This study tested the argument engagement model in Romania using a 2x2 experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions describing a situation with either a friend or romantic partner about a private (movie preferences) or public (political candidate preferences) topic. The study measured Romanians' argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness, perceived costs and benefits of arguing, and likelihood of engaging in the argument. The study aims to see if behavioral intent to argue can be predicted by these factors as the model suggests, and to compare Romanians to Americans on argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. No prior research has examined arguing behaviors in Romania. The results may show if the cost-benefit model of argument engagement applies cross-cult
A Content Analysis Of Arguing Behaviors A Case Study Of Romania As Compared ...Daniel Wachtel
This document presents a study that examines arguing behaviors in Romania and the United States through a content analysis of self-reports from Romanian and American participants. The study found differences between the two cultures in topics argued about, arguing partners, appropriateness of arguing, and role of arguing. No differences were found in goals pursued during arguments. The discussion provides characterization of arguing in each culture and implications are addressed.
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of.docxcarlstromcurtis
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of a theoretical or conceptual framework in qualitative research. Search and locate a relevant article that uses a similar lens or an article that takes a different approach to support your response. Use proper APA format and citations.
Looking from a Theoretical Lens Perspective
Theory and research are interrelated in many ways: Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data (Neuman, 1997).
Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. The theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc.
Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. Theories play an important role in the development of the research questions and the goals of the study as well as throughout the entire process designing and engaging the research (Ravitch & Riggan, 2012).
We can examine issues of race and ethnicity, which is my point of interest through three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. For this discussion, I will only develop the Conflict theory as an example of a theory in Race and ethnicity.
Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. Thus, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to improve their circumstances.
Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social.
For example, Vivien Thomas (1910–1985), the black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves ...
This document is a senior capstone paper that examines conceptions and misconceptions of Muslims post-9/11. It explores how perceptions of Muslims have changed due to the event and the growing ideological gap between American and Islamic worlds. The author conducted interviews with students and mosque attendees to understand perceptions. The paper employs theories of uncertainty reduction and relational dialectics to analyze the data. It aims to understand perceptions of Muslims and how these impressions affect Muslims in the post-9/11 era, with the goal of helping to reduce uncertainty and join the two cultures.
A critical discussion of the use of film in participatory research projects w...Katie Robinson
This document discusses two participatory research projects that used film to share the stories of homeless young people. The first project in Manchester, England involved collaborating with a charity for homeless young men to create a film documenting their experiences. The second project in Ottawa, Canada explored civic issues facing homeless youth through participatory video research. Both projects grappled with how to communicate participants' complex lived experiences to different audiences in a way that countered stigmatizing narratives while avoiding potential harms from exposure. The authors analyze tensions around which audiences the films prioritized and how that shaped the stories using concepts of symbolic violence and narrative frameworks.
Conversation analysis is a method used to analyze spoken interactions to understand how language develops in social contexts. It examines specific aspects of oral interactions like openings and closings, turn-taking, and feedback. Conversation analysis seeks to establish opportunities for all participants to contribute and provides insight into dominant speakers. It analyzes feedback mechanisms and whether conversations allow responses from all participants.
Three approaches to studying intercultural communicationS.m. Jamaal
Three main approaches to studying intercultural communication are discussed: the social science approach, the interpretive approach, and the rhetorical approach. The social science approach uses methods like surveys and observations to describe and predict behavior. It views reality as external and human behavior as predictable. The interpretive approach assumes reality is subjective and human behavior is creative. It uses methods like field studies to understand how culture is created and maintained through communication. The rhetorical approach examines texts and speeches in their original contexts.
This document outlines the syllabus for an Intercultural Communication course taught at Universitas Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The course will cover various theories of intercultural and cross-cultural communication over 16 weekly meetings, including theories on anxiety/uncertainty management, speech codes, face negotiation, standpoint theory, and media and cultural communication. Students will analyze case studies, movies, and written works. Assessment will be based on class participation, a midterm essay, and a final essay. The course aims to increase students' understanding and sensitivity of communication across cultures.
This document outlines the syllabus for an Intercultural Communication course taught at Universitas Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The course will cover various theories of intercultural and cross-cultural communication over 16 weekly meetings, including theories on anxiety/uncertainty management, speech codes, face negotiation, standpoint theory, and media and cultural communication. Students will analyze case studies, movies, and written works. Assessment will be based on class participation, a midterm essay, and a final essay. The course aims to increase students' understanding and sensitivity of communication across cultures.
A Content Analysis Of Arguing Behaviors A Case Study Of Romania As Compared ...Daniel Wachtel
This document presents a study that examines arguing behaviors in Romania and the United States through a content analysis of self-reports from Romanian and American participants. The study found differences between the two cultures in topics argued about, arguing partners, appropriateness of arguing, and role of arguing. No differences were found in goals pursued during arguments. The discussion provides characterization of arguing in each culture and implications are addressed.
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of.docxcarlstromcurtis
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of a theoretical or conceptual framework in qualitative research. Search and locate a relevant article that uses a similar lens or an article that takes a different approach to support your response. Use proper APA format and citations.
Looking from a Theoretical Lens Perspective
Theory and research are interrelated in many ways: Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data (Neuman, 1997).
Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. The theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc.
Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. Theories play an important role in the development of the research questions and the goals of the study as well as throughout the entire process designing and engaging the research (Ravitch & Riggan, 2012).
We can examine issues of race and ethnicity, which is my point of interest through three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. For this discussion, I will only develop the Conflict theory as an example of a theory in Race and ethnicity.
Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. Thus, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to improve their circumstances.
Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social.
For example, Vivien Thomas (1910–1985), the black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves ...
This document is a senior capstone paper that examines conceptions and misconceptions of Muslims post-9/11. It explores how perceptions of Muslims have changed due to the event and the growing ideological gap between American and Islamic worlds. The author conducted interviews with students and mosque attendees to understand perceptions. The paper employs theories of uncertainty reduction and relational dialectics to analyze the data. It aims to understand perceptions of Muslims and how these impressions affect Muslims in the post-9/11 era, with the goal of helping to reduce uncertainty and join the two cultures.
A critical discussion of the use of film in participatory research projects w...Katie Robinson
This document discusses two participatory research projects that used film to share the stories of homeless young people. The first project in Manchester, England involved collaborating with a charity for homeless young men to create a film documenting their experiences. The second project in Ottawa, Canada explored civic issues facing homeless youth through participatory video research. Both projects grappled with how to communicate participants' complex lived experiences to different audiences in a way that countered stigmatizing narratives while avoiding potential harms from exposure. The authors analyze tensions around which audiences the films prioritized and how that shaped the stories using concepts of symbolic violence and narrative frameworks.
Conversation analysis is a method used to analyze spoken interactions to understand how language develops in social contexts. It examines specific aspects of oral interactions like openings and closings, turn-taking, and feedback. Conversation analysis seeks to establish opportunities for all participants to contribute and provides insight into dominant speakers. It analyzes feedback mechanisms and whether conversations allow responses from all participants.
Three approaches to studying intercultural communicationS.m. Jamaal
Three main approaches to studying intercultural communication are discussed: the social science approach, the interpretive approach, and the rhetorical approach. The social science approach uses methods like surveys and observations to describe and predict behavior. It views reality as external and human behavior as predictable. The interpretive approach assumes reality is subjective and human behavior is creative. It uses methods like field studies to understand how culture is created and maintained through communication. The rhetorical approach examines texts and speeches in their original contexts.
This document outlines the syllabus for an Intercultural Communication course taught at Universitas Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The course will cover various theories of intercultural and cross-cultural communication over 16 weekly meetings, including theories on anxiety/uncertainty management, speech codes, face negotiation, standpoint theory, and media and cultural communication. Students will analyze case studies, movies, and written works. Assessment will be based on class participation, a midterm essay, and a final essay. The course aims to increase students' understanding and sensitivity of communication across cultures.
This document outlines the syllabus for an Intercultural Communication course taught at Universitas Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The course will cover various theories of intercultural and cross-cultural communication over 16 weekly meetings, including theories on anxiety/uncertainty management, speech codes, face negotiation, standpoint theory, and media and cultural communication. Students will analyze case studies, movies, and written works. Assessment will be based on class participation, a midterm essay, and a final essay. The course aims to increase students' understanding and sensitivity of communication across cultures.
CCA 2011 Abstracts_Aguayo_So Delicioso Consuming the TropicsMichelle Aguayo
This document provides an abstract for each of 53 submissions to the 2011 Canadian Communications Association Annual Conference. The submissions cover a wide range of topics related to communication studies. Some key details from the sample abstract include:
- It examines Chinese-African relations and suggests Westerners misunderstand the nature of the growing relationship.
- It provides a close reading of a Kahlua coffee liqueur advertising campaign to analyze how Latin Americans are consumed both literally and figuratively.
- It analyzes private music filesharing websites to discuss whether and how filesharing can be seen as resisting the encroachment of capital on cultural production.
