Administrative behaviour does comprise the basic popular element of decision-making. Many academics and social scientists, in particular public administration scientists, will be aware that Herbert A. Simon, the foremost decision theorist, defines decision-making as the optimum rational choice between alternative courses of action. According to him, decision making pervades the entire organisation, that is, decisions are made at all level of organisation. Hence he perceives an organisation as a structure of decision makers. He equates administration with decision making as every aspect of administration resolves around decision-making. Further Simon argues that before one can establish any immutable principles of administration one must be able to describe, exactly how an administration organisation looks and exactly how it works. He observes that before a science can develop principles, it must possess concepts. Decision-making is the most important activity of administration…. An administrative science, like science, is concerned purely with factual statements, and there is no place for ethical statements in the study of science. To sum up the study, H.A. Simon’s concept of administration comprises two basic elements; namely, (a) The emphasis upon decision-making approach as the alternative to the classical thinkers’ principles approach, that is, structural approach; and (b) The advocacy of empirical approach, value-free approach, as against the normative approach to the study of administration.
This presentation includes the various aspects of decision making , a short view of rational model of decision making and bounded rationality model by Herbert Simon.
Explain the scope of public administration as a discipline
Explain the scope of public administration AS AN ACTIVITY
IDENTIFY AND DISCUSS THE VARIOUS AREAS WITHIN THE SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
This presentation includes the various aspects of decision making , a short view of rational model of decision making and bounded rationality model by Herbert Simon.
Explain the scope of public administration as a discipline
Explain the scope of public administration AS AN ACTIVITY
IDENTIFY AND DISCUSS THE VARIOUS AREAS WITHIN THE SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
13 sugerencias para la lectura en voz alta Yezz Ortiz
La lectura moviliza los lectores una serie de sentires, recuerdos, emociones y nuevas ideas que varían según sus experiencias de vida. También ayuda a la organización de conocimientos, al trabajo intelectual, a diversas formas de razonamiento y fortalece la posibilidad de emitir juicios personales, a veces críticos de la realidad que les toca vivir.
Por ser un aprendizaje cultural, la lectura requiere de mediación, al decir de Vygotski, de un compañero más experto que ayude al aprendiz a transitar desde su mirada y su conocimiento nuevos horizontes, en este caso, de lecturas. Llegar a ser ese “compañero más experto” es el desafío del docente. Pensar en una didáctica para la formación de lectores implica leer, y también recurrir a algunas estrategias de intervención pedagógica para seducir lectores, capaces de reflexionar y compartir sus experiencias de lectura con otros.
DUCAT offers exclusive Java with Android Training program with live project In Noida,Ghaziabad,Gurgaon,Faridabad,Greater Noida,Jaipur
For further enquiry
DUCAT, NOIDA
A - 43 & A - 52 Sector - 16, Noida (U.P) (Near McDonalds)
PHONE: 0120-4646464
MOBILE OR WHATSAPP: +91- 9871055180
Una comunidad para convertir el café molido en producción de hongos en las ciudades danesas.
Creemos que es inadecuado que en las grandes ciudades se beba mucho café sin utilizar el café molido que contiene nutrientes en algo más.
Cuando haces el café, utilizas sólo el 0,2% del café; al combinarlo con agua hirviendo lo convierte en la bebida de café. El resto, el 99,8%, es desecho de café que se desecha a la basura.
Es un desperdicio de recursos. En lugar de tirar el café molido, recojámoslo. Más allá de las personas. Posos de café que utilizamos para cultivar hongos. Amor y Hongos de café molido.
Informacion del Campus Party Cali 2014 - El evento más esperado en Cali: Campus Party, el encuentro más importante del mundo en materia de entretenimiento electrónico en red; con expertos en videojuegos, campuseros, hackers y amantes del mundo geek.
Safalta.com - CBSE UGC-NET Political Science Solved Paperssafalta.com
Safalta.com -The University Grants Commission (UGC) conducts a National Eligibility Test (NET) for prospective candidates. The book contains solved papers that helps a candidate prepare better for the exam. You can buy the UGC-NET Political Science Objective Last year solved paper at just Rs. 99/- CBSE UGC-NET Political Science last year solved paper.
