t
Vdc0
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
5. SINEWAVE GENERATOR
■ The demand of sine waves in many electronic applications is very high.
■ The circuit is the scheme to implement a mathematical relationship between the sine and
cosine trigonometric functions.
■ By integrating a sine wave, an inverted cosine wave is obtained.
■ A cosine waveform is actually the same waveform as the sine wave but shifted 90° in phase.
■ If that cosine wave is integrated and another 90° phase shift is achieved, it produces a negative
sine wave.
■ Of course, each op-amp integrator introduces an inversion as well, so the output of the first
integrator is actually a non-inverted cosine wave.
■ This is reversed again by the second integrator, so its output is still a negative sine wave. By
inverting the negative sine wave, the original sine wave can be restored.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 5
6. ■ In this circuit, R1 is adjusted to ensure that oscillations start and to help set the output
amplitude.
■ The Zener diodes serve to limit the output signal amplitude by limiting the gain of the cosine
amplifier beyond the desired level.
■ This prevents the circuit from amplifying the signal beyond its ±12 volt limits.
A SINEWAVE GENERATORCIRCUIT
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 6
7. SWEEP FREQUENCY GENERATOR
■ A sweep frequency generator is a special type of signal generator which generates a sinusoidal
output whose frequency is automatically varied or swept between two selected frequencies.
■ One complete cycle of the frequency variation is called a sweep.The rate at which the
frequency is varied can be either linear or logarithmic, depending upon the design of a
particular instrument.
■ However, the amplitude of the signal output is designed to remain constant over the entire
frequency range of the sweep.
■ Sweep-frequency generators are primarily employed for measurement of responses of
amplifiers, filters, and electrical components over various frequency bands.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 7
8. ■ The frequency range of a sweep-frequency generator usually extends over three bands: 0.001
Hz−100 kHz (low frequency to audio), 100 kHz−1,500 MHz (RF range), and 1 − 200 GHz
(microwave range).
■ Performance of measurement of bandwidth over a wide frequency range with a manually
tuned oscillator is a time-consuming task.
■ With the use of a sweepfrequency generator, a sinusoidal signal that is automatically swept
between two chosen frequencies can be applied to the circuit under test and its response
against frequency can be displayed on an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder.
■ Thus, the measurement time and effort is considerably reduced.
■ Sweep generators may also be employed for checking and repairing amplifiers used inTV and
radar receivers.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 8
9. ■ the main component of a sweep-frequency generator is a master oscillator, usually an RF type,
with several operating ranges which are selected by a range switch.
■ The frequency of the output signal of the signal generator may be varied either mechanically or
electronically.
■ In the mechanically varied models, the frequency of the output signal of the master oscillator is
varied (tuned) by a motor-driven capacitor.
■ In the electronically tuned models, the frequency of the master oscillator is kept fixed and a
varying frequency signal is produced in another oscillator, called theVoltageControlled
Oscillator (VCO).
■ TheVCO contains an element whose capacitance depends upon the voltage applied across it.
This element is employed for varying the frequency of the sinusoidal output of theVCO.
■ The output of theVCO is then combined with the output of the master oscillator in a special
electronic device, called the mixer.
■ The output of the mixer is sinusoidal, whose frequency depends on the difference of
frequencies of the output signals of the master oscillator andVCO.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 9
11. ■ The sweep rates of sweep frequency generators can be adjusted to vary from 100 to 0.01
seconds per sweep.
■ A voltage varying linearly or logarithmically according to sweep rate can be used for driving the
X-axis of an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder synchronously.
■ In the electronically tuned sweep generators, the same voltage which drives theVCO serves as
this voltage.The frequency of various points along the frequency-response curve can be
interpolated from the values of the end frequencies if it is known how does the frequency vary
(i.e. linearly or logarithmically).
■ A basic system for the sweep generator is shown in Figure. A low-frequency sawtooth wave is
generated from some form of oscillator or waveform generator.
■ The instantaneous voltage of the sawtooth wave controls the frequency of an RF oscillator with
its centre frequency set at the centre frequency of the device under test (filter or IF channel
etc).