American Literature Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays .... Analysis of the American Literature Essay Example Topics and Well .... The cycle of american literature, an essay in historical criticism 176. American literature final essay. free american literature essay?. American Literature Research Paper. AMERICAN LITERATURE Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays .... Eight Different Types Of American Literature Essay. History of American Literature Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Essay Assessment: American Literature. American Literature Essay - UniversalEssays. American Literature: Essays, Short Stories amp; Poetry. The Norton Anthology of American Literature Essay. American Literature Term Paper Example Topics and Well Written Essays .... American Literature Final Essay by Kelly Carlson TpT. What makes American literature American Research Paper Essay Example .... American literature essay. Quality American Literature Essay Writing .... Essays on English and American Literature Princeton University Press. American Essay Writers Essay Writing Service. American Dream Essay Essay words, Teaching american literature, Words .... Magnificent Ap Lit Essay Prompts Thatsnotus. ️ African american literature essay. African American Literature And .... Famous American Essay Writers Bid4papers blog American Literature Essay American Literature Essay
My Best Friend Narrative Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Sample Narrative Essay About Friendship. Friendship Essay Examples | Narrative essay, Friendship essay, Essay. Qualities of a best friend - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com in .... short essay friendship day. Friendship essay for students. History Essay: Narrative essay on friendship. Narrative Essay: Essay of my best friend. Narrative essay about friendship - Select Expert Custom Writing Service. On friendship (An Essay). Narrative Essay: Short narrative essay about friendship. Explaining Friendship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Narrative Essay On True Friendship - Specialist's opinion | Friendship .... narrative essay about friendship. Research paper: Friendship essay introduction. Narrative essays about friendship - jessshops.web.fc2.com. An Essay on Friendship. 001 Friendship Essay Examples In English Simple Example Of Narrative .... Narrative essay for friendship - writefiction581.web.fc2.com. 015 Friendship Essay Examples Example Thesis Statement For Good .... Free Narrative Essay Examples - Samples & Format - Example of a good .... My Best Friend Essay | Friedrich Engels | Karl Marx. 007 True Friendship Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. Essay on 'Friendship' - YouTube. Essay on A Good Friend | A Good Friend Essay for Students and Children ....
Advancing Futures Futures Studies In Higher EducationLiz Adams
This document summarizes and reviews the book "Advancing Futures: futures studies in higher education" edited by James A. Dator. It provides the following key points:
1) The book contains 29 essays from senior futurists and "second generation" futurists responding to questions about futures studies theories, methods of teaching and research.
2) The essays show how futurists have built on traditional disciplines to create futures studies, and how concepts have been transmitted between generations of scholars.
3) The book provides useful overviews of conceptual frameworks in futures studies, descriptions of some futures research methods, and examples of applying futures tools to issues like community development.
4) While a valuable
Georg Simmel and David Lockwood made important contributions to conflict theory. Simmel proposed that conflict has sociological significance as it produces or modifies communities of interest and organizations. He argued that conflict itself resolves tensions between opposing elements and aims for a type of unity, even if through the annihilation of one side. Lockwood studied conflict dimensions and types. He distinguished between typologies that classify conflicts and dimensions that can apply to all conflicts and influence their dynamics. Both theorists recognized conflict as an inherent and sometimes productive part of social relationships rather than something purely negative.
Tuberculosis: a Global Challenge of Truth and Reality Free Essay Example. (PDF) Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis INTRODUCTION:. Chain of Infection of Tuberculosis Research Paper Example | Topics and .... Understanding the Prevalence of Tuberculosis and the Effectiveness of .... ⚡ Tuberculosis research paper. Guide On How to and What To Write in .... Tuberculosis essay - City Centre Hotel Phnom Penh. Essay On Tuberculosis In 500+ Words | Essay On TB In English » ️. Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis | Infection. What is tuberculosis. INTRODUCTION of tuberculosis final new | Tuberculosis | Infection. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Pulmonary Tuberculosis - 2545 Words | Free Essay Example on GraduateWay. TB-essay - essay - Tuberculosis (TB) TB is a major cause of death and .... Research paper about tuberculosis their causes and effect - practical .... Primary and secondary infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis Essay. Tuberculosis specific characteristics of essay. Tuberculosis Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Tuberculosis and its treatment - A-Level Science - Marked by Teachers.com. Tuberculosis Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... TB essay - Tuberculosis has been described as a dance between the .... Tuberculosis 2 | Infection | Public Health. Tuberculosis. English Essay. (PDF) Pictorial essay: PET/CT in tuberculosis. Pulmonary Tuberculosis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays ....
Ontology as a Hidden Driver of Politics: Commoning and Relational Approaches ...Zack Walsh
This report offers a synthesis of findings from 18 experts who, at a three-day workshop, discussed how shifting the ontological premises of political and economic thought toward process-relational ontology could transform society. The workshop, called “Onto-seeding Societal Transformation,” was co-hosted by the Commons Strategies Group and the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, in Neudenau, Germany, between September 9-12, 2019. It consisted of three successive sessions focused on process-relational approaches to ontology, design patterns, and politics. A final, fourth session focused on the integration of ontology, patterns, and politics in concrete case studies. This report concludes with new questions and next steps for strategically advancing relational approaches to governance and the commons.
Engaging in Critical Language and Cultural Studies Approaches for an Examination of Racism and Migration in the British Public Space
Rasha Ali Dheyab,
Ph.D. Student, Department of English, Faculty of Letters, Ovidius University of Constanța, Constanța, Romania
This article focuses on the relevance of Critical Discourse Analysis and of cultural studies approaches to an examination of racism and migration in the British public space. Critical Discourse Analysis as an active engagement with discourse in the social space is one of these critical approaches. The article is based on Halliday’s systematic functional grammar in terms of transitivity and modality. The main goal of this study is to investigate transitivity and modality about migration as it appears in a number of British tabloids. The focus is on aspects of racism in western countries, where there is a majority of white people and on issues related to patterns of access to the public and issues of inequality, racism and discrimination in the public space. Racism's reproduction and promotion by certain segments of the media is not a simple or straightforward process. It is important to see how the media plays a role in the reproduction of racism.
Keywords: Cultural Studies, Critical Language, Media, Migration, Racism
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
Critical discourse analysis and an applicationSuaad Zahawi
This document provides an overview of critical discourse analysis (CDA) and its approaches. It discusses the key concepts and theorists in the development of CDA, including Norman Fairclough and Teun Van Dijk. The document is divided into two sections. The first section defines CDA and outlines its five common features and differences between approaches. It then describes Fairclough's approach focusing on discourse as social practice and ideology/power, as well as Van Dijk's socio-cognitive model. The second section will apply one of the CDA approaches to analyze Charlotte Bronte's novel Jane Eyre.
Societies 2013, 3, 128–146; doi:10.3390/soc3010128
societies
ISSN 2075-4698
www.mdpi.com/journal/societies
Article
Culture Matters: Individualism vs. Collectivism in Conflict
Decision-Making
Rebecca LeFebvre and Volker Franke *
International Conflict Management, Kennesaw State University, 1000 Chastain Road, Kennesaw,
Georgia 30144, USA
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel.: +1-678-797-2931; Fax: +1-770-423-6312.
Received: 25 January 2013; in revised form: 1 March 2013 / Accepted: 4 March 2013 /
Published: 12 March 2013
Abstract: Does culture matter in decision-making? Existing literature largely assumes that
the cognitive processes that inform decision-making are universally applicable, while only
very few studies indicate that cultural norms and values shape cognitive processes. Using
survey based quasi-experimental design, this research shows that subjects with higher
levels of individualism tend to be more rational in their decision processing, while those
with higher levels of collectivism tend to be more dependent and less likely to betray the
interests of members of more central ingroups in favor of less central ingroups. Furthermore,
the results indicate that in conflict settings that seem familiar, individuals are more likely to
compromise in order to achieve peace.
Keywords: individualism; collectivism; social identity; culture; decision-making
1. Introduction
In August of 2012, Erick Barrondo became Guatemala’s first ever Olympic medal winner. After
finishing second in the men’s twenty kilometer walk race, Barrondo said, “It’s well known that
Guatemala has problems with guns and knives. I hope that this medal inspires the kids at home to put
down guns and knives and pick up a pair of trainers instead” [1]. Even today, Guatemala feels the
effects of its 36-year civil war that ended in 1996, as individuals throughout the country make
decisions regularly on whether to cooperate or fight, and whether to pursue peaceful activities or use
violence. The country’s history of armed conflict and polarized politics created a complex social
OPEN ACCESS
Societies 2013, 3 129
environment prompting the presence of a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operation, MINUGUA,
for ten years ending in 2004. In its final report on the mission, the UN noted that “the most difficult
challenge for MINUGUA was to operate in the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multilingual
environment of Guatemala” [2]. This raises the question of how significant the impact of culture is on
the decisions made not only by deployed peacekeeping troops, but also by the individuals living in the
conflict society [3]. Decision-making as an activity is considered to be a rational universal practice in
human behavior, as people of all cultures have problems and opportunities that require making choices
from among alternatives. Most research studies p.
The document provides an overview of muted group theory, which proposes that dominant groups create language that mutes subordinate groups. It discusses applications of the theory to gender, including how men created language to better express themselves while limiting women. The document then proposes a new study to apply muted group theory to romantic relationships, hypothesizing it may reveal communication issues between partners from dominant and subordinate groups. Interviews and surveys of different relationship types would test if muted group impacts expression.