Buy Now-http://safalta.com/product/ugc-net-political-science-objective-solved-paper-english/
Like us at FB - http://facebook.com/safaltaonline
Subscribe Us at YouTube : https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2HXYen7TEz8aeLqcRLxeBA
Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disorder that can lead to the destruction of the periodontal tissues and ultimately tooth loss. Regeneration of the reduced periodontium is the ideal goal in periodontal therapy. To date, regenerative therapy with membranes, bone grafting materials, growth factors and the combination of these procedures have been investigated and employed with distinct levels of clinical success. Barrier membranes prevent epithelial down growth, allow periodontal ligament and alveolar bone cells to repopulate the defect thereby favoring the regeneration of periodontal tissues. This article discusses various membranes used for periodontal regeneration and their impact on the experimental or clinical management of periodontal defects.
Chapter 4 Administration Responsibility The Key to Administrativ.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 4: Administration Responsibility: The Key to Administrative Ethics In order to access the following resource, click the links below. Watch the following segments from the full video listed below: Utilitarian Theory (segment 10 of 15) and Duty Theory (Segment 11 of 15). These video segments provide more information on two important theories in ethics. Films Media Group (Producer). (2004). Ethics: What is right [Video file]. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=32706 The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. Unit Lesson Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making Many theorists have concluded that several decision-making models exist that focus on consistent norms and have derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field, and lists some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decisionmaking on the beliefs related to certain philosophies. Utilitarianism: Approach Based on Consequences Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory that was completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or a particular societal level of norms. More so, Utilitarianism wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind and is based off an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” We can assume that “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is efficacy, which implies the “least desired input for greatest desired output.” Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons – mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision-making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last the longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural buying process for decision-making. The successful business leader uses this variable for short and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on successful public services, which utilizes public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process where services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who UNIT II STUDY GUIDE Established Philosophies Affecting Public Eth ...
rational action theory or choice theory, school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.
The rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often modelling social and economic as well as individual behaviour.
Approaches to International Relations
Approach is a way of looking at and then explaining a particular phenomenon. The perspective may be broad enough to cover a vast area like the World as a whole or it may be very small, embracing an aspect of local, regional, national or international politics. Besides, it may cover within its fold every other thing related to the collection and selection of evidence followed by an investigation and analysis of a particular hypothesis for an academic purpose. In this way, an approach consists of a criterion of selection criteria employed in selecting the problems or questions to consider and in selecting the data to bring to bear. It consists of standards governing the inclusion and exclusion of questions and data.
An approach is distinguishable from a theory. An approach is closely related to a theory in view of the fact that it’s a very character determines the way of generalization, explanation and prediction. An approach is transformed into a theory if and when its function extends beyond the selection of problems and data about the subject under study. There are several distinct approaches to the study of International Relations, these include:
Traditional Approach
Scientific Approach
Behavioral Approach
Post Behaviouralist Approaches
Systems Approach
Traditional Approach
In view of the complex variables influencing behavior of states, the traditionalists focus on the observed behavior of governments. They explain observable government behavior on the basis of concepts like balance of power, national interest, diplomacy etc. Traditional realists try to understand and resolve the clashing of interests that inevitably leads to war. This is an approach to international relations that emphasizes the studying of such disciplines as diplomatic history, international law, and philosophy in an attempt to develop better insights.
Traditionalists tend to be skeptical of behaviouralist approaches that are confined to strict scientific standards that include formal hypothesis testing and, usually, the use of statistical analysis. Traditional theorists regard international relations as a sub-discipline of history and political science. There are historical, philosophical and legal variants to the traditional approach Continued ..........
Judicial Review & Dual SovereigntyONLY REFERENCE AN ARTICLE IF ITatianaMajor22
Judicial Review & Dual Sovereignty
ONLY REFERENCE AN ARTICLE IF IT’S THE BASIS OF YOUR ANSWER. EXAMPLE: “ARTICLE 3 IN THE US CONSTITUTION SERVES AS A STRONG MODEL FOE JUSDICIAL CREATION”
DO NOT CITE A FULL CASE (EXAMPLE:MAPP V OHIO, 237 f2d, 1998)
Limit your response to 100 words total for both parts
Part #1 : Judicial Review
How does judicial review balance the governmental powers between the different governmental branches, the President, the Legislature and the Supreme Court?
Part 2: Dual Sovereignty
What powers should be decided by the federal government, and only the federal government, under a dual sovereignty system of government?