■ Over a single sweep of frequency, RF output voltage from the device, as a function of time, is a
plot of the filter response.
■ By rectifying and RF filtering in a simple AM detector, the output is converted to a dc voltage
varying as a function of time and this voltage is applied to the vertical input of the CRO.
■ By synchronising the sweep of the CRO with the sawtooth output, the device response is
plotted on the CRO screen.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 11
12. HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
■ Generally, the output waveform of an electronic device, such as an amplifier, should become an
exact replica of the input waveform.
■ However, in most of the cases that does not happen due to the introduction of various types of
distortions.
■ Distortions may be a result of the inherent non-linear characteristics of components used in the
electronic circuit.
■ Non-linear behaviour of circuit elements introduces harmonics in the output waveform and the
resultant distortion is often termed Harmonic Distortion (HD).
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 12
13. ■ Types of DistortionThe various types of distortions which occur are explained below.
■ 1. Frequency DistortionThis distortion occurs due to the amplification factor of the amplifier is
different for different frequencies.
■ 2. Phase distortionThis distortion occurs due to the presence of energy-storage elements in
the system, which cause the output signal to be displaced in phase with the input signal.
■ If signals of all frequencies are displaced by the same amount, the phase shift distortion would
not be observed.
■ However, in actual practice, signals at different frequencies are shifted in phase by different
angles and therefore, the phase-shift distortion becomes noticeable.
■ 3. Amplitude Distortion Harmonic distortion occurs due to the fact that the amplifier generates
harmonics of the fundamental of the input signal.
■ Harmonics always give rise to amplitude distortion, for example, when an amplifier is
overdriven and clips the input signals.
■ 4. Inter-modulation DistortionThis type of distortion occurs as a consequence of interaction or
heterodyning of two frequencies, giving an output which is the sum or difference of the two
original frequencies.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 13
14. ■ 5. Cross-over DistortionThis type of distortion occurs in push-pull amplifier due to incorrect
bias levels.
■ 6.Total Harmonic DistortionA non-linear system produces harmonics of an input sine wave,
the harmonics consists of a sine wave with frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental
of the input signal.
■ TheTotal Harmonic Distortion (THD) is measured in terms of the harmonic contents of the
wave, as given by In a measurement system, noise is read in addition to harmonics, and the
total waveform, consisting of harmonics, noise and fundamental, is measured instead of the
fundamental alone.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 14
15. FUNCTION GENERATORS
■ A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of
waveforms as its output signal.
■ The most common output waveforms are sine waves, triangular waves square waves and
sawtooth waves.
■ The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several
hundred kilohertz.
■ Actually, the function generators are very versatile instruments as they are capable of
producing a wide variety of waveforms and frequencies.
■ In fact, each of the waveforms they generate are particularly suitable for a different group of
applications.
■ The uses of sinusoidal outputs and square-wave outputs have already been described in the
earlier Sections.
■ The triangular-wave and sawtooth wave outputs of function generators are commonly used for
those applications which need a signal that increases (or reduces) at a specific linear rate.
■ They are also used in driving sweep oscillators in oscilloscopes and the X-axis of X-Y recorders.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 15
16. ■ Many function generators are also capable of generating two different waveforms
simultaneously (from different output terminals, of course).
■ This can be a useful feature when two generated signals are required for a particular
application.
■ For instance, by providing a square wave for linearity measurements in an audio-system, a
simultaneous sawtooth output may be used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of an
oscilloscope, providing a visual display of the measurement result.
■ For another example, a triangular wave and a sine wave of equal frequencies can be produced
simultaneously.
■ If the zero crossings of both the waves are made to occur at the same time, a linearly varying
waveform is available which can be started at the point of zero phase of a sine wave.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 16
17. ■ Another important feature of some function generators is their capability of phase locking to
an external signal source.
■ One function generator may be used to phase lock a second function generator, and the two
output signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount.
■ In addition, one function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sine wave of
another function generator. By adjustment of the phase and the amplitude of the harmonics,
almost any waveform may be produced by the summation of the fundamental frequency
generated by one function generator and the harmonics generated by the other function
generator.
