The document provides a critical review of rational choice theory (RCT) as applied to public policy making. It discusses RCT's key assumptions about individuals as rational actors with complete information. It also examines criticisms of RCT from Lindblom and Simon, who argue decision makers have limited information and face constraints. While RCT aims to provide a predictive framework, critics argue it is too abstract and unrealistic compared to real-world policy making challenges of limited resources and political competition.
Public Choice. Political economic digest series - 5 Akash Shrestha
Â
In this series weâll be discussing about Public Choice. Public Choice Theory is directed toward the study of politics based on ecomonic principles. We generally, tend to think that politicians and government officials are benevolent âpublic servantsâ who faithfully carry out the âwill of the people.â In tending to the publicâs business, voters, politicians, and policymakers are supposed somehow to rise above their own self-interests. However it is not true at all.
Public Choice. Political economic digest series - 5 Akash Shrestha
Â
In this series weâll be discussing about Public Choice. Public Choice Theory is directed toward the study of politics based on ecomonic principles. We generally, tend to think that politicians and government officials are benevolent âpublic servantsâ who faithfully carry out the âwill of the people.â In tending to the publicâs business, voters, politicians, and policymakers are supposed somehow to rise above their own self-interests. However it is not true at all.
Administrative behaviour does comprise the basic popular element of decision-making. Many academics and social scientists, in particular public administration scientists, will be aware that Herbert A. Simon, the foremost decision theorist, defines decision-making as the optimum rational choice between alternative courses of action. According to him, decision making pervades the entire organisation, that is, decisions are made at all level of organisation. Hence he perceives an organisation as a structure of decision makers. He equates administration with decision making as every aspect of administration resolves around decision-making. Further Simon argues that before one can establish any immutable principles of administration one must be able to describe, exactly how an administration organisation looks and exactly how it works. He observes that before a science can develop principles, it must possess concepts. Decision-making is the most important activity of administrationâŠ. An administrative science, like science, is concerned purely with factual statements, and there is no place for ethical statements in the study of science. To sum up the study, H.A. Simonâs concept of administration comprises two basic elements; namely, (a) The emphasis upon decision-making approach as the alternative to the classical thinkersâ principles approach, that is, structural approach; and (b) The advocacy of empirical approach, value-free approach, as against the normative approach to the study of administration.
Public Policy Analysis (PPA)PresentationBYDr. Henry Akwo E.docxamrit47
Â
Public Policy Analysis (PPA)
Presentation
BY
Dr. Henry Akwo Elonge
1
PPA
Introduction to Public Policy Analysis
What is Public Policy: Public policy is concerned with what governments choose to do, why they do it and what difference it makes in society.
Public policies may regulate, distribute and even extract resources from members of the society
Policy Analysis attempts to describe, analyze and explain public policy. It is the description and explanation of the causes and consequences of governmental activities
2
PPA
Specifically, Policy Analysis involves:
A primary concern with explanation rather than prescription
A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies
An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes of public policies and to accumulate reliable research findings
3
PPA
Limitations of Policy Analysis:
The limits of government power. What governments can/cannot do
Public dis-agreements over the nature of problems in society
Subjectivity in analysis and interpretation
Limitations on research design and methodologies
Complexity of human problems/ Human diversity
âTodayâs solutions constitute tomorrowâs problemsâ
4
PPA
Expert Definitions of Public Policy:
David Easton( The Political System â 1953) defines public policy asâ the authoritative allocation of values for the whole of society>â
Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan (Power and Society â 1970) define public policy as a projected program of goals, values and practices
Carl J. Friedrich ( Man and His Government â 1963) stresses that the policy concept should have a goal, an objective and a purpose.
Charles Jones ( Introduction to the Study of Public Policy â 1977) breaks down the notion of public policy into various components and parts and measurable impacts
5
PPA
According to Weimer and Vining, policy analysis is client-oriented advice relevant to public decisions and informed by social values.
Michael Kraft and Scott Furlong indicate that analysis means deconstructing an object of study, that is breaking it down into its basic elements to understand it better. It is the examination of components of public policy, the policy process or both.
6
PPA
Utility of models in Policy Analysis
Models are simplified representations of reality or some aspect of the real world; It may be an actual physical representation or a diagram or road map Models
Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy
Identify important aspects of policy problems
Help us communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of political life;
Direct our efforts to understand public policy better
Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences
7
PPA
Models are mainly abstractions of the real life. Are they Useful in policy analysis?