Policy Futures in Education
Volume 12 Number 3 2014
www.wwwords.co.uk/PFIE
417 http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2014.12.3.417
Constructive Controversy as a Means of Teaching
Citizens how to Engage in Political Discourse
DAVID W. JOHNSON & ROGER T. JOHNSON
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
ABSTRACT Positive political discourse is the heart of democracy. The purposes of political discourse
include making an effective decision about the course the society should take and building a moral
bond among all members of the society. A responsibility of social sciences within a democratic society
is to provide the theory, research, and normative procedures needed to make political discourse
constructive. A theory underlying political discourse is constructive controversy. There is considerable
research that indicates controversy results in significant increases in the quality and creativity of
decision making and problem solving, the quality of relationships among citizens, and improvements
in the psychological health of the citizenry. From the validated theory, both a teaching and decision
making procedure has been developed and field tested. The theory of constructive controversy, the
supporting research, and the normative procedure provide a valid empirically based process for
political discourse.
Introduction
In a democratic society, each generation has to learn how to participate in the democratic process.
To be good citizens, individuals need to learn how to engage in collective decision making about
community and societal issues (Dalton, 2007). Collective decision making involves political
discourse. While the word ‘discourse’ has been defined in many different ways by linguists and
others (Foucault, 1970; Fairclough, 1995; Jaworski & Coupland, 1999), according to Webster’s
Dictionary (Merrian-Webster, 2003), the concept ‘discourse’ has two major meanings: (a) formal
communication of thoughts about a serious subject through words (spoken or written); and (b)
rationality or the ability to reason. ‘Political discourse’ is the formal exchange of reasoned views as
to which of several alternative courses of action should be taken to solve a societal problem. In
political discour ...
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
1. International Journal of Business and Management Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 8028, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 801X
www.ijbmi.org || Volume 5 Issue 8 || August. 2016 || PP—36-44
www.ijbmi.org 36 | Page
Decision-Making
Dr. S. B. M. Marume1
, Prof. D. Ndudzo2
, Dr. A. S. Chikasha3
1
BA, Hons BA, MA, MAdmin, MSocSc,PhD
2
DSW, MBA,DPhil
3
Bed, DPHE, MEd, DEd
Zimbabwe Open University
ABSTRACT: Administrative behaviour does comprise the basic popular element of decision-making. Many
academics and social scientists, in particular public administration scientists, will be aware that Herbert A.
Simon, the foremost decision theorist, defines decision-making as the optimum rational choice between
alternative courses of action. According to him, decision making pervades the entire organisation, that is,
decisions are made at all level of organisation. Hence he perceives an organisation as a structure of decision
makers. He equates administration with decision making as every aspect of administration resolves around
decision-making. Further Simon argues that before one can establish any immutable principles of
administration one must be able to describe, exactly how an administration organisation looks and exactly how
it works. He observes that before a science can develop principles, it must possess concepts. Decision-making
is the most important activity of administration…. An administrative science, like science, is concerned purely
with factual statements, and there is no place for ethical statements in the study of science. To sum up the study,
H.A. Simon’s concept of administration comprises two basic elements; namely,
(a) The emphasis upon decision-making approach as the alternative to the classical thinkers’ principles
approach, that is, structural approach; and
(b) The advocacy of empirical approach, value-free approach, as against the normative approach to the study
of administration.
Keywords: decision-making, alternative course of action, structural-approach, empirical approach, normative
approach, science and administration.
I. INTRODUCTION
In order to understand administrative behaviour, it is important to examine one of its basic elements; namely,
the concept of decision-making with particular reference to Herbert A. Simon.
II. THE PURPOSE OF THE ARTICLE
Through qualitative research which draws data from a variety of sources, including people; organisations or
institutions; texts; settings and environment; events and happenings; and which also includes an array of
interpretive technique that seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meanings,
not the frequency, of certain more of less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world (S. B. M Marume
1986 and 1988), it is aimed in this article to achieve a systematic and scientific in depth understanding of the
commonly used but yet the most complex and elusive concept of decision-making in political science and pubic
administration with reference to Herbert A. Simon, the foremost decision theorist. Thus, this article focuses on
decision-making as one of administrative behaviour‟s basic elements. Its specific objectives which provide also
a reasonable framework of the discussion are to:
a) define decision making;
b) examine, explain and evaluate H.A. Simon’s concept of decision-making;
c) discuss the bases of decision-making;
d) illustrate the process or stages in decision-making;
e) classify various types of decision making by various thinkers;
f) elucidate four models of decision-making in public administration.
III. DECISION MAKING WITH REFERENCE TO H.A. SIMON
To deal with this topic adequately and clearly, recourse needs to be made to the role and scope of related
literature review in any study.