Critical Discourse Analysis Of President Bush SpeechCandice Him
This document discusses critical discourse analysis (CDA) and its aims and potential social contributions. CDA analyzes language as social and cultural practice and engages in normative critique and judgment of discourse and society. CDA aims to educate people about power relations and achieve greater social equality. It also seeks to understand how discourse reproduces social domination and power imbalances between groups. CDA takes a structural approach to indirectly analyze the deeper causes and consequences of social issues.
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Bullshiters - Who Are They And What Do We Know About Their LivesTrading Game Pty Ltd
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to study "bullshitters" - people who claim expertise in areas where they have little knowledge or skill. The study finds substantial differences in the tendency to bullshit across countries, genders, and socioeconomic groups. Bullshitters tend to be overconfident and believe they work hard, persevere at tasks, and are popular, providing new insight into who bullshitters are and the types of survey responses they give.
This book review summarizes a collection of essays that argues for better cooperation between academics and practitioners in the field of hate crime research and policy. The review summarizes that the essays explore key issues around understanding hate crime victimization and improving the relationship between hate crime scholarship and policy formation. The collection is divided into three parts that discuss themes like the evolution of relationships between policing, academia and government in hate crime work, emerging challenges and how to address hate-related offending behavior through collaborative approaches between researchers and policymakers.
This document discusses the complex relationships between language, power, and identity. It provides examples of how identities are constructed through language choices and how power dynamics influence these constructions. Specifically, it examines:
1) Tensions in Austria between Austrian German and Standard High German and how language policies shape national identity.
2) How migrants experience discrimination and identity challenges in second language acquisition due to power imbalances.
3) How language tests for citizenship and residency function as gatekeeping mechanisms that exert power over identity construction for migrants.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL3Research proposalCompare and contra.docxgholly1
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3
Research proposal
“Compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society”
In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, Europe experienced significant changes in history. This marked the rebirth and intellectual growth of Europe since many changes were realized during the people. Renaissance was the word used to describe the rebirths that occurred. Renaissance marked the time of significant changes in cultural, literature, philosophical, and art revolution in other nations in Europe (Kaufman, 2012). The change started in Italy and expanded to other areas in Europe. During the early Renaissance, the society had unique characteristics. However, after the occurrence of changes, contemporary society or the current society was developed. The contemporary society is also characterized by unique features compared to the early Renaissance. However, the two types of society are characterized by features that are similar, while others are different. This research is guided by a thesis statement indicating that similarities and differences between the two spread across all aspect of life, including the education system, cultural practices, and economic inventions, among others.
According to Guarnieri and Negro (2012), the difference in the two societies is marked by changes in the spread of knowledge whereby during the early renaissance society information was spread through handwritten forms. Renaissance left to the invention of the printing press. This also reformed the education system since in the ancient times, education was reserved for the rich people, but the rebirth led to the middle class and low classes are educated. This has led to early discoveries and the spread of information. Currently, society spread written material through online press whereby it reaches many people as compared to contemporary society. Renaissance has also facilitated the rise of Humanism. In the early Renaissance era, people were devoted to living a religious life. This was accompanied by fulfilling their spiritual purpose of life. In contemporary society, humanism raised such that people are now interested in filling their interests rather than religious demands. The modern society emphasize more on worldly presses as well as studied classic texts from scholars and philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato to obtain aspirating. People have developed an increased desire to travels and acquire knowledge (Kaufman, 2012).
The goal of the paper is to deeply study the two societies “to compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society.” To achieve this goal, the researcher will strive to meet various objectives, which include identifying characteristics of religious and cultural practices in early renaissance society and contemporary society. The study seeks to examine the changes in the education system between the two societies. The researcher will also determine the chan.
This exquisite sample bibliography on criminal theory will get your inspiration up and get you writing in no time.Want to get more samples, visit this site. http://www.annotatedbibliographymaker.com/sample-bibliography-on-criminal-theory-annotated-bibliography/
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How To Write An Essay For Grad School Admission CEmma Burke
The document analyzes the Green Day song "American Idiot" and how it responded to political events in the early 2000s. The song criticized the US government's decision to go to war in the Middle East after 9/11. Many people opposed the war but it occurred due to patriotism and following the orders of President George W. Bush. The song was one of many musical responses to the post-9/11 political climate and the beginning of wars in the Middle East.
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This document provides an abstract for each of 53 submissions to the 2011 Canadian Communications Association Annual Conference. The submissions cover a wide range of topics related to communication studies. Some key details from the sample abstract include:
- It examines Chinese-African relations and suggests Westerners misunderstand the nature of the growing relationship.
- It provides a close reading of a Kahlua coffee liqueur advertising campaign to analyze how Latin Americans are consumed both literally and figuratively.
- It analyzes private music filesharing websites to discuss whether and how filesharing can be seen as resisting the encroachment of capital on cultural production.
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3) The book provides useful overviews of conceptual frameworks in futures studies, descriptions of some futures research methods, and examples of applying futures tools to issues like community development.
4) While a valuable
Georg Simmel and David Lockwood made important contributions to conflict theory. Simmel proposed that conflict has sociological significance as it produces or modifies communities of interest and organizations. He argued that conflict itself resolves tensions between opposing elements and aims for a type of unity, even if through the annihilation of one side. Lockwood studied conflict dimensions and types. He distinguished between typologies that classify conflicts and dimensions that can apply to all conflicts and influence their dynamics. Both theorists recognized conflict as an inherent and sometimes productive part of social relationships rather than something purely negative.
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Ontology as a Hidden Driver of Politics: Commoning and Relational Approaches ...Zack Walsh
This report offers a synthesis of findings from 18 experts who, at a three-day workshop, discussed how shifting the ontological premises of political and economic thought toward process-relational ontology could transform society. The workshop, called “Onto-seeding Societal Transformation,” was co-hosted by the Commons Strategies Group and the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, in Neudenau, Germany, between September 9-12, 2019. It consisted of three successive sessions focused on process-relational approaches to ontology, design patterns, and politics. A final, fourth session focused on the integration of ontology, patterns, and politics in concrete case studies. This report concludes with new questions and next steps for strategically advancing relational approaches to governance and the commons.
Engaging in Critical Language and Cultural Studies Approaches for an Examination of Racism and Migration in the British Public Space
Rasha Ali Dheyab,
Ph.D. Student, Department of English, Faculty of Letters, Ovidius University of Constanța, Constanța, Romania
This article focuses on the relevance of Critical Discourse Analysis and of cultural studies approaches to an examination of racism and migration in the British public space. Critical Discourse Analysis as an active engagement with discourse in the social space is one of these critical approaches. The article is based on Halliday’s systematic functional grammar in terms of transitivity and modality. The main goal of this study is to investigate transitivity and modality about migration as it appears in a number of British tabloids. The focus is on aspects of racism in western countries, where there is a majority of white people and on issues related to patterns of access to the public and issues of inequality, racism and discrimination in the public space. Racism's reproduction and promotion by certain segments of the media is not a simple or straightforward process. It is important to see how the media plays a role in the reproduction of racism.
Keywords: Cultural Studies, Critical Language, Media, Migration, Racism
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
Critical discourse analysis and an applicationSuaad Zahawi
This document provides an overview of critical discourse analysis (CDA) and its approaches. It discusses the key concepts and theorists in the development of CDA, including Norman Fairclough and Teun Van Dijk. The document is divided into two sections. The first section defines CDA and outlines its five common features and differences between approaches. It then describes Fairclough's approach focusing on discourse as social practice and ideology/power, as well as Van Dijk's socio-cognitive model. The second section will apply one of the CDA approaches to analyze Charlotte Bronte's novel Jane Eyre.
Societies 2013, 3, 128–146; doi:10.3390/soc3010128
societies
ISSN 2075-4698
www.mdpi.com/journal/societies
Article
Culture Matters: Individualism vs. Collectivism in Conflict
Decision-Making
Rebecca LeFebvre and Volker Franke *
International Conflict Management, Kennesaw State University, 1000 Chastain Road, Kennesaw,
Georgia 30144, USA
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel.: +1-678-797-2931; Fax: +1-770-423-6312.
Received: 25 January 2013; in revised form: 1 March 2013 / Accepted: 4 March 2013 /
Published: 12 March 2013
Abstract: Does culture matter in decision-making? Existing literature largely assumes that
the cognitive processes that inform decision-making are universally applicable, while only
very few studies indicate that cultural norms and values shape cognitive processes. Using
survey based quasi-experimental design, this research shows that subjects with higher
levels of individualism tend to be more rational in their decision processing, while those
with higher levels of collectivism tend to be more dependent and less likely to betray the
interests of members of more central ingroups in favor of less central ingroups. Furthermore,
the results indicate that in conflict settings that seem familiar, individuals are more likely to
compromise in order to achieve peace.
Keywords: individualism; collectivism; social identity; culture; decision-making
1. Introduction
In August of 2012, Erick Barrondo became Guatemala’s first ever Olympic medal winner. After
finishing second in the men’s twenty kilometer walk race, Barrondo said, “It’s well known that
Guatemala has problems with guns and knives. I hope that this medal inspires the kids at home to put
down guns and knives and pick up a pair of trainers instead” [1]. Even today, Guatemala feels the
effects of its 36-year civil war that ended in 1996, as individuals throughout the country make
decisions regularly on whether to cooperate or fight, and whether to pursue peaceful activities or use
violence. The country’s history of armed conflict and polarized politics created a complex social
OPEN ACCESS
Societies 2013, 3 129
environment prompting the presence of a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operation, MINUGUA,
for ten years ending in 2004. In its final report on the mission, the UN noted that “the most difficult
challenge for MINUGUA was to operate in the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multilingual
environment of Guatemala” [2]. This raises the question of how significant the impact of culture is on
the decisions made not only by deployed peacekeeping troops, but also by the individuals living in the
conflict society [3]. Decision-making as an activity is considered to be a rational universal practice in
human behavior, as people of all cultures have problems and opportunities that require making choices
from among alternatives. Most research studies p.