■ The function generator can also be phase locked to an accurate frequency standard, and all its
output waveforms will have the same frequency, stability and accuracy as the standard.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 17
18. ■ The block diagram of a function generator is given in Figure.
■ In this instrument, the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of current that drives
the integrator.
■ This instrument provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and
square waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
■ The frequency-controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources.
■ The current supply source 1 supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage
rises linearly with time.
■ An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and
thus, controls the frequency
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar 18
21. Displays and Output
21
The default setting is
1 [kHz], displayed here…
…and 100 [mV] peak-peak
amplitude, displayed by
pressing this button.
Next, connect Output to
the oscilloscope using a
BNC-to-BNC cable.
scope
You won’t get an output until
you press “Output”.
BNC to BNC
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
22. Oscilloscope
22
From Function GeneratorPower
The oscilloscope displays input signal as voltage vs. time.
Voltage
time
(You don’t have these inputs.)
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
23. Scale Factors
23
Vertical scale factor
(inVolts/Div)
Horizontal scale
factor (in sec/Div)
Convince yourself that the signal frequency and amplitude are what
is stated on the function generator display.
Change the scale factors to see how the display is changed on the
‘scope.
f = 1/T T
20 mV/ 500 uS/
Vpp
scale factor adjustments
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
24. Waveform (Function)
24
Step through the functions to
observe each one.
A ramp with a 50%
asymmetry is a
triangle wave…
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
25. Amplitude
25
Use the keypad and theVpp* button…
…or…
…the wheel and the
“ten’s place”
buttons.
To adjust the amplitude:
v(t)
Vm
t
v(t) =Vm sin(2pf t) [V]
* For this course, we recommend that you set your signal generator to be
driving a high impedance (resistance in this case) load.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
26. Frequency
26
Use the keypad and the Hz,
kHz, or MHz button…
…or…
…the wheel and the
“ten’s place”
buttons.
To adjust the frequency:
v(t)
t
T
v(t) =Vm sin(2pf t) [V]
T = 1/f
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
27. AC Offset
27
Use the keypad and theVpp* button…
…or…
…the wheel and the
“ten’s place” buttons.
To adjust the offset:
v(t)
t
v(t) =Vm sin(2pf t) [V] +Vdc
Vdc
* This procedure will give you twice the offset you key in,
unless the load is 50 W, or you set it to “High Z Load”.
0
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
28. The “T” Connector
28
output
connected to
BNC “T”
The three BNC connectors are in parallel,
effectively providing two FGEN outputs.
Typically one will go to the scope and the
other will be your circuit input.
scope
circuit input
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
29. Coupling
29
Whether or not you observe the dc
component on the scope depends on the
coupling.
2. Select whichever channel your signal is connected to.
3.Toggle through the coupling options:
dc: dc AND ac components are displayed.
ac: only the ac component is displayed.
1. Generate a signal with a dc offset, and connect it
to the oscilloscope.
The dc coupling option is named
badly. It should be called
something like, “everything”.
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
30. RMS Measurements
30
Another way to characterize the amplitude of a
periodic waveform is the rms (root-mean-
square) amplitude:
When set to measure ac voltage
or current, the Agilent
automatically displays rms.
0
0
21
( ) .
t T
rms
t
V v t dt
T
If v(t) is a sine or cosine (sinusoid), then
.
2
m
rms
V
V
Shantilal Shah Engineering College , Bhavnagar
31. Triggering
31
When the oscilloscope is properly triggered, the image is “stable” because
it is displayed the same way each time it sweeps across the screen. By
“the same way”, we mean that it starts at the same point every time. If
the triggering is not correct, the image looks garbled , like it is “running”
across the screen. Try adjusting the trigger level, and see what happens.
Trigger Menu
Trigger Level
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32. ExternalTriggering
32
An external trigger signal is provided by the SYNC output of the
function generator.This provides a square wave of about 3[Vpp]
amplitude at the frequency of the Output waveform, and
synchronized with it. So as long as your signal is coming from the
Output of the signal generator, the scope knows exactly when to
trigger!
The external trigger input
of the oscilloscope is on the
back, at the top.
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