Firstly, the major purpose of reviewing the literature is to determine what has already been done that relates
to one‟s own topic of study. This knowledge not only prevents one from unintentionally duplicating
research that has already been conducted, but it also affords one the understanding and insight critically
2. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 37 | Page
needed to situate one‟s topic of study within an existing framework. In this connection D. N. Boore and P.
Beile (2005:3) explain,
A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough,
sophisticated research. Good research is good it advances our collective understanding. To advance our
collective understanding, a researcher, or scholar or scientist need to understand what has been done before,
the strengths and weaknesses of existing studies, and what they might mean.
A review of literature enables, therefore one to acquire a full understanding of one‟s topic of study; what
has been already said about it; how ideas related to one‟s topic have been researched, applied, and
developed; the key issues surrounding one‟s topic; and the main criticisms that have been made regarding
work on one‟s topic. All this assists us to become experts on our chosen area of inquiry as follows:
1.1. Meanings
The first question that comes to mind is: What is decision making? First and foremost decision making is
viewed by various leading scientist and writers as follows:
Webster’s Dictionary: the act of determining in one‟s own mind upon an opinion or course of action.
Robert Tannebaum: involves a conscious choice of selection of one‟s behaviour alternative from among a
group of two or more behaviour alternatives.
G. R. Terry: the selection of one behaviour alternative from two or more possible alternatives.
Seckler-Hudson: decision making in the government is a plural activity. One individual may pronounce
the decision, but many contribute to the process of reaching the decision. It is a part of the political
system.
W. F. and Ivan H. Meyer: a management technique used to reach decision by analyzing information,
evaluating alternatives and, in each case, choosing the best policy or line of action.
(a) identifying the problem;
(b) analyzing the problem;
(c) collecting data;
(d) classifying and analyzing data;
(e) preparing data;
(f) cataloguing alternative solutions;
(g) evaluating the alternatives;
(h) taking the decision;
(i) implementing the decision; and obtaining feedback on the effects of the decision.
3.1.1 Relevant prominent scientist and writers
Relevant prominent scientist and writers to decision making include:
Fred Luthans
Seckler- Hudson
J. D. Millett
H. A. Simon
Charles E. Lindblom
R. Tannebaum
W. Fox
Felix Nigro
D. W. Smithburg
Amitai Etzioni
G. R. Terry
Ivan H. Meyer
C. I. Beranrd
V. A. Thompson
Yehezkel Dror
3.1.2 Relevant scientists. Scholars and writes and their contributions:
A systematic related literature review of decision making as one of the basic elements of administrative
behaviour gives the following eminent scholastic contributions:
3.1.3 Discussion and analysis of the meanings
A careful review of the contributions by the various behaviour, scholars and writers reveals that as one of the
basic elements of administrative behaviour, decision-making means choosing one alternative from various
alternatives and that it is essentially problem solving in nature.
Decision making is closely related to policy-making, but they are not the same. G. R. Terry clarifies the
difference between decision and policy as follows:
„a decision is usually made within the guidelines established by policy. A policy is relatively extensive,
affects many problems, and is used again and again. In contrast, a decision applies to a particular problem
and has a non-continuous type of usage‟
3. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 38 | Page
Classical thinkers, however, did not attach much importance to decision making as an all pervasive
activity related to all management functions like planning, organising, coordinating, controlling, and so
on.
In the words of Fred Luthans, classical thinkers such as Henri Fayol and Lyndale Urwick were
concerned with decision-making process only to the extent that it affects delegation and authority, while
Frederick W. Taylor alluded to the scientific method only as an ideal approach to making decisions.
The first comprehensive analysis of decision making process was given by Chester I. Barnard (1886 -
1961) who observed that the processes of decision making are largely techniques for narrowing choice.
J. D. Millett mentions three factors which should be examined in order to understand the decision making
process:
(a) Personal differences among the individuals that make some decisive and others indecisive.
(b) Role played by knowledge in decision-making
(c) Institutional and personal limitations which circumscribe decision-making.
But W. Fox and Ivan H. Meyer: argue that in practical real life situations decision are more often made on
reflex, without mush conscious thought, or they are made without systematically and exhaustively
collecting all possible alternatives but deciding on an alternative that satisfies (1955:33).