The document provides an overview of muted group theory, which proposes that dominant groups create language that mutes subordinate groups. It discusses applications of the theory to gender, including how men created language to better express themselves while limiting women. The document then proposes a new study to apply muted group theory to romantic relationships, hypothesizing it may reveal communication issues between partners from dominant and subordinate groups. Interviews and surveys of different relationship types would test if muted group impacts expression.
Critical Discourse Analysis Of President Bush SpeechCandice Him
This document discusses critical discourse analysis (CDA) and its aims and potential social contributions. CDA analyzes language as social and cultural practice and engages in normative critique and judgment of discourse and society. CDA aims to educate people about power relations and achieve greater social equality. It also seeks to understand how discourse reproduces social domination and power imbalances between groups. CDA takes a structural approach to indirectly analyze the deeper causes and consequences of social issues.
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Bullshiters - Who Are They And What Do We Know About Their LivesTrading Game Pty Ltd
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to study "bullshitters" - people who claim expertise in areas where they have little knowledge or skill. The study finds substantial differences in the tendency to bullshit across countries, genders, and socioeconomic groups. Bullshitters tend to be overconfident and believe they work hard, persevere at tasks, and are popular, providing new insight into who bullshitters are and the types of survey responses they give.
This book review summarizes a collection of essays that argues for better cooperation between academics and practitioners in the field of hate crime research and policy. The review summarizes that the essays explore key issues around understanding hate crime victimization and improving the relationship between hate crime scholarship and policy formation. The collection is divided into three parts that discuss themes like the evolution of relationships between policing, academia and government in hate crime work, emerging challenges and how to address hate-related offending behavior through collaborative approaches between researchers and policymakers.
This document discusses the complex relationships between language, power, and identity. It provides examples of how identities are constructed through language choices and how power dynamics influence these constructions. Specifically, it examines:
1) Tensions in Austria between Austrian German and Standard High German and how language policies shape national identity.
2) How migrants experience discrimination and identity challenges in second language acquisition due to power imbalances.
3) How language tests for citizenship and residency function as gatekeeping mechanisms that exert power over identity construction for migrants.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL3Research proposalCompare and contra.docxgholly1
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3
Research proposal
“Compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society”
In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, Europe experienced significant changes in history. This marked the rebirth and intellectual growth of Europe since many changes were realized during the people. Renaissance was the word used to describe the rebirths that occurred. Renaissance marked the time of significant changes in cultural, literature, philosophical, and art revolution in other nations in Europe (Kaufman, 2012). The change started in Italy and expanded to other areas in Europe. During the early Renaissance, the society had unique characteristics. However, after the occurrence of changes, contemporary society or the current society was developed. The contemporary society is also characterized by unique features compared to the early Renaissance. However, the two types of society are characterized by features that are similar, while others are different. This research is guided by a thesis statement indicating that similarities and differences between the two spread across all aspect of life, including the education system, cultural practices, and economic inventions, among others.
According to Guarnieri and Negro (2012), the difference in the two societies is marked by changes in the spread of knowledge whereby during the early renaissance society information was spread through handwritten forms. Renaissance left to the invention of the printing press. This also reformed the education system since in the ancient times, education was reserved for the rich people, but the rebirth led to the middle class and low classes are educated. This has led to early discoveries and the spread of information. Currently, society spread written material through online press whereby it reaches many people as compared to contemporary society. Renaissance has also facilitated the rise of Humanism. In the early Renaissance era, people were devoted to living a religious life. This was accompanied by fulfilling their spiritual purpose of life. In contemporary society, humanism raised such that people are now interested in filling their interests rather than religious demands. The modern society emphasize more on worldly presses as well as studied classic texts from scholars and philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato to obtain aspirating. People have developed an increased desire to travels and acquire knowledge (Kaufman, 2012).
The goal of the paper is to deeply study the two societies “to compare and contrast society during the early Renaissance in Europe to contemporary society.” To achieve this goal, the researcher will strive to meet various objectives, which include identifying characteristics of religious and cultural practices in early renaissance society and contemporary society. The study seeks to examine the changes in the education system between the two societies. The researcher will also determine the chan.
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The document provides information about Igor Stravinsky's influential piece "The Rite of Spring", noting that it changed 20th century music. The summary discusses how the piece has a changing tempo that is sometimes fast and sometimes average pace. It also notes the melody is mostly disjointed and jumpy, while occasionally smooth. The chords and polyphonic nature of multiple melodies played simultaneously are highlighted.
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The document discusses a study analyzing the representation of female characters in Italian television programs. It finds that many of the representations are outdated and conform to stereotypes identified in previous research from the 1970s. Specifically, it finds that female characters are often depicted in subordinate or secondary roles, while male characters hold most positions of power. The study suggests little has changed in the portrayal of gender roles since previous analyses from decades ago.
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A Test Of The Argument Engagement Model In Romania
1. University of Windsor
University of Windsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
OSSA Conference Archive OSSA 9
May 18th, 9:00 AM - May 21st, 5:00 PM
A test of the argument engagement model in Romania
A test of the argument engagement model in Romania
Ioana Cionea
University of Maryland
Dale Hample
University of Maryland
Fabio Paglieri
Goal-Oriented Agents Laboratory
Lilian Bermejo-Luque
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/ossaarchive
Part of the Philosophy Commons
Cionea, Ioana; Hample, Dale; Paglieri, Fabio; and Bermejo-Luque, Lilian, "A test of the argument
engagement model in Romania" (2011). OSSA Conference Archive. 6.
https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/ossaarchive/OSSA9/papersandcommentaries/6
This Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences and Conference Proceedings at
Scholarship at UWindsor. It has been accepted for inclusion in OSSA Conference Archive by an authorized
conference organizer of Scholarship at UWindsor. For more information, please contact scholarship@uwindsor.ca.
2. Zenker, F. (ed.). Argumentation: Cognition and Community. Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference of the
Ontario Society for the Study of Argumentation (OSSA), May 18-21, 2011. Windsor, ON (CD ROM), pp. 1-15.
A test of the argument engagement model in Romania
IOANA A. CIONEA, DALE HAMPLE, FABIO PAGLIERI
Department of Communication
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742-7635
United States
icionea@umd.edu
Department of Communication
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742-7635
United States
dhample@umd.edu
Goal-Oriented Agents Laboratory
Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
Via S. Martino della Battaglia
44, 00185 Roma
Italy
fabio.paglieri@istc.cnr.it
ABSTRACT: Hample, Paglieri, and Na’s (2010) model of argument engagement proposes that people en-
gage in arguments when they perceive the benefits of arguing to be greater than the costs of doing so. This
paper tests the model in Romania, a different culture than the one in which the model was developed, by
using a 2 (other arguer: friend or romantic partner) x 2 (topic of argument: private or public issue) design.
KEYWORDS: argument engagement, costs and benefits of arguing, arguing in Romania.
1. INTRODUCTION
A recent line of research (Hample, Paglieri, & Na 2010; Paglieri 2009; Paglieri &
Castelfranchi 2010) has begun investigating the reasons and consequences of engaging in
arguments. Our everyday interactions with others present numerous opportunities for ar-
guing, but we don’t follow up on all these possibilities. The scholars above suggest that
we pick our fights based on a cost-benefit analysis. People decide to engage in an argu-
ment if the perceived benefits are greater than the perceived costs of doing so.
Hample, Paglieri, and Na (2010) proposed a model of argument engagement in
which a person’s intent to engage in an argument can be predicted based on situational
factors (i.e., the argument topic), traits of the arguer (i.e., argumentativeness and verbal
aggressiveness tendencies), the expected costs of engaging in an argument (i.e., the cog-
nitive effort involved), and the expected benefits of arguing (i.e., the perceived gains).
Likelihood of winning the argument, perceived appropriateness of arguing within the
given situation, the expected level of civility of the argument, the perceived resolvability
of the argument, and the expected reasonability of the other person were also proposed as
factors that affect one’s intent to engage in an argument or not. The model proposed re-
3. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
2
ceived partial support when tested in the United States, in the context of a private, public,
and workplace argumentation topic.
The purpose of this study is to test the model of argument engagement in a dif-
ferent culture and in a different argumentation context. Romania is a culture of conven-
ience, but if the model is correct, it should receive support in this culture too. The argu-
mentation context includes a private and a public topic of argument. Johnson (2002)
found that people showed different levels of involvement in an argument depending on
whether the topic was a private one (e.g., how to spend time together) or a public one
(e.g., the death penalty). The relationship between arguers is either of friends or of ro-
mantic partners. Our main goal is to test whether behavioral intent to engage in an argu-
ment can be predicted based on the factors proposed by Hample et al. (2010): argumenta-
tiveness, verbal aggressiveness, resolvability, appropriateness, civility, other’s reasonabil-
ity, cost, benefits, and likelihood of winning the argument. Our secondary goal is to offer
a comparison of Romanian and U.S. American argumentative and verbal aggressive
traits. There are no reports about Romanians on these measures, so we take advantage of
our data to extend the available knowledge about the population of our study.