Can models order and Simplify reality. Yes they can. But too much simplification may also lead to a false sense of the reality. Models are only ...
The Use of Evidence in Policy Making: Practice and ProspectsPeter Edwards
Â
A talk given by Prof. Ian Sanderson, Director of Research in the Faculty of Business and Law,
Leeds Metropolitan University at the Leeds Social Sciences Institute Seminar "The Use of Evidence in Policy Making?" on 22 Oct 2010 at the University of Leeds.
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Principal Investigator
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PI Status
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Political Science
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Instructor
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Section B Study Introduction
View Audit
Title
Entered:05/04/18By:parham, angela
You need to reduce this section to 500 words or less.
Entered:05/07/18By:gebremedhin, teddy
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures. ( 400 words with space) and ( 343 words with no space )
Entered:05/07/18By:gebremedhin, teddy
The election of President Donald J Trump and Brexit have highlighted the resurgence of nationalism in the modern society as workers who are anxious about the effects of globalization on their employment chances turn on outsiders. In addition, the strong performance of Marine Le Pin in the presidential election in France and the resurgence of nationalist parties in Eastern Europe have increased the anxiety of stakeholders about the rise of nationalism and its implications for the society.Â
( 492 words with space ) and (145 words with no space) one of them will be an introduction.
The rise of nationalism
Introduction
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures.
View Audit
Please provide a brief (350-500 word) summary of your research project, including background and rationale for your study. Be sure to include in your description what kinds o ...
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2) TatianaMajor22
Â
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;
2) Express your thoughts on the topic
Summary should be no longer than 3 typewritten, double-spaced pages.
Most social scientists who study public opinion and public policy in democratic countries agree that (1) public opinion influences public policy; (2) the more salient an issue to the public, the stronger the rela- tionship is likely to be; and (3) the relationship is threatened by the power of interest organizations,' political parties, and economic elites (see, e.g., Aldrich 1995; Dahl 1989; Mueller 1999; Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson 1995; Page and Shapiro 1983; Smith 2000). There would be much less consensus, however, on the answers to five follow-up questions widely seen as impor- tant but seldom addressed directly: 1. How much impact does public opinion have on public policy? 2. How much does the impact of opinion on policy increase as the importance of an issue to the public increases? 3. To what extent do interest groups, social movement organizations, political parties, and elites influence policy even when opposed by public opinion? 4. Has government responsiveness to public opinion changed over time? 5. How generalizable are our findings about the impact of opinion on policy?
This article distills considerable research directed at these questions. It is not, however, a literature review in the usual sense. Rather than summarizing publications in a con- ventional narrative, I use each publication as a source of data, tabulating the issues and countries studied, and the authors' predictions, variables, and findings. The analysis will provide the publications' collective answer to each question, and, at times, show how little evidence is avail- able. Highlighting how little we know on some issues will point to an agenda for future research. It turns out that public opinion influences policy most of the time, often strongly Responsiveness appears to increase with salience, and public opinion matters even in the face of activities by interest organizations, political par- ties, and political and economic elites. Claims that respon- siveness is changing over time or varies across issues rest on very little evidence. The next section describes issues that arise in attempts to answer the questions. This is followed by a description of the data, presentation of findings, and conclusion.
ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy No one believes that public opinion always determines public policy; few believe it never does. Even dedicated pro- ponents of democratic theory acknowledge that democratic governments sometimes ignore the public (e.g., Page and Shapiro 1983: 189); those whose theories attribute little power to the public concede that governments sometimes follow public opinion (e.g., Block 1987: 66; Domhoff 1998: 301; Korpi 1989: 313). What distinguishes those who believe democracy gives citizens genuine control over their governmen ...
The rise of nationalismIntroduction The rise of nationa.docxoreo10
Â
The rise of nationalism
Introduction
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures.
Comments : See my comments on the document. Please address the hypothesis comment and resubmit the hypothesis
Research Question
· What has caused the resurgence of nationalism?