1.2. H. A. Simon’s Concept of decision making
A closer look at Simon‟s concept of decision-making indicates the following:
3.2.1 Meaning of decision making
Herbert A. Simon, a leading America public administration scientist as the foremost decision theorist looks at
decision-making as the optimum rational choice between alternative courses of action. According to Simon,
decision-making pervades the entire organization, that is, decisions are made at all levels of the organization.
Hence, he views an organisation as a structure of decision makers. Simon equates administration with decision-
making as every aspect of administration revolves around decision-making. He observes that decision-making
is an all embracing activity subsuming all the administrative functions described as „POCCC by Henri Fayol
and POSDCORD by Luther Gulick‟.
H. A. Simon is very critical of the classical approach and its advocacy of principles of administration having
universal application. He challenges their universal validity and describes them as proverbs occurring in
mutually contradictory pairs. He argues that before one can establish any immutable principles of
administration, one must be able to describe, exactly how an administrative institution (organisation) looks and
exactly how it works.
H. A. Simon observes that before a science can develop principles, it must possess concepts. Decision-making
is the most important activity of administration …… An administrative science like any science is concerned
purely with factual statements. There is no place for ethical statements in the study of science.
3.2.2 Summary of Simon’s concept of administration
To sum up, H. A. Simon concept of administration has two basic elements; namely,
(a) The emphasis upon decision-making approach as the alternative to the classical thinkers principles
approach, that is, structural approach and
(b) The advocacy of empirical approach that is, value-free approach, as against the normative approach to
the study of administration.
As rightly observed by N. Umapathy, H. A. Simon’s proposes a new concept of administration that is based
upon theories and methodology of logical positivism with the focus on decision making.
1.3. Bases of factors of decision making
What then are the bases of decision-making in any situation?
To answer this, contribution by Seckler-Hudson and H. A. Simon, as leading scholars in this area, are
considered.
Seckler-Hudson: gives a famous list of twelve (12) factors which are considered in decision-making.
These are enumerated as:
(1) Legal limitations;
(2) Budget;
(3) Mores;
(4) Facts;
4. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 39 | Page
(5) History;
(6) Internal morale;
(7) Future as anticipated;
(8) Superiors;
(9) Pressure groups
(10)Staff
(11)Nature of programme; and
(12)Subordinates
According to Herbert A. Simon, every decision is based upon two premises; namely
(a) The factual premises and
(b) The value premises.
Explanations:
(a) A fact is a statement of reality. A factual premise can be proved by observable and measurable means,
that is, it can be tested empirically to find out its validity.
(b) A value is an expression of preference. A value premise cannot be tested empirically, that is, it can only
be subjectively asserted as valid.
Interpretations:
According to H. A. Simon, the value premises are concerned with the choice of ends of action, which the
factual premises are concerned with the choice of means of action. He maintains that, in so far as decisions lead
to the selection of final goals, they can be called as value judgments, that is, the value component
predominates, and in so far as they (decisions) involve the implementation of such goals, they can be called as
factual judgments that are the factual component predominates.
1.4. Process or stages in decision making
To treat this aspect adequately, we will try to answer the two following questions:
What is the reasonable sequence of steps in decision-making?
What does H. A. Simon consider to be stages of decision-making?
Contributions as possible answers:
According to Fox and Ivan Meyer(1995:33), steps in the comprehensive rational decision-making process
include:
G. R. Terry, a prominent scholar on the subject, lays down the following sequence of steps in decision
making:
(a) Determine the problem.
(b) Acquire general background information and different viewpoints about the problem.
(c) State what appears to be the best course of action.
(d) Investigate the proposition(s) and tentative decisions.
(e) Evaluate tentative decisions
(f) Make the decision and put is to effect.
(g) Institute follow up and if necessary modify decision in the light of result obtained.
According to H. A. Simon’s stages of decision-making, decision making comprises three principal
stages/phases/processes. These are: intelligence activity, design activities and choice activity. They are
explained separately as follows:
(a) Intelligence activity
Herbert A. Simon calls the first phase of decision-making process as an intelligence activity which involves
finding occasions for making a decision. According to him, the executives spend a large fraction of their time
surveying the economic, technical, political and social environment to identify new conditions that call for new
action.
(b) Design activity:
The second phase, also called the design activity, consists of inventing developing and analyzing possible
courses of action that is, finding alternative courses of action. Simon believe that the executive spend an even
larger fraction of their time, individually or with their associates, seeking to invent, design and develop possible
courses of action for handling situation where a decision is needed.
5. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 40 | Page
(c) Choice activity:
Simon calls the last phase in decision making as the choice activity, which involves selecting a particular
course of action from the given alternatives. He opines (thinks, believes) that the executives spend a small
fraction of their time in choosing among alternative actions already developed and analyzed for their
consequences to meet an identified problem.
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
According to Herbert A. Simon, these three phases in decision making are closely related to the stages in
problem-solving first described by John Dewey (1910). They are:
(a) What is the problem?
(b) What are the alternatives?
(c) What alternative is best?
V. CONCLUSION
Herbert A. Simon: concludes that, in general, intelligence activity precedes design and design activity
precedes choice. The cycle of phases is, however, far more complex than this sequence suggests. Each phase
in making a particular decision is in itself a complex decision making process. For example, the design phase
may call for new intelligence activities; problem at any given level generate sub-problems that, in turn, have
their intelligence, design, and choice phases, and so on. There are, therefore, wheels within wheels.
Nevertheless, the three large phases are often clearly discernible as the organisational decision process unfolds.
3.5 Classifications of decisions
To clearly appreciate this sub-aspect of the research paper it is important to deeply consider the following
research contribution:
Greater confidence in the social research is warranted if the research scientist is experienced, has a good
reputation in research, and is a person of integrity. Were it possible for the readers of a research
report/study, to obtain sufficient information about the research scientist, this criterion perhaps would be
one of the best bases for judging the degree of confidence a piece of research warrants and the value of an
decision based upon it. For this reason the research report should contain information about the
qualifications of the research (S.B.M. 1982, 1986, and 1988).
To assist political office bearer executives, public administrators, educational and academic thinkers, and
researchers, decisions may be classified into various typologies by various thinkers and researchers.
According to a critical review of related literature by some of the eminent public administration scientists, a
few classifications are listed below.
3.5.1 Programmed and non programmed decisions
H. A. Simon classifies decisions into programmed and non-programmed.
(a) Decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine so that a definite procedure
has been worked for handling them and they do not have to be treated de novo each time they occur. It is
decision making by precedent.
(b) Decisions are non-programmed to the extent that they are novel, unstructured, and consequential.
There is no cut and dried method for handling the problem because it has not arisen before, or because its
precise nature and structure are elusive or complex or because it is so important that it deserves a custom –
tailored treatment.
H. A. Simon has identified the traditional as well as the modern techniques of programmed and non
programmed decision. These are illustrated below in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 Techniques of programmed and non-programmed decision:
Types of decision Traditional techniques Modern techniques
Programmed:
Routine, repetitive
decision
Organisation
develops specific
processes for
handling them
1. Habit
2. Clerical routine
3. Organization structure:
Common expectations
A system of sub-goals
well defined
information channels
1. Operations research
Mathematical analysis
models
Computer simulation
2. Electronic data
processing
Non programmed:
One-shot, ill- 1. Judgement intuition
Heuristic problem solving
techniques applied to:
6. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 41 | Page
structured, novel,
policy decisions
Handed by general
problem-solving
processes
and creativity
2. Rules of thumb
3. Selection and training
of executives
(a) Training human
decision makers
(b) Constructing heuristic
computer
programmes.
Simon and March have stated that the administrator who is responsible for both routine activities and long term
planning devotes greater share of his time on routine activities. This results in either postponement or avoidance
of long term decisions. This phenomenon is called by them as Gresham’s Law of Planning. It implies that
routine drives out non-programmed activity.
3.5.2 Generic and unique decisions
Peter Drucker in his popular book. The Practice of Management classifies decisions into generic and unique
decision. In some way, these resemble programmed and non programmed decisions respectively.
3.5.3 Organisational and personal decisions
Chester 1. Barnard: classifies decision into organisational and personal decisions. The former
(organisational) are taken by an executive in his individual capacity that is, not as a member of his organisation.
3.5.4 Policy and operating decisions
Decisions are further classified into policy decisions and operating decisions
(a) The policy decisions are also known as strategic decisions. These decisions are of fundamental character
affecting the entire organisation. Obviously, they are taken by the top management.
(b) By contrast, the operating decisions are meant for executing the policy decisions. Hence, they are taken
by the lower management cadres. These are also known as tactical decisions.
3.5.5 Individual and group decision
Decisions are also classified into individual and group decisions on the basis of the number of persons
involved in the decision making process.
(a) Individual decisions: are those decisions which are made by individual public administrators or managers
in the organisations. They assume complete responsibility for the consequences of their decisions.