2. ROMANIA: AN OVERVIEW
Romania is a country with an area of 238,391 square kilometers and approximately 22
million inhabitants, situated in Eastern Europe, neighboring Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia,
Bulgaria, and Moldova (The World Factbook 2011). The Romanian people was formed
after Roman legions conquered the ancient province of Dacia in 105-106 A.D. The Ro-
manian language has strong Latin influences and is part of the family of romance lan-
guages (Benedict 1972).
Romanian history has been tumultuous, marked by a constant struggle to defend
the territory from the expansionist tendencies of neighbors such as the Ottoman Empire
and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The current state of Romania was formed in 1918
when the provinces of Walachia, Moldova, and Transylvania united (Calafeteanu, n. d.).
After War World II, Romania became a communist country. Nicolae Ceauşescu’s regime
brought social and moral degradation (Calafeteanu, n. d.), restricted the freedom of ex-
pression and civic involvement of citizens and isolated Romania from the Western world.
In 1989 Romania overturned this political dictatorship, but the transition from the old re-
gime proved to be very difficult. Although more than twenty years have passed since that
revolution, Romania is still in a state of transition, with acute economic and political issues.
During Ceauşescu’s communist regime public debate, intellectual public dia-
logue, and self-expression were almost non-existent. The political, social, and educational
changes that occurred in post-communist Romania created a new environment for the
young generation who grew up in the aftermath of the 1989 revolution. Scholars found
changes in youth’s system of values (Friedlmeier 2006; Săcară & Iacob 2002) and have
argued youth have more individualistic orientations, guided by influences of Western cul-
tures (Albu 2006). Eastern European adolescents (Romanians included) were found to be
similar in respect to their future-orientations to American adolescents (Alsaker & Flam-
mer 1999). In light of such conclusions, we expect that Romanian youth will exhibit a
willingness to express their mind, to stand up for themselves, and defend their ideas in
situations inviting arguing.
4. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
3
To our knowledge, there are no studies on arguing behaviors in Romania. Thus,
we can speculate, at best, about the predictions of our model based on arguments made by
other scholars about Romanians. We expect the cost-benefit model of argument engage-
ment to receive support given results from studies on youth values. Săcară and Iacob
(2002) found that post-communist youth valued intelligence, professional competence,
and responsibility as opposed to communist youth who valued honesty, politeness, and
readiness to help. The authors argued that post-communist youth was more pragmatic
than communist youth. A cost-benefit analysis of a situation that invites arguing is no
doubt a pragmatic assessment of one’s chances in an argument. So, we can expect Roma-
nians to adopt a pragmatic approach when arguing with others.
We believe appropriateness of arguing is an important predictor of the intent to
engage in an argument among Romanians. The culture is full of social norms, customs,
and rites of how one ought to behave in various relationships and situations. Deviations
from appropriate behaviors tend to be ridiculed and shamed publicly (Albu 2006). Roma-
nians are also concerned with etiquette and polite interactions. For example, there is a
proper etiquette for how one ought to interact with the elderly (Benedict 1972). There are
also different pronouns for the second person, singular and plural, and one must be care-
ful about choosing the correct one in interactions (Albu 2006). We expect such considera-
tions to be reflected in an assessment of whether arguing is appropriate within a particular
situation, with a particular argumentation partner, and about a particular topic. However,
in the absence of more evidence about Romanian argumentation practices, we do not
have sufficient justification to formulate a strong hypothesis. We propose instead the fol-
lowing research question:
RQ1: Is the behavioral intent to engage in an argument predicted by argumenta-
tiveness, verbal aggressiveness, cost of arguing, benefits of arguing, resolvability
of an argument, appropriateness of arguing, civility, other’s reasonability, and
likelihood of winning the argument?
In addition, we are interested in differences on the variables of interest based on whether
the argument is between friends or romantic partners and whether it is about a private or a
public topic. As such, we propose the following research question:
RQ2: Is there a difference in the argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness, cost
of arguing, benefits of arguing, resolvability of an argument, appropriateness of
arguing, civility, other’s reasonability, and likelihood of winning the argument
based on a) the topic of argument or b) the argumentation partner?
Finally, a secondary goal of our study is to report information about Romanians’ argu-
mentative and verbal aggressive traits. To our knowledge, such analyses have not been
conducted yet. To accomplish this goal, we compare our data from the present study with
the data collected by Hample et al. (2010). The research question we seek to answer is:
RQ3: Are there any differences between Romanians and U. S. Americans on a)
argumentativeness and b) verbal aggressiveness?
5. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
4
3. METHOD
3.1. Participants and Sampling Methods
Participants in the study were 201 Romanians recruited in several ways. Online recruit-
ment based on the first author’s acquaintances and social networking sites yielded a sam-
ple of 61 participants. These participants completed an online version of the study. Stu-
dents recruited from courses at a large university in the North-Western part of Romania
yielded a sample of 58 participants. Finally, students recruited from an off-campus resi-
dence hall yielded a sample of 82 participants. Participants had various majors (e.g., eco-
nomic sciences, tourism, European studies, and business) and various occupations (e.g.,
doctor, nurse, sales consultant, project manager, and business manager). These latter two
samples completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, identical in content to the online
one.
Participants ranged in age from 18 to 64 years (M = 23.42, SD = 5.78). Partici-
pants were undergraduate students (N = 137), graduate students (N = 22), and working
adults (N = 40). One participant indicated a different occupation and another participant
did not answer this demographic question. Thirty-eight participants were male and the
remaining 163 were female. The ethnic distribution of participants was as follows: Ro-
manian (N = 188), Hungarian (N = 6), Rroma (N =1), and a combination of these ethnici-
ties (N = 4). Two participants did not indicate their ethnicity.
3.2. Procedures
A 2 (topic of argument: private or public) x 2 (relationship: friend or romantic partner)
experimental design was employed in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to
one of the four conditions describing a situation that invited arguing. Because not all pa-
per-and-pencil questionnaires were returned, the number of participants within each con-
dition was not equal. Thirty-nine participants were in the friends, private topic condition.
Sixty-nine participants were in the romantic partners, private topic condition. Twenty par-
ticipants were in the friends, public topic condition. Seventy-three participants were in
the romantic, public topic condition. The scenarios employed are described below under
Measures.
All participants completed demographic information and the argumentativeness
(Infante & Rancer, 1982) and verbal aggressiveness (Infante & Wigley, 1986) scales. Par-
ticipants then read one of the four hypothetical scenarios and answered questions about
that scenario. The questions pertained to their behavioral intentions, costs, and benefits of
engaging in an argument. Finally, participants assessed the realism of the scenario pre-
sented.
3.3. Argument Topics
Two of the hypothetical scenarios employed dealt with private topics and two dealt with
public topics. The private topic was about preference for movies whereas the public topic
was about preference for a particular political candidate. The scenarios were as follows:
6. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
5
Scenario I: Friends, private topic
You and a good friend of yours like movies a lot. You know a lot about various actors
and don’t miss a chance to go see the latest premiers. The two of you like different genres
of movies. It’s always been that way. One day, when you are spending some time togeth-
er, your friend makes a remark about how much better the movies he/she likes are, com-
pared to the ones you like, which are just terrible.
Scenario II: Romantic partners, private topic
You and your romantic partner (boyfriend, girlfriend, fiancé, husband, wife, etc.) like
movies a lot. You know a lot about various actors and don’t miss a chance to go see the
latest premiers. The two of you like different genres of movies. It’s always been that way.
One day, when you are spending some time together, your partner makes a remark about
how much better the movies he/she likes are, compared to the ones you like, which are
just terrible.
Scenario III: Friends, public topic
You and a good friend of yours keep up with what’s going on in the political arena and
often discuss politics. Elections are in the near future and it turns out you prefer different
candidates. That is not surprising as you’ve had different opinions and preferences about
political figures in the past. One day, when you are spending some time together, your
friend makes a remark about how much better the candidate he/she prefers is, compared
to the one you prefer, who is just terrible.
Scenario IV: Romantic partner, public topic
You and your romantic partner (boyfriend, girlfriend, fiancé, husband, wife, etc.) keep up
with what’s going on in the political arena and often discuss politics. Elections are in the
near future and it turns out you prefer different candidates. That is not surprising as
you’ve had different opinions and preferences about political figures in the past. One day,
when you are spending some time together, your partner makes a remark about how much
better the candidate he/she prefers is, compared to the one you prefer, who is just terrible.
3.4. Measures
The measures for the variables of interest were the same as the ones used by Hample et
al. (2010). A 1 to 5 Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 =
agree, and 5 = strongly agree) was employed. The items were translated into Romanian
by the first author and back-translated into English by another Romanian with excellent
English language proficiency. Any disagreements were resolved by discussing the items
and agreeing on a final version of the translation.
Behavioral intent was the dependent variable. Eighteen items were employed to
measure whether participants intended to engage in an argument with the other person
about the topic in the hypothetical scenario.
Traits of the arguer consisted of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness.