Hypothesis
The examination of rising populism and nationalism in different parts of the world is expected to demonstrate that the rise of inequality due to neoliberalism is responsible for the push for countries to retreat from the world stage. An examination of Brexit, the election of President Donald Trump and the resurgence of nationalist parties across Europe will demonstrate that the intersection of globalization and technology has contributed to create opportunities for only a small segment of the global population. In light of this hypothesis, it is expected that the path forward lie in redesigning the global economic system to promote shared prosperity in the world. Comment by angela parham: Your hypothesis should be something that you can actually test, what's called a testable hypothesis. In other words, you need to be able to measure both "what you do" and "what will happen." Most of the time a hypothesis is written like this: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." Your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.
Data collection
Qualitative research will be used in this study due to the need to synthesize existing literature on the subject and the perspectives of stakeholders in the society. The exploratory research approach will enable the researcher to find effective answers for the research questions (Jamshed, 2014). In particular, it will highlight the underlying reasons, motivations and causes of the rise in the nationalist movement in the modern society. Qualitative research is used to identify trends in thought and phenomena (Jamshed, 2014). Survey research and focus groups will be used to collect data on the subject. The survey research will include both semi-structured and structured questions that will be administered online. Purposive sampling will be used to ensure that the participants are drawn from different social groups. In addition, focus groups will be used to have an in-depth discussion with different stakeholders on the rise of nationalism. The data that will be collected will be analyzed in conjunction with the existing literature (Jamshed, 2014). The approach will enable the researcher to contextualize the insights that will be drawn from the data collection process. Comment by angela parham: ...
Administrative behaviour does comprise the basic popular element of decision-making. Many academics and social scientists, in particular public administration scientists, will be aware that Herbert A. Simon, the foremost decision theorist, defines decision-making as the optimum rational choice between alternative courses of action. According to him, decision making pervades the entire organisation, that is, decisions are made at all level of organisation. Hence he perceives an organisation as a structure of decision makers. He equates administration with decision making as every aspect of administration resolves around decision-making. Further Simon argues that before one can establish any immutable principles of administration one must be able to describe, exactly how an administration organisation looks and exactly how it works. He observes that before a science can develop principles, it must possess concepts. Decision-making is the most important activity of administrationâŠ. An administrative science, like science, is concerned purely with factual statements, and there is no place for ethical statements in the study of science. To sum up the study, H.A. Simonâs concept of administration comprises two basic elements; namely, (a) The emphasis upon decision-making approach as the alternative to the classical thinkersâ principles approach, that is, structural approach; and (b) The advocacy of empirical approach, value-free approach, as against the normative approach to the study of administration.
Public Policy Analysis (PPA)PresentationBYDr. Henry Akwo E.docxamrit47
Â
Public Policy Analysis (PPA)
Presentation
BY
Dr. Henry Akwo Elonge
1
PPA
Introduction to Public Policy Analysis
What is Public Policy: Public policy is concerned with what governments choose to do, why they do it and what difference it makes in society.
Public policies may regulate, distribute and even extract resources from members of the society
Policy Analysis attempts to describe, analyze and explain public policy. It is the description and explanation of the causes and consequences of governmental activities
2
PPA
Specifically, Policy Analysis involves:
A primary concern with explanation rather than prescription
A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies
An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes of public policies and to accumulate reliable research findings
3
PPA
Limitations of Policy Analysis:
The limits of government power. What governments can/cannot do
Public dis-agreements over the nature of problems in society
Subjectivity in analysis and interpretation
Limitations on research design and methodologies
Complexity of human problems/ Human diversity
âTodayâs solutions constitute tomorrowâs problemsâ
4
PPA
Expert Definitions of Public Policy:
David Easton( The Political System â 1953) defines public policy asâ the authoritative allocation of values for the whole of society>â
Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan (Power and Society â 1970) define public policy as a projected program of goals, values and practices
Carl J. Friedrich ( Man and His Government â 1963) stresses that the policy concept should have a goal, an objective and a purpose.
Charles Jones ( Introduction to the Study of Public Policy â 1977) breaks down the notion of public policy into various components and parts and measurable impacts
5
PPA
According to Weimer and Vining, policy analysis is client-oriented advice relevant to public decisions and informed by social values.
Michael Kraft and Scott Furlong indicate that analysis means deconstructing an object of study, that is breaking it down into its basic elements to understand it better. It is the examination of components of public policy, the policy process or both.
6
PPA
Utility of models in Policy Analysis
Models are simplified representations of reality or some aspect of the real world; It may be an actual physical representation or a diagram or road map Models
Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy
Identify important aspects of policy problems
Help us communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of political life;
Direct our efforts to understand public policy better
Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences
7
PPA
Models are mainly abstractions of the real life. Are they Useful in policy analysis?