(b) Group decisions: on the other hand, are those decisions which are made by a group of administrators or
mangers in an organisation.
They assume collective responsibilities for the consequences. Cabinet policy decisions are an example of
decisions assuming collective responsibility.
3.6 Models of decision-making
To understand Simon’s concept of decision making more comprehensibly let us examine another relevant
aspect; namely, models of decision-making.
There are four models of decision making namely:
(a) H. A. Simon’s bounded rationally model;
(b) Charles E. Lindblom’s incremental model
(c) Amitai Etzioni’s mixed scanning model and
(d) Yehezkel Dror’s optimal model
We analytically examine each model separately as follows:
3.6.1 Simon’s bounded rationality model of decision making
Herbert A. Simon deals comprehensively with the rationality aspect of decision making process. His model of
rational decision making is also known as behaviour alternative model because he proposes an alternative model
as a more realistic alternative to the classical economic rationality model.
Simon views rationality as the selection of preferred behaviour alternatives in terms of values whereby the
consequences of behaviour can be evaluated. He also distinguishes various types of rationality. According to
him, six specific elements must be analytically understood in that a decision is:
(a) Objectively rational if in fact is the correct behaviour for maximizing given values in a given situation.
(b) Subjectively rational; if it maximizes attainment relative to the actual knowledge of the subject.
(c) Consciously rational to the degree that the adjustment of means to ends is a conscious process.
7. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 42 | Page
(d) Deliberately rational to the degree that adjustment of means to ends has been deliberately brought about
by the individual of by the organisation.
(e) Organizationally rational if it is oriented to the organization‟s goals.
(f) Personally rational if it is oriented to the individual‟s goals.
The concepts satisfaction and sufficing and bounded rationality Herbert A. Simon: believes that total
rationality is impossible in administrative behaviour. Hence, maximizing decisions is also not possible. As a
result:
Simon observes that human behaviour in an organisational setting is characterized by bounded rationality
(Limited rationality) leading to satisficing decisions as against maximizing decisions (optimizing
decisions).
Satisficing (a term derived from the combination of terms, satisfaction and sufficing) decisions implies
that a decision maker chooses an alternative which is satisfactory or good enough.
Regarding the term bounded rationality, a number of factors are responsible for bounded rationality
leading to satisficing decisions
(i) Dynamic (rather than static) nature of organisational objectives.
(ii) Imperfect (inadequate) information as well as limited capacity to process (analyse) the available
information.
(iii) Time and cost constraints
(iv) Environmental forces or external factors.
(v) Alternatives cannot be always quantified in an ordered preference.
(vi) Decision- maker may not be aware of all the possible alternatives available and their consequences.
(vii) Personal factors of the decision maker like preconceived notions, habits, and so on.
(viii) Organizational factors like procedures, rules, channels of communication, and so on.
H. A. Simon’s bounded rationality model of decision making can be illustrated as follows:
Figure 1.2: Herbert A. Simon‟s bounded rationality model of decision -making
Proposition of the model of administrative man
In view of the above limitations, H. A. Simon proposes the model of administrative man as against the
model of economic man who takes the maximizing decisions. According to him, the administrative
man:
(a) In choosing between alternatives, tries to satisfy or look for the one which is satisfactorily or good enough;
(b) Recognizes that the world he perceives is a drastically simplified model of the real world;
(c) Can make his choice without first determining all possible alternatives and without ascertaining that
these, in fact , are all the alternatives because he satisfies, rather than maximizes; and
(d) Is able to make decisions with retatively simple rule of the thumb because he teats the world as rather
empty.
8. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 43 | Page
Thus, the ‘satisficing’ administrative man of H. A. Simon is different from the ‘optimising’ economic
man, evolved by the classical economic theorists. He ends up with „satisficing‟ as he does not have the
ability to „optimise‟ (maximise).
However, Chris Argyris observes that H. A. Simon, by insisting on rationality, has not recognized the
role of intuition, tradition and faith in decision making. He says that Simon’s theory uses „satisficing’
to rationalize incompetence.
Norton E. Long and Phillip Selznick argue that Simon’s distinction between fact and values revises in a
new guise the discredited politics-administration dichotomy and considers bureaucracy as a neutral
instrument.
3.6.2 Charles E. Lindblom’s incremental model
Charles E. Lindblom in his article the Science of Muddling through (1959) advocates the incremental
model of decision-making. It is dramatically opposite to Herbert A. Simon‟s rational comprehensive model.