Argumentativeness is considered a constructive trait, indicating one’s tendency to attack
another person’s position on an issue (Rancer & Avtgis 2006). The argumentativeness
scale consists of two sub-scales measuring one’s tendency to approach an argument or to
7. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
6
avoid an argument (Infante & Rancer 1982). Both sub-scales contain ten items. Verbal
aggressiveness is considered a destructive trait, indicating one’s tendency to attack “the
self-concepts of individuals” (Infante & Wigley 1986: 61). The verbal aggressiveness
scale consists of two subscales also, indicating one’s tendency for pro-social behaviors or
for anti-social behaviors. Both sub-scales contain ten items.
Cost of arguing was measured with ten items assessing the cognitive effort an
argument with the other person would involve. Benefits of arguing were measured with
six items assessing the potential benefits an argument with the other person would bring,
both personally, and for the relationships between the two people.
Resolvability was measured with six items assessing the chance of resolving the
argument if it occurred. Appropriateness was measured with seven items assessing the
appropriateness of having an argument with the particular person, at the particular mo-
ment, and on the particular topic. Civility was measured with ten items assessing the de-
gree of hostility, open-mindedness and cooperation between the two people if an argu-
ment occurred. Other’s reasonability was measured with six items assessing the degree to
which the other person would be stubborn, mature, tolerant, and willing to change his/her
mind if an argument occurred. Likelihood of winning was measured with eight items as-
sessing who had better arguments and evidence to support his/her position and who the
winner of the argument would be.
Finally, the realism of the scenarios was measured with five items assessing the
degree to which each scenario presented was realistic, reflected a real-life situation, and
whether participants were able to imagine themselves in the situation described in the hy-
pothetical scenario.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Scale Assessment
Reliability analyses and inter-item correlations were examined to assess the internal
structure of each scale used. These investigations were corroborated with confirmatory
factor analyses (CFA). The results informed which items should be retained in each scale.
Reliability analyses produced Cronbach’s alpha values. Inter-item correlations
revealed any problematic and non-significant correlations. CFA models were tested using
a covariance matrix of the scale items and their standard deviations as input data. The
maximum likelihood method was employed to estimate each model. Model fit was as-
sessed based on Hu and Bentler’s (1999) criteria: the comparative fit index (CFI) should
be greater or equal to .95, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) should be
less than or equal to .08, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
should be less than or equal to .06. The minimum fit function chi-square and the contribu-
tion of each scale item to explain variance in the latent factor ( 2
R value) were examined
as well for each model. Table 1 contains the final model fit indices for each scale.
As a result of these analyses, several scales were adjusted. Four items were
dropped from the scale measuring behavioral intent. Two items were dropped from the
scale measuring argumentativeness, one item from each of the subscales. The verbal ag-
gressiveness scale’s 20 items were retained. Five items were dropped from the scale
measuring cost of arguing. One item was dropped from the scale measuring benefits of
8. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
7
arguing. One item was dropped from the scale measuring resolvability. All items measur-
ing appropriateness were retained. Five items were dropped from the scale measuring ci-
vility. Three items were dropped from the scale measuring other’s reasonability. Two
items were dropped from the scale measuring likelihood of winning. All items assessing
the realism of the scenarios were retained.
Following these analyses, aggregate variables were computed by calculating the
mean of the retained items. Table 2 contains the reliabilities, means, and standard devia-
tions of the aggregate variables both overall, for the entire sample, and within each condition.
4.2. Regression analyses1
An overall regression model with dummy-coded variables was conducted. Three dummy-
coded variables were used: one for the relationship between participants in the scenario
(friends or romantic partners), one for the topic of argument (private or public), and one
for the interaction between the dummies. Four variables predicted behavioral intent: ap-
propriateness (ß= .19, t(185) = 3.83, p < .001), civility (ß= -.11, t(185) = -1.99, p < .05),
other’s reasonability (ß = .17, t(185) = 2.97, p < .005), and likelihood of winning (ß = .20,
t(185) = 3.01, p < .005). The proportion of variance in behavioral intent explained by the-
se four variables was 33% (adjusted R2
= .33, F(15, 185) = 7.56, p < .001). Thus, the
structural equation for behavioral intention is BI = .19*Appropriateness - .11*Civility +
.17*Other Reasonability + .20*Likelihood of Win.
4.3. Path analysis
A measured variables path analysis with the first principal component of each variable of
interest was also conducted. First, we conducted a principal components analysis and re-
tained the factor scores for the component that explained the most variance in each varia-
ble. Second, we entered these principal components along with the three dummies created
in the regression analyses in a measured variables path model in which the exogenous
variables were allowed to co-vary.
The path model was just-identified, so fit indices are not available. Four paths
from appropriateness (p < .001), other reasonability (p < .01), likelihood of winning (p <
.001), and the dummy for the private argument topic (p < .05) to behavioral intent were
significant. The adjusted R2
for the model was .36. The structural equation was BI =
0.29*DummyPrivate + 0.31*Appropriateness + 0.18*Other Reasonability + 0.21 Likeli-
hood of Win.
In light of the regression analyses and the path analysis, we conclude as an an-
swer to RQ1 that behavioral intent is predicted by appropriateness of arguing, other’s rea-
sonability and likelihood of winning. The dummy for the private argument topic was sig-
nificant in the path model but it did not emerge as a significant predictor in the regression
analyses. So whether the topic of an argument makes a difference needs further research
before drawing a certain conclusion in this respect.
1
All regression coefficients reported are unstandardized.
9. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
8
4.4. ANOVAs
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to assess whether any differences existed between
the four conditions in respect to any of the variables in the study, given that the model
posits the situation will affect one’s intent to engage in an argument. Significant differ-
ences existed between groups for two variables: the avoidance dimension of argumenta-
tiveness (F(3, 197) = 3.65, p < .05) and cost of arguing (F(3, 197) = 6.37, p < .001).
Post-hoc multiple comparisons revealed that the mean of responses for argument
avoidance in the romantic partners, private topic condition was significantly lower than
the mean of responses for argument avoidance in the friends, private topic condition (M
difference = -0.40, p < .05). The mean of responses for argument avoidance in the friends,
private topic condition was significantly higher than the mean of responses for argument
avoidance in the friends, public topic condition (M difference = 0.64, p < .05). Finally,
the mean of responses for cost of arguing in the friends, public topic condition was signif-
icantly lower than the mean of responses for cost of arguing in the romantic partners,
public topic condition (M difference = -0.79, p < .005).
Thus, the answer to RQ2a is that the topic of argument makes a difference only
as far as argument avoidance is concerned (friends avoid private arguments less than they
avoid public ones). The answer to RQ2b is that the argumentation partner (friend or ro-
mantic partner) makes a difference in respect to argument avoidance (friends avoid pri-
vate arguments more than romantic partners do) and the cost of arguing (friends associate
less costs with arguing about public topics than romantic partners do).
4.5. Romanian argumentative traits
A secondary goal of our study was to compare Romanians and U.S. Americans on argu-
mentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. We compared the data for verbal aggressive-
ness and argumentativeness with the data collected by Hample et al. (2010). Significant
differences between Romanians and Americans were found for argumentativeness but not
for verbal aggressiveness. An independent samples t-test revealed that Romanians (M =
3.53, SD = 0.68) were significantly more likely to approach arguments than Americans
(M = 3.37, SD = 0.57) were, t(317) = 2.95, p < .005. Also, Romanians (M = 2.81, SD =
0.78) were significantly less likely to avoid arguments than Americans (M = 2.99, SD =
0.63) were t(308) = 2.88, p < .005. Thus, we conclude that Romanians are more argu-
mentative than U. S. Americans are (RQ3a) and that no significant differences exist re-
garding verbal aggressiveness (RQ3b).
5. DISCUSSION
The present study tested the argument engagement model proposed by Hample, Paglieri,
and Na (2010) in Romania, a culture different from the one in which the model was de-
veloped to assess whether the model’s predictions can be applied cross-culturally. Argu-
ing in a particular situation with a particular person and about a particular topic is a
choice that people make. Other options are available, including the option to avoid the
situation or the person, to refuse to engage in an argument, and to adopt some other forms
of response, such as passive aggressiveness. Our investigation suggests that people’s in-
tent to engage in an argument is affected by several important factors.
10. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
9
The model for argument engagement posited that behavioral intent to engage in
an argument is predicted by several factors: the arguer’s argumentativeness and verbal
aggressiveness, the expected cost of arguing, the perceived benefits of arguing, the likeli-
hood of winning the argument, the perceived appropriateness of arguing, the perceived
resolvability and the expected level of civility of the argument, and the expected reasona-
bility of the other person. This model received partial support in the present study. The
regression analyses and the path model revealed that, across situations and argumentation
partners, the most influential predictors of the intent to engage in an argument are the ap-
propriateness of arguing, the perceived likelihood of winning the argument, and the ex-
pected reasonability of the other person.
As previously explained, we expected appropriateness to be an important factor
that affects one’s decision to engage in an argument in Romania due to the cultural norms
that guide appropriate interactions with others. Paglieri (2009) explained that argumenta-
tion may be culturally encouraged or discouraged across different contexts. As such, cul-
tural differences in perceived appropriateness of arguing are likely to exist, with some
cultures sanctioning arguing as more appropriate than other cultures do. Our data suggest
that in Romania’s case weighing the appropriateness of arguing matters a lot.