Can models order and Simplify reality. Yes they can. But too much simplification may also lead to a false sense of the reality. Models are only ...
The Use of Evidence in Policy Making: Practice and ProspectsPeter Edwards
Â
A talk given by Prof. Ian Sanderson, Director of Research in the Faculty of Business and Law,
Leeds Metropolitan University at the Leeds Social Sciences Institute Seminar "The Use of Evidence in Policy Making?" on 22 Oct 2010 at the University of Leeds.
Email:
Phone:
View Audit
Principal Investigator
Email:
Phone:
Please enter the Principal Investigator's email address. If the Principal Investigator is also submitting this form, then the email will be the same as the Submitter.
View Audit
PI Status
View Audit
Please choose the principal investigator's department.
Political Science
View Audit
Instructor
Email:
Phone:
View Audit
Please click Add Contact and add each co-investigator for your study.
No answer provided.
View Audit
Please click Add Contact to add any research assistants for this study.
No answer provided.
View Audit
Please attach the PI's CITI completion report for the Social and Behavioral Research Investigator training. See the IRB website for instructions on accessing the CITI portal.
CITI Completion Report
View Audit
Please attach the CITI completion reports for research team members, including yourself, the Principal Investigator, co-Investigators, and Research Assistants. Instructors will submit their CITI certification separately. See the IRB website for more information on accessing the CITI portal.
No answer provided.
Section B Study Introduction
View Audit
Title
Entered:05/04/18By:parham, angela
You need to reduce this section to 500 words or less.
Entered:05/07/18By:gebremedhin, teddy
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures. ( 400 words with space) and ( 343 words with no space )
Entered:05/07/18By:gebremedhin, teddy
The election of President Donald J Trump and Brexit have highlighted the resurgence of nationalism in the modern society as workers who are anxious about the effects of globalization on their employment chances turn on outsiders. In addition, the strong performance of Marine Le Pin in the presidential election in France and the resurgence of nationalist parties in Eastern Europe have increased the anxiety of stakeholders about the rise of nationalism and its implications for the society.Â
( 492 words with space ) and (145 words with no space) one of them will be an introduction.
The rise of nationalism
Introduction
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures.
View Audit
Please provide a brief (350-500 word) summary of your research project, including background and rationale for your study. Be sure to include in your description what kinds o ...
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;2) TatianaMajor22
Â
1) Write a summary of the key points presented by the author;
2) Express your thoughts on the topic
Summary should be no longer than 3 typewritten, double-spaced pages.
Most social scientists who study public opinion and public policy in democratic countries agree that (1) public opinion influences public policy; (2) the more salient an issue to the public, the stronger the rela- tionship is likely to be; and (3) the relationship is threatened by the power of interest organizations,' political parties, and economic elites (see, e.g., Aldrich 1995; Dahl 1989; Mueller 1999; Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson 1995; Page and Shapiro 1983; Smith 2000). There would be much less consensus, however, on the answers to five follow-up questions widely seen as impor- tant but seldom addressed directly: 1. How much impact does public opinion have on public policy? 2. How much does the impact of opinion on policy increase as the importance of an issue to the public increases? 3. To what extent do interest groups, social movement organizations, political parties, and elites influence policy even when opposed by public opinion? 4. Has government responsiveness to public opinion changed over time? 5. How generalizable are our findings about the impact of opinion on policy?
This article distills considerable research directed at these questions. It is not, however, a literature review in the usual sense. Rather than summarizing publications in a con- ventional narrative, I use each publication as a source of data, tabulating the issues and countries studied, and the authors' predictions, variables, and findings. The analysis will provide the publications' collective answer to each question, and, at times, show how little evidence is avail- able. Highlighting how little we know on some issues will point to an agenda for future research. It turns out that public opinion influences policy most of the time, often strongly Responsiveness appears to increase with salience, and public opinion matters even in the face of activities by interest organizations, political par- ties, and political and economic elites. Claims that respon- siveness is changing over time or varies across issues rest on very little evidence. The next section describes issues that arise in attempts to answer the questions. This is followed by a description of the data, presentation of findings, and conclusion.
ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy No one believes that public opinion always determines public policy; few believe it never does. Even dedicated pro- ponents of democratic theory acknowledge that democratic governments sometimes ignore the public (e.g., Page and Shapiro 1983: 189); those whose theories attribute little power to the public concede that governments sometimes follow public opinion (e.g., Block 1987: 66; Domhoff 1998: 301; Korpi 1989: 313). What distinguishes those who believe democracy gives citizens genuine control over their governmen ...
The rise of nationalismIntroduction The rise of nationa.docxoreo10
Â
The rise of nationalism
Introduction
The rise of nationalism poses a threat to globalization and the set of values that the international community has sought to develop in the past. The election of President Donald Trump and Brexit threatened the neoliberal agenda that has promoted free enterprise and globalization. Understanding the rise of nationalism provides an effective instrument for identifying effective intervention measures.
Comments : See my comments on the document. Please address the hypothesis comment and resubmit the hypothesis
Research Question
· What has caused the resurgence of nationalism?
Hypothesis
The examination of rising populism and nationalism in different parts of the world is expected to demonstrate that the rise of inequality due to neoliberalism is responsible for the push for countries to retreat from the world stage. An examination of Brexit, the election of President Donald Trump and the resurgence of nationalist parties across Europe will demonstrate that the intersection of globalization and technology has contributed to create opportunities for only a small segment of the global population. In light of this hypothesis, it is expected that the path forward lie in redesigning the global economic system to promote shared prosperity in the world. Comment by angela parham: Your hypothesis should be something that you can actually test, what's called a testable hypothesis. In other words, you need to be able to measure both "what you do" and "what will happen." Most of the time a hypothesis is written like this: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." Your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.
Data collection
Qualitative research will be used in this study due to the need to synthesize existing literature on the subject and the perspectives of stakeholders in the society. The exploratory research approach will enable the researcher to find effective answers for the research questions (Jamshed, 2014). In particular, it will highlight the underlying reasons, motivations and causes of the rise in the nationalist movement in the modern society. Qualitative research is used to identify trends in thought and phenomena (Jamshed, 2014). Survey research and focus groups will be used to collect data on the subject. The survey research will include both semi-structured and structured questions that will be administered online. Purposive sampling will be used to ensure that the participants are drawn from different social groups. In addition, focus groups will be used to have an in-depth discussion with different stakeholders on the rise of nationalism. The data that will be collected will be analyzed in conjunction with the existing literature (Jamshed, 2014). The approach will enable the researcher to contextualize the insights that will be drawn from the data collection process. Comment by angela parham: ...
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
Â
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
Â
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
Â
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Â
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as âdistorted thinkingâ.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
Â
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using âinvisibleâ attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Chapter 3 - Islamic Banking Products and Services.pptx
Â
A Critical Review of Rational Choice Theory.pdf
1. Theories of Policy Making Process
POLM001
Victor Barraso Ibañez - MSc Public Policy
Queen Mary University of London
A critical review of the rational approach to policy-makingâ
This essay will critically review the approach of Rational Choice Theory
when applied to Public Policy. First it will analyse the main tenets
proposed by this approach to policy analysis such as the focus on the
individual as a rational decision maker and profit maximiser with complete
access to information and resources. As an abstract framework analysis of
human behaviour, it observes simple assumptions. By using scientific
methodology, the theory is able to provide testable hypothesis. This
bestows the theory a predictive leverage, which has made it highly
attractive for policy makers and policy analysis. Then the essay will
present Lindblomâs (1959) challenge to the framework, which he
considered too unrealistic. He argues, that in the real world of policy
making, decision makers do not possess the resources to follow this route.
Moreover, practical knowledge is superior to theoretical approaches,
something which policy makers should not be concerned with. Then, the
essay will review the position of Herbert Simon (1955). For Simon,
humans are economic as well as administrative. The essay will show that
Simon and Lindblom agree that political agents do not have total access to
information but also that they disagree on the causes. Simon argues that
there are many factors that influence decision makers that RCT does not
consider. After presenting these two different perspectives on rational
choice theory and how it should be interpreted, the essay will analyse
some characteristics of RCT, starting from its emphasis of capitalism
applied to policy making and then moving on to analyse how the
knowledge supporting RCT is elaborated. The essay will conclude arguing
that competition and maximising profit are not the optimal conditions to
base ones policy making upon.