C. E. Lindblom says that the actual decision making in administration is different from the way it is
generally described in theory. He recognizes the practical problems and challenges in the rational
comprehensive approach. He highlights the various limitations like money, time information, politics,
and others, which govern the actual decision making process in the public administration.
Lindblom opines that that decision makers always continue the existing policies and programmes with
some additions. Thus, he argues that what actually occurs in administrative decisions is „incrementalism‟
that is virtual continuation of the previous activities with few modifications. The incremental model is
also known as „branch technique’ or „model of successive limited comparisons’ or „step-by-step
decision-making‟.
Thus, Lindblom assumes that the past activities and experiences are sued by the administrators to make
future decisions. He applies the two concepts to describe the actual decision making process in
administration- (a) „marginal incrementalism’ and (b) „partisan mutual adjustment’.
3.6.3 Amitai Etzioni’s mixed –scanning model
In his article Mixed scanning: A third approach to Decision making published in 1967, Amitai Etzioni
has suggested an intermediate model that combines the elements of both rational comprehensive model
(rationalism) and incrementalism.
Etizioni broadly agrees with Lindblom’s criticism of the rational model. However, he also says that
incremental model is having two main drawbacks, viz:
(a) It discourages social innovation, and is thus partisan in approach, and
(b) It cannot be applied to fundamental decision. Hence, he advocates a mixed scanning model.
3.6.4 Yehezkel Dror’s optimal model
Yehezkel Dror in his book Public Policy making Re-examined suggests an optimal approach to policy
making (decision making) and policy analysis. He claims that his „optimal model‟ is superior to all the
existing normative models of decision making and is a combination f economically rational model and
extra-rational model.
Dror’s optimal model is a rationalist model of policy making, It has, according to Dror, five major
characteristics; namely:
(a) It is qualitative and not quantitative.
(b) It contains both rational and extra-rational elements
(c) It is basic rational to economically rational
(d) It is concerned with meta-policy making.
(e) It contains built in feedback.
Dror says that the optimal model has three principal phases that is:
meta-policy making;
policy making; and
post policy making.
Dror advocates the speedy development of the policy science to adequately solve the critical problems of
society. In his words, “Policy science can be partly described as the discipline that searches for policy
knowledge, that seeks general policy issue knowledge and policy making knowledge, and integrates
them into a distinct study.”
9. Decision-Making
www.ijbmi.org 44 | Page
Dror, in the words of Rumki Basu, “pleads for the adoption of the best policy by a judicious evaluation
of goals, values, alternatives, costs and benefits based on the maximum use of all available
information and scientific technology. He even recommends extra-rational aids to facilitate effective
policy analysis”.
VI. SUMMARY
Decision making as one of the basic elements of administrative behaviour has been examined with reference to
Herbert A. Simon, the foremost decision theorist in public administration. It means optimally, choosing one
alternative from various alternatives available and is essentially problem solving in nature. It is also closely
related to policy-making and planning, but they are not the same.
Relevant and leading scientists and scholars have been identified and their contributions analyzed. Herbert A.
Simon`s bases of decision making were examined and compared to other leading scholars. Also Simon’s three
principal stages of decision making were looked at and compared to other writers. Further five typologies of
decisions were identified and briefly elaborated upon to shed more clarifications. Again four models of decision
making were identified and briefly substantiated on in order to enhance our scholarly understanding and in all
fairness and honesty, Herbert A. Simon`s understanding of the concept of decision making; his original
analytical ability and skill and his bounded rationality model of decision making in spite of some of its
limitations have been insightful, creative, imaginative, innovative and penetrating.
The analysis of decision- making with reference to Herbert A. Simon does enhance over collective
understanding of this deceptively simple, and yet very complex and elusive concept of decision making in
political science and public administration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. Y. Dror: Public policy-making: re-examined
[2]. Amitai Etzioni: Mixed Scanning: A Third Approach to Decision-making 1967
[3]. Charles E. Lindblom; The Science of Muddling Through, 1959
[4]. D.N. Boote and P. Beile: Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation.
Educational Researcher, 34(6), p. 3-15, 2005
[5]. W. Fox and Ivan H. Meyer: Public Administration Dictionary 1995
[6]. S. B. M. Marume: Epistemological and methodological aspects of African social research studies; unpublished PhD research thesis
proposal, California University for Advanced; 1986 and 1988
[7]. H. A. Simon, D. W. Smithburg, and V. A. Thomson,: Public Administration: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971.