The perceived likelihood of winning an argument as a predictor of the intention
to engage in an argument suggests that people assess their chances of coming out of such
an encounter victorious. As Hample et al. (2010) explained, winning may carry both an
instrumental goal and a positive feeling. People may evaluate their chance of winning
also in order to decide which arguments are worth pursuing. In other words, as Paglieri
(2009) put it, we “pick our fights.” If one perceives there is not a chance of winning, even
if arguing may seem appropriate, it won’t be pursued.
The expected reasonability of the other person also matters when deciding
whether to engage in an argument or not. In our study, the more reasonable the other per-
son was expected to be, the higher the chance that one would engage in an argument. This
finding suggests that when the other person is perceived to not be reasonable, people are like-
ly to decide against arguing because they deem the cause as lost. There is no point in trying to
argue with someone who will not change one’s mind despite good arguments and evidence.
In addition to these three factors, the significant path result from the dummy for
the private argument topic to behavioral intent deserves further investigation. In our
study, this path suggests that private topics are likely to determine argument engagement.
This result is consistent with Johnson’s (2002) findings that people were more engaged in
arguments that concerned private topics than in arguments that concerned public topics.
Moreover, the post-hoc comparisons suggest romantic partners are significantly less
avoidant of discussing private topics than friends are. This may be the case due to the dif-
ferent nature of the two relationships. Romantic relationships involve a process of ac-
commodation in which the two partners negotiate their relationship, including their stance
on issues such as personal preferences. Arguments on these topics reveal information
about the other person and may be necessary to develop a functional relationship. Friend-
ships, however, do not require agreement on such issues for their continuation. In fact,
according to the post-hoc comparisons, friends avoid arguing about private issues signifi-
cantly more than about public issues. Public topics arguments can be perceived as friend-
ly exchanges whereas private topics arguments may be interpreted as personal attacks or
criticisms that could damage the relationship.
11. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
10
The fact that civility was a significant predictor of the intent to engage in an ar-
gument in the regression equation needs further attention as well. The fact that the ex-
pected level of civility may contribute to one’s intent to engage in an argument makes
sense, but the negative coefficient in this equation is puzzling. In other words, we find it
puzzling that Romanians were more likely to engage in an argument when they expected
a lower level of civility of the argument. A possible interpretation of this finding is that if
people go through the trouble of starting an argument, then they want to hash it all out,
including yell at the other person, and are ready for the argument to involve lack of toler-
ance and negativity. Beyond this speculation, however, it is clear that more research is
needed to understand how Romanians approach such arguments and what their expecta-
tions about the civility of an argument are.
The results of our study did not offer any support for the personal traits of an
arguer as factors that affect one’s decision to engage in an argument. Nor were the per-
ceived costs and benefits predictors of this decision. These results are consistent though
in large proportion with Hample et al.’s (2010) model in which appropriateness of argu-
ing and likelihood of winning were the two predictors of the intent to engage in all three
conditions. However, unlike the Hample et al. (2010) study, the proportion of explained
variance in the intent to engage based on these predictors was smaller. One possible ex-
planation may be the difference in sample sizes, as our study had a much lower sample
size and contained individuals from a different culture. The R2
statistic is sample specific
(Hanushek & Jackson 1977). A second possible explanation is that our model leaves out
important variables that affect one’s decision to engage in an argument in Romania, given
that the residual error variance in the path model was significant (p < .001). Therefore, a
more thorough investigation of culturally specific factors is needed.
Finally, as the population of our study was Romanian, we draw a few conclu-
sions about arguing behaviors in Romania. Our results indicate that Romanians are more
argumentative than U. S. Americans are. Previous studies that have compared individuals
from different cultures on argumentative and verbal aggressive traits have explained their
results based on the individualism-collectivism dimension (Bresnahan, Shearman, Lee,
Ohashi, & Mosher 2002; Prunty, Klopf, & Ishii 1990, 1991). According to this dimen-
sion, Romanians are more collectivistic than U.S. Americans are (Hofstede 2001). Our
finding contradicts the conclusion that people from collectivistic cultures are less argu-
mentative than people from individualistic cultures. A possible explanation is that the ori-
entation towards individualism and collectivism among Romanians has changed from the
time Hofstede’s research was conducted. This explanation is supported by Albu’s (2006)
conclusions that Romanian youth has become more individualistic. Another possible ex-
planation is that arguing has a different role among Romanians than among Americans.
This idea needs further research, especially from an emic perspective, on the functions of
argument in Romania.
5.4. Limitations and directions for future research
The present study has several limitations that must be taken into account. First, hypothet-
ical scenarios were used rather than having participants engage in an actual interaction.
The perceived realism of the scenarios, however, gives us assurance that participants be-
lieved the situations described were realistic and could put themselves in those situations
12. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
11
because the mean scores for all scenarios are above the scales’ mean. Second, the sample
in our study was mostly female. As such, the results of the study may be better interpret-
ed as reflecting females’ perspectives on the decision to engage in arguments. Third, the
return rate for our paper questionnaires resulted in a disproportionate sample size for the
friends conditions as compared to the romantic partners conditions, which affected the
data analyses we were able to conduct. Finally, the reliability of our measures was prob-
lematic in two instances. Some of these issues may have been caused by translation inac-
curacies whereas others may be reflective of problems with our scales whose validity and
dimensionality should be further assessed.
The results of the present study have implications for the study of argument en-
gagement and for the study of arguing behaviors in Romania. Our results suggest that the
argument engagement model can be helpful in predicting people’s intent to engage in an
argument in various situations and with various people, but that the factors hypothesized
to affect this intent may need revision. More studies are needed to refine this model in
respect to the variables believes to affect the behavioral intent to engage in an argument
and in respect to the scales used to measure these variables. The results also suggest that
the model can be used across cultures. Cross-cultural tests of the model should pay care-
ful attention to the translation of the materials in the native language and should supple-
ment the core measures with culturally specific measures that can capture the peculiar
mechanisms involved in arguing in a specific culture. Finally, our study indicates that Roma-
nians are more argumentative than U. S. Americans are, which calls for more attention to the
specific understanding of arguing, its functions, and consequences in Romanian society.
13. CIONEA, HAMPLE & PAGLIERI
12
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14. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
13
Table 1
Confirmatory factor analyses results
2
df, N CFI SRMR RMSEA
Behavioral Intent 204.40 77, 201 .94 .07 .09
Argt. Approach 103.22 27, 201 .92 .07 .11
Argt. Avoid 63.09* 27, 201 .97 .07 .08
Verbal agress. Pro-Social 64.90* 35, 201 .93 .06 .07
Verbal agress. Anti-Social 78.77 35, 201 .94 .06 .08
Costs 51.33 5, 201 .92 .08 .22
Benefits 34.38 5, 201 .97 .03 .15
Resolvability 25.58* 5, 201 .93 .06 .14
Appropriateness 103.77 14, 201 .93 .10 .17
Civility 30.97 5, 201 .94 .07 .16
Other Reasonability*** 0 - - - -
Likelihood of Win 87.45 9, 201 .86 .08 .21
Realism 14.70* 5, 201 .97 .04 .10
All 2
results are significant at p = .00 unless otherwise noted.
* p < .001.
** p < .05.
*** The model was just-identified. Therefore, no fit indices are available.
16. A TEST OF THE ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA
15
α N Mean SD
Other Reasonability .64 201 3.23 0.73
Friends, public .74 20 2.95 0.79
Friends, private .31 39 3.18 0.53
Romantic, public .65 73 3.22 0.75
Romantic, private .74 69 3.35 0.76
Likelihood of Win .81 201 3.10 0.62
Friends, public .67 20 3.23 0.53
Friends, private .51 39 2.91 0.42
Romantic, public .82 73 3.12 0.65
Romantic, private .90 69 3.16 0.69
Realism .77 201 3.66 0.68
Friends, public .67 20 3.89 0.63
Friends, private .75 39 3.55 0.63
Romantic, public .80 73 3.65 0.74
Romantic, private .81 69 3.67 0.65
* All information is based on the items retained following the scale assessment analyses.
17. Zenker, F. (ed.). Argumentation: Cognition and Community. Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference of the
Ontario Society for the Study of Argumentation (OSSA), May 18-21, 2011. Windsor, ON (CD ROM), pp. 1-4.
Commentary on “A TEST OF THE
ARGUMENT ENGAGEMENT MODEL IN ROMANIA”
by Iona Cionea, Dale Hample, and Fabio Paglieri
LILIAN BERMEJO-LUQUE
Instituto de Filosofía, Department of Theoretical Philosophy
CCHS-CSIC
Albasanz 26-28, Madrid, 28037
Spain
lilian.bermejoluque@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
The main goal of Cionea, Hample & Paglieri’s “A test of the Argument Engagement
Model in Romania” was to test Hample, Paglieri & Na’s (2010) model of argument
engagement. According to this model, a person’s intent to engage in an argument can be
predicted based on the following factors:
Situational factors (characterized as the argument topic)
Traits of the arguer (characterized as argumentativeness and
verbal aggressiveness tendencies)
The expected costs of engaging in an argument (characterized in
terms of the cognitive effort involved in arguing)
The expected benefits of arguing
Likelihood of winning the argument
Perceived appropriateness of arguing within the given situation
The expected level of civility of the argument
The perceived resolvability of the argument, and
The expected reasonability of the other person.