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) emanates from economics. It aims to
provide an explanation for the human behaviour in terms of economic
rationality. It stresses the role of the individual as âbenefit maximiserâ
meaning, when presented with decision, individuals will take rational
actions. Therefore, making cost efficiency assessments will ensure that the
Page ! of !
1 9
2. Theories of Policy Making Process
POLM001
Victor Barraso Ibañez - MSc Public Policy
Queen Mary University of London
best possible outcome is achieved. Individuals, or political agents, have
full access to information and, according to their preferences, will favour
the decision that allows them the best possible outcome. Forester (1984)
explains that RCT is comprehensive and abstract, for which the decisive
factors are information which âis perfect, complete, accessible and
comprehensive. Time is infinitely availableâ (p.25).
This scientific approach to policy making process, aims to obtain an
abstract model of political analysis. These kinds of models tend to keep
simple assumptions. Researchers will propose hypothesis and test them
upon evidence (Wallace, 1971, cited in Andrew, 2007, p.161). For the
purpose of analysis, researchers assume that individuals have permanent
preferences. These preferences will determine which will be the most
favoured outcome. Moreover, analysis assumes that political agents have
the motivation of achieving the maximum profit.
This is effective in terms that it provides a framework and also has the
advantage of offering testable hypotheses. Those can be exported
elsewhere, delivering equal outcomes. This allows for possibilities of
transferability based upon empirical evidence and from this emanates its
predictive power. RCT aims for universalism, as successful hypotheses
could be applied to anywhere and these predictive capabilities within RCT
are highly desirable in political science. As is pointed out by Hindmoor
(2010) they âexplain something without knowing everythingâ, therefore
providing a âgreat deal of explanatory leverageâ (cited in Marsh and
Stocket, 2010, p.57).
Moreover, as it is pointed out by Etzioni (1967) that RCT offers a
framework of âwidely held conceptions about how decisions are and ought
to be madeâ (as quoted in Smith and May, 1980, p. 148). This means that
rational choice theory provides a framework that is very efficient to
analyse, predict and provide a structure to which policy should be made.
However, when they are not explored in a laboratory environment and are
applied to reality, they might not be that efficient. Now that the main
characteristics of the RCT have been analysed. The essay will move to
analyse the examine the criticism that Lindblom makes.
Page ! of !
2 9
3. Theories of Policy Making Process
POLM001
Victor Barraso Ibañez - MSc Public Policy
Queen Mary University of London
Charles Lindblom (1959) argues that RCT offers a very narrow perspective
for how to achieve solutions for policy making. He defines it as root
analysis. By which for each problem there will be an assessment on every
factor that affects a policy. Accordingly only by scrutinising each possible
outcome and desired consequences, is it possible to make a decision.
Lindblom argues that this approach is too unrealistic. As in real life, policy
makers do not have enough time or resources to analyse in such detail.
Hence, it proposes that political agents follow the Branch analysis, that is
âcontinually building out from the current situation, step-by-step and by
small degreeâ (Lindblom, 1959, p.81 quoted in Howlett, 2009, p.147), to
form something deemed more effective.
Lindblom (1990) claims that substantive rationality, theoretical
knowledge, âshould not be allowed to displace procedural rationalityâ(as
cited in Andrew, 2007, p.162). According to him, the lay expertise will
always be superior to theoretical frameworks (Lindblom, 1959, p.88).
Lindblom argues, contrary to what RCT assumes, that political actors have
limited access to information. He argues that information is in fact a
political asset. According to him, decision making processes take place in
a competitive environment where there are multiple competitors for
limited resources. Hence, as Forester (1984) explains, â the problem of
gaining access to pristine information now gives way to a set of problems
about knowing what and who to trust, what and who can be relied upon,
what may be done in the face of misrepresentation, and so onâ (p.27).
Lindblom argued that, because information is restricted and serves
political interests as they interact, policy makers will bargain for their best
possible outcomes. On this approach of pluralistic bounded rationality,
actors will trade their preferences over one issue, if a positive outcome
might possibly be gained on another. It can be argued that there would be a
possibility of achieving an equilibrium. There is a level from which
negotiators will not move beyond, know as a âpolicy horizonâ (Warwick,
2006 as as cited in John, 2012, p.111). This policy horizon is the reason
why Lindblom argued that rather than creating policy, it is imposed upon
decision makers and is the result of the political environment. Hence, for
him, political agents when facing choices are left to âmuddle throughâ
where âonly incremental change, or change at the marginsâ are possible
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because âa restricted number of policy alternatives is reviewed and only
limited number of consequences is envisaged and evaluatedâ (Smith and
May, 1980, p.150). The essay has analysed how Lindblom disagreed with
RCT on the practical matters of the acquisition of knowledge or
information. He considered this to be incomplete and, because it is a
politic asset, difficult to obtain. Moreover, he argues that political actors
are in constant competition, therefore political change is only possible by
gradual implementations. The essay will analyse now the criticism from
Simon who proposed an approach different to that of Lindblom.
Herbert Simon (1955) argues that there are constrictions that dominate
rational human behaviour on decision making. Political agents have
limited and incomplete access to information and will reach the optimal
decision by using their judgement upon limited knowledge (Satz and
Ferejohn, 1994, p. 73). Hence, the outcome is bound to the context in
which the individual is set within. It might be true that humans are
âeconomicâ (Simon, 1955, p.99) beings and therefore they aim for the best
possible decision, however, it is not possible to achieve maximum benefit
all of the time. Therefore, the argument follows, that it is better to see
political actors as âmarginal utility maximisersâ. As Satz and Ferejohn
(1994) explain, âcomputational and information gathering costs of
maximizing are simply too high; in many cases people "satisfice"
insteadâ (p.73). This term, coined by Simon that combine satisfy and
suffice, to refer to an action of searching for the best available option
without optimal resources available. Because of this, Simon argues that
actors are âadministrativeâ persons (Parson, 1995, p.301). Consequently,
in the practical world of politics, RCT loses its predictive powers because
there is an âincomplete and fragmented nature of knowledgeâ (Simon,
1957: 81-109 as cited in Parson, 1995, p. 277), there will be unintended
consequences that were impossible to predict.
Simon, considered that the political actor, in opposition to rational choices
suggestion, is a fallible actor. Each individual will have motivations, a set
of interest that they will pursue independent of if those are clearly stated or
not. They will also moderate their beliefs and endogenous factors, at the
personal level, such as moral values and the validity of RCT as being
universal, is confronted with the reality, which is directly related to their
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particular habitat. Jenson and Merand (2010) clarify âmotives are
situational because the logic of practice is grounded in social contextâ (p.
84). Moreover, external factors also affect decision makers. The
environment on which the policy is developed is open to the influence of
others. Policy, does not take place in vacuum (Hofferbert (1974, cited in
John, 2012, p.85).
Policy makers do not act on their own. By focusing on the choice of the
individual, RCT ignores others factors that affect human behaviour, such
as networks. Decision makers have relationships and create networks.
Those networks influence how problems are resolved in a socially
differentiated environment and the âstrategies of decision making must
take that encompassing, variable and complex social environment into
accountâ (Forester, 1984, p.27).
As many more factors are required, predictive leverage of the theory
further diminishes. Simon argues that policy makers develop contact with
other agents and those agents influence them. They function in an open
environment rather than one closed and free from interference. Moreover,
they then collaborate with others political agents. On the process of
decision making, they might not follow ideal patterns of rational
behaviour. (Werner and Wegrich, 2007, p.44).
The essay has reviewed the position of bounded rationality presented by
Simon. He has presented political actors with limited access to information
and resources. However, in opposition to Lindblom, he argues that
cooperation is possible. Agents, he states, are open to influence and they
might not behave in a rational manner as RCT proposes. Now the essay
will analyse how RCT has reached such a predominant position in public
policy and whether this is a positive development.
The economic roots of the RCT implement values and notion from
Capitalism into the policy making process. Public policy is focused upon
solving the problems that arise in our modern society. Perhaps,
competition and profit maximisation, to name a few, are not the most
desirable patterns to achieve solutions. Furthermore, RCT has a component
of the self-fulfilling prophecy. As it was illustrated by Marwell and Ames
(1981), âteaching students about the basic principles of economics made
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them more likely to act in a self-interested mannerâ (adapted from Marsh
and Stoker, 2010, p.56). Consequently, preaching to the public that
political agents are more interested in pursuing their own interests rather
than the public good (Downs, 1957, p.27) might further erode confidence
in democratic processes. This scientific model from economics, when
applied to social sciences or politics, should take into account many factors
that are left behind from the most predominant positions of rational choice
theory such as cultural values, historical context and power structure
among others. Furthermore, the main obstacle for the rational choice
theory approach is that human behaviour is not always rational. That
which is considered rational in abstract might not be rational in practice.