The authors pointed out that the model had received some support when tested in the
United States and their aim was to test it in a different cultural and argumentative context.
This is why they design a new experiment whose sample consisted of Romanians. Yet, as
the authors explain, there are no studies on argumentative behaviors in Romania. Because
of this, their test of the model was rather brought about by dealing with the following
research questions:
RQ1: Is the behavioral intent to engage in an argument predicted by argumentativeness, verbal
aggressiveness, cost of arguing, benefits of arguing, resolvability of an argument, appropriate-
ness of arguing, civility, other’s reasonability, and likelihood of winning the argument? (…)
RQ2: Is there a difference in the argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness, cost of arguing,
benefits of arguing, resolvability of an argument, appropriateness of arguing, civility, other’s
reasonability, and likelihood of winning the argument based on a) the topic of argument or b)
the argumentation partner? (…)
RQ3: Are there any differences between Romanians and U. S. Americans on a) argumenta-
tiveness and b) verbal aggressiveness? (Cionea et al. 2011: 3)
18. LILIAN BERMEJO LUQUE
2
To this end, the authors designed a 2 (topics of argument: private or public) x 2 (kinds of
relationship between arguers) experiment in which the topics of the argument were, on
the one hand, a preference for movies, and on the other, a preference for a particular
political candidate and in which the types of relationships where either friendship or
romantic partnership. This matrix determined the situational factors of the experiment.
Once they established the four possible scenarios that this matrix permitted, they
took a sampling of 201 Romanians recruited from Cionea’s acquaintances and social
networking sites (61), students from a university in the North-West of Romania (58) and
students from an off-campus residence hall (82). The age of the participants ranged from
18 to 64 years, they were undergraduate students, graduate students and working adults,
38 were men and 163 were women and most of them were Romanians. All the par-
ticipants were evaluated according to their argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness
(measured with thirty-seven items, following Infante & Rancer (1982) and (1986) scales),
which determined participants’ tendency to approach an argument or to avoid an argu-
ment and their tendency for pro-social behaviors or for anti-social behaviors, that is, their
argumentative traits. Then they read one of the four possible scenarios and answered a
questionnaire measuring the following features:
Behavioral intent, the dependent variable, measured with fourteen items, deter-
mined the participants’ intention to engage in argumentation in each scenario.
Cost of arguing, measured with five items, determined the cognitive effort that
engaging in argumentation in each scenario amounted for each participant.
Benefits of arguing, measured with five items, determined the perceived poten-
tial benefits of engaging in argumentation, both personally, and for the relation-
ships between the two people.
Resolvability, measured with five items, determined the perceived chance of
resolving the argument if it occurred.
Appropriateness, measured with seven items, determined the appropriateness of
having an argument in this scenario.
Civility, measured with five items, determined the perceived degree of hostility,
open-mindedness and cooperation between the two people if an argument occurred.
Other’s reasonability, measured with three items, measured the perceived degree
to which the other person would be stubborn, mature, tolerant, and willing to
change his/her mind if an argument occurred.
Likelihood of winning was measured with six items assessing who had better
arguments and evidence to support his/her position and who the winner of the
argument would be.
As a result of the experiment, Cionea, Hample & Paglieri said, as an answer to RQ1, that
the intention to engage in argumentation was mostly predicted by three of the factors that
Hample, Paglieri & Na (2010) proposed, namely, the perceived appropriateness of
arguing, the other’s perceived reasonability and the likelihood of winning the argument.
On this result, the argument engagement model proposed by Hample, Paglieri, and Na
(2010) would have received only partial support.
19. COMMENTARY
3
In turn, the answer to RQ2a was that the topic of the argument made a difference
“only as far as argument avoidance is concerned (because friends avoided private arguments
less than they avoided public ones). The answer to RQ2b was that the type of argumentation
partner made a difference regarding 1) argument avoidance (because friends avoided private
arguments more than romantic partners did) and 2) the cost of arguing (because friends asso-
ciated less costs with arguing about public topics than romantic partners did).
Finally, regarding RQ3a the authors concluded that, according to the experiment,
Romanians were more argumentative than U.S. Americans; and regarding RQ3b, they
concluded that there was no significant difference in verbal aggressiveness between Ro-
manians and U.S. Americans.
2. COMMENTS
I take for granted that the experiment was well designed and carried out from a technical
point of view. The paper gives many details about these questions which seem to suggest that,
at least, it has been carefully done. However, statistics is not my field of expertise, so that,
unfortunately, I have to declare myself unable to evaluate this aspect of the paper. In turn, I
will concentrate on the conceptual design of the experiment—particularly, on the question of
the topics chosen- and on the conclusions that the authors draw from their results.
To begin with, the authors said that they “expected appropriateness to be an
important factor that affects one’s decision to engage in an argument in Romania due to
the cultural norms that guide appropriate interactions with others” (Cionea et al. 2011: 9).
I suppose that they were actually considering “the perceived appropriateness of arguing”,
that is, a correlation between the degree of appropriateness that the individual attributes
to engaging in argumentation in a particular scenario and her degree of willingness to
engage in argumentation. That is, the authors did not take any of the proposed scenarios to
be “actually” more appropriate for engaging in argumentation than the other. So, in order to
make more salient the differences between perceived degrees of appropriateness, I think
that it would have been convenient to propose more controversial and varied topics.
According to the experiment, another important predictor was the perceived
likelihood of winning the argument. In this regard, I also think that the election of the
topics was problematic. For example, it is plausible that a topic on which one of the
arguers could be an expert or an authority would have made a bigger difference. But the
topics proposed were, to a great extent, a matter of preferences, which give rise to
arguments that are quite difficult “to win”. On the other hand, the authors contend that “if
one perceives there is not a chance of winning, even if arguing may seem appropriate, it
won’t be pursued” (Cionea et al. 2011: 9). But I think that there are at least two ways of
understanding that “there is not a chance of winning”. One of them is that, because of the
topic of the argument (for example, a matter of preferences), there is no possibility of
“actually” winning: even if the other just gives up, we are not going to rationally
persuade her of our preferences. The other sense of “there being a chance of winning”
would be the sense in which the subject takes herself to be in a better position to defend
her standpoint (for example, because she is an expert on the matter). In both cases, the
topic of the argument is a key question.
Regarding the question of the expected reasonability of the other person, the
authors said that according to their results, there seems to be “no point in trying to argue
20. LILIAN BERMEJO LUQUE
4
with someone who will not change one’s mind despite good arguments and evidence.”
(Cionea et al. 2011: 9). But, again, I think that the topic of the argument, joint with an over-
instrumentalist conception of motives for arguing is a source of concern here: in principle,
it is plausible to think that if the topic in question is perceived as something crucial, or if
defending one’s standpoint is seen as a matter of principles, then individuals will engage in
argumentation regardless of their chances of persuading the other. Besides, in some
contexts we offer reasons just because of their pedagogical value, so that the expected
reasonability of the other does not play an important role. But the design of the experiment
did not seem to allow this possibility: neither the proposed topics were ones in which
individuals in the sample could take as a duty to argue nor the possible partners were ones
that would demand a pedagogical treatment of the topic in question by the individuals in
the sample. For these reasons, I think that grounding the selection of the topics on the
distinction between public and private topics was an infelicitous strategy: probably, more
significant differences on the bearing of the topic upon the willingness to engage in
argumentation would have been found if the topics had been related to distinctions such as “is
it a topic that could be taken to be a crucial question for one or both arguers, or a matter of
principles?”, “is it a topic in which one of the arguers could be an expert or an authority?”.
The authors said that the results of their study did not offer any support for the
idea that perceived costs and benefits of arguing are good predictors of the decision of
arguing (Cionea et al. 2011: 10). In principle, this is a counterintuitive result: what is a
rational decision if not a decision took after valuing costs and benefits, broadly construed?
Well, the key is precisely that, in the study, the items “perceived costs and benefits” are not
broadly construed. Particularly, as we have seen, the perceived costs of arguing are a matter
of the perceived cognitive effort that engaging in argumentation will involve.
Finally, the authors say that their “finding contradicts the conclusion that people
from collectivistic cultures are less argumentative than people from individualistic
cultures.” However, as they themselves recognize, their study is strongly limited by the
fact that their sample was mostly female: women’s disposition to verbally interact with
others is bigger than men’s, or at least, that’s the stereotype. It is probably necessary to
check that this is not the main source of the difference between the results of the test with
Romanians and U.S. Americans.
REFERENCES
Cionea, I., Hample, D., and Paglieri, F. (2011). A Test of the Argument Engagement Model in Romania
(this volume).
Hample, D., Paglieri, F., & Na, L. (2010). The costs and benefits of arguing: Predicting the decision
whether to engage or not. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for the Study of
Argumentation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Infante, D.A., and Rancer, A.S. (1982). A conceptualization and measure of argumentativeness. Journal of
Personality Assessment 46, 72-80. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4601_13
Infante, D.A., and Wigley, C. J. (1986). Verbal aggressiveness: An interpersonal model and measure.
Communication Monographs 53, 61-69. doi: 10.1080/03637758609376126