That might be the reason for John (2012) to argue that the main
characteristic of the ârational actor model is the lack of good applications
to public policyâ (p.102).
On the other hand, the driving force behind scientific knowledge is that it
enjoys a âlegitimacy authorityâ ( Andrew, 2007, p.162). Although
scientific methodology is driven by evidence, in social science there are
many contestable notions. Most of the time these are reflections of the
âcurrent consensusâ (Andrew, 2007, p.162) and since academia is an
âelite-based knowledgeâ (Andrew, 2007, p.162), it might argue that
ideological frameworks play a crucial role on which information is
disseminated, and which is not. As Hindmoor (2005) notes, âneoliberal
governments saw in rational choice theory a fertile source of arguments
and policy ideasâ (as cited in Marsh and Stoker, 2010 p. 56). There is not a
system in place that will ensure âobjectivityâ as in equal representation of
all the perspectives in academia, so predominant ideas might have an
advantage. Because Academic journals use anonymous âpractices of peer
reviewâ(Andrew, 2007, p.162), they might act as gatekeepers of
dissemination of knowledge that is not compelling to the most favoured
cannon.
This presents a further issue. As Campbell mentions, ideas or ideologies
that enjoy a predominant position âexert long-term effects on policy
making by becoming embedded in the law and institutionalised in
administrative procedures, programs, and bureaucraciesâ (2002, p.31).
Therefore, if the above statements are taken into account and since rational
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choice theory enjoys a preponderant position in Public Policy, it might be
argued that neoliberalist ideas which praise higher value in cost-efficiency
over general welfare are, or might become, an embedded part of the public
policy.
It is argued that this reality depends on perception. Rational choice theory
obtains preferences of the individuals by defining external factors.
However, other approaches argue that that is the context on which those
individuals are defining their preferences. This means that âthe way we
think about the the world makes the world as we perceive itâ (Saurugger,
2013, p.890). Moreover, empirical and theoretical evidence has
demonstrated that âhow a message is framed affects attitudes and
behaviour as much as its contents doesâ (Druckman, 2004, as cited in
John, 2012, p.118). Consequently, if Public Policy is framed upon rational
choice theory, where agents value more the personal benefits, than the
general benefit of society as a whole, it might create change within
attitudes and behaviours that will reflect the values of competitive markets.
Capitalist systems are prone to injustice and inequality.
This essay has concluded that, although Rational Choice Theory enjoys a
dominant position among public policy scholars, it might be right to argue
that this could be counteractive to its ultimate objective which is to provide
solutions to the complex problems of society. The essay arrived at this
conclusion by analysing the approach of bounded rationality presented by
Simon, who, although concerned with the limitations of RCT, aims to
improved rather than to propose a valid alternative. The essay has analysed
the criticism that Lindblom makes of the rational choice framework, which
he considers to be unrealistic and inferior to the practical expertise of
policy makers.
In opposition to the collaborative notion that Simon argues dominates the
pragmatic decision maker, Lindblom argues that there is a competition
between multiple agents where change is possible, only on the margins of
the policy making process. The essay reviewed the conditions in which
Rational Choice Theory aims to provide an analytical framework for the
policy making process, using testable hypothesis that confer the theory
with its predictive powers, which is one of the most appealing factors of
the rational choice theory.
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* Parsons, W. (1995) Public Policy. An introduction to the theory and
practice of policy analysis, Edward Elgar: Aldershot
* Satz, D., Ferejohn, J., 1994. Rational Choice and Social Theory, The
Journal of Philosophy, 91 (2) pp. 71-87
* Saurugger, S. (2013). âConstructivism and public policy approaches in
the EU: from ideas to power gamesâ, Journal of European Public
Policy, 20 (6), pp. 888-906
* Simon, H., (1955) âA Behavioral Model of Rational Choiceâ, The
Quarterly Journal of Economies, 69 (1), pp.99-118
* Smith, G.; May, D. (1980) âThe Artificial Debate between Rationalist
and Incrementalist Models of Decision-Makingâ, Policy and
Politics 8: 147-161
* Werner, J. and Wegrich, K. (2007). in in Fischer F.; Miller G., and
Sidney, M.; (eds.) Handbook of Public Policy Analysis, CRC
Press. Boca Raton, FL
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