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The document discusses different types of logical arguments including deductive and inductive arguments. It defines key terms related to deductive arguments like valid, sound, and types of deductive arguments including syllogisms, modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism. It also discusses inductive arguments and notes they provide probability rather than certainty. Common fallacies and necessary and sufficient conditions are also defined.
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ESTE TRABAJO DESTACA LAS CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PACTO POR LA REFORMA EDUCATIVA EN REP. DOMINICANA.
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1. Escoger el tema
Para decidir el tema, haz una lista de alternativas posibles, incluye por lo menos 10 opciones diferentes. Considera cuales son los problemas de tu audiencia y de que forma tu infografía puede ser útil para resolver algunos de estos problemas.
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Estás decidido a crear una infografiá y eso es excelente porque haz tomado acción y haz dado el primer paso. Es importante que tengas el objetivo claro y que definas como los vas a medir.
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Escoger un buen titulo para tu infografía es imprescindible para llamar la atención de tu audiencia y tendrá un gran impacto en que esta sea compartida en las redes sociales.
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No es un secreto que las personas captan y entienden mejor los conceptos cuando usamos historias para comunicarlos. Haz lo posible por organizar la estructura de tu infografía para que la información fluya en forma de una historia.
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El propósito del diseño es utilizar elementos visuales para explicar tu mensaje y dar a conocer la historia que estas contando para explicar tu mensaje. Debes buscar el balance adecuado entre el mensaje escrito, los elementos visuales y el espacio en blanco.
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Logic [excerpt from Stan Baronett, Logic, 2E]
Logic is the study of reasoning. Logic investigates the level of correctness of the reasoning found in arguments. An argument is a group of statements of which one (the conclusion) is claimed to follow from the others (the premises). A statement is a sentence that is either true or false. Every statement is either true or false; these two possibilities are called “truth values.” Premises are statements that contain information intended to provide support or reasons to believe a conclusion. The conclusion is the statement that is claimed to follow from the premises. In order to help recognize arguments, we rely on premise indicator words and phrases, and conclusion indicator words and phrases.
Inference is the term used by logicians to refer to the reasoning process that is expressed by an argument. If a passage expresses a reasoning process—that the conclusion follows from the premises—then we say that it makes an inferential claim. If a passage does not express a reasoning process (explicit or implicit), then it does not make an inferential claim (it is a noninferential passage). One type of noninferential passage is the explanation. An explanation provides reasons for why or how an event occurred. By themselves, explanations are not arguments; however, they can form part of an argument.
There are two types of argument: deductive and inductive. A deductive argument is one in which it is claimed that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. In other words, it is claimed that under the assumption that the premises are true it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. An inductive argument is one in which it is claimed that the premises make the conclusion probable. In other words, it is claimed that, under the assumption that the premises are true, it is improbable for the conclusion to be false.
Revealing the logical form of a deductive argument helps with logical analysis and evaluation. When we evaluate deductive arguments, we use the following concepts: valid, invalid, sound, and unsound. A valid argument is one where, assuming the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. In other words, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. An invalid argument is one where, assuming the premises are true, it is possible for the conclusion to be false. In other words, a deductive argument in which the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises is an invalid argument. When logical analysis shows that a deductive argument is valid, and when truth value analysis of the premises shows that they are all true, then the argument is sound. If a deductive argument is invalid, or if at least one of the premises is false (truth value analysis), then the argument is unsound.
A counterexample to astatement is evidenc.
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Week 14: April 28 & 30 - Love and Death
Castillo, Chap. 9 “Sofia, Who Would Never Again Let Her Husband Have the Last Word…”
Chap. 10 “Wherein Sofia Discovers La Loca’s Playmate…”
Chap. 11 “The Marriage of Sofia’s Faithful Daughter to her Cousin”
Chap. 12 “Of the Hideous Crime of Francisco el Penitente…”
1. For all chapters, identify the four levels of analysis: 1) metaphoric/symbolic; 2) literary; 3) sociological; and spiritual.
Chapter 9 “Sofia, Who Would Never Again Let Her Husband Have the Last Word…”
2. In this chapter, Sofia begins a transformation of her own. What is this transformation and what role does Esperanza play?Chapter 10
3. In this chapter, we return to La Loca, reading from her point of view. What do we learn from this, the youngest of Sofi’s daughters?
4. As Fe leaves Sofia’s home we realize she has not come to terms with what she went through when Tom broke off the engagement. What is Fe like now? Has she also changed?
5. What about Esperanza, what news about her? And what about “La Llorona, Chicana international astral-traveler”?
Chapter 11
6. Much happens to Fe in this chapter. Be able to recount all of Fe’s experiences and the relationship to big business, the U.S. government, and the medical profession.Chapter 12
7. What to make of this last chapter in Caridad and Francisco’s lives? What are the recurring themes and metaphors/symbolizes, etc.?
In preparation for the Opposing Viewpoints short paper due in Module Five, you will outline a position (thesis) on a topic of your choosing.
Using the Prewriting Template provided, outline two to three of your reasons for supporting your thesis and then also outline the objection’s position. Please note that the main purpose of this assignment is to formulate the strongest possible objection to your own position before responding to it.
You will be required to use at least four outside (i.e., other than the textbook) sources for this paper, two for each side of the issue. You do not need to do extensive reearch before completing the outline.
Possible topics: Affirmative Action, Abortion, State-Financed Health Care, Flat Tax...or anything you want. It is best to choose a position for which you can find reasonable arguments on both sides.
Click on the title above to turn in your outline.
First Paper (Opposing Viewpoints):
Critical Elements
Distinguished
Proficient
Emerging
Not Evident
Value
Main Elements
Includes almost all of the main elements and requirements and cites ample appropriate support to illustrate each element
(23-25)
Includes most of the main elements and requirements and cites appropriate support to illustrate each element
(20-22)
Includes some of the main elements and requirements
(18-19)
Does not include any of the main elements and requirements
(0-17)
25
Inquiry and Analysis
Explores multiple reasons and offers in-depth analysis of evidence to make informed conclusions about the issue
(18-20)
Explores so.
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Deductive Reasoning
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define basic key terms and concepts within deductive reasoning.
2. Use variables to represent an argument’s logical form.
3. Use the counterexample method to evaluate an argument’s validity.
4. Categorize different types of deductive arguments.
5. Analyze the various statements—and the relationships between them—in categorical arguments.
6. Evaluate categorical syllogisms using the rules of the syllogism and Venn diagrams.
7. Differentiate between sorites and enthymemes.
By now you should be familiar with how the field of logic views arguments: An argument is just a collection of sentences, one of which is the conclusion and the rest of which, the premises, provide support for the conclusion. You have also learned that not every collection of sentences is an argument. Stories, explanations, questions, and debates are not arguments, for example. The essential feature of an argument is that the premises support, prove, or give evidence for the conclusion. This relationship of support is what makes a collection of sentences an argument and is the special concern of logic. For the next four chapters, we will be taking a closer look at the ways in which premises might support a conclusion. This chapter discusses deductive reasoning, with a specific focus on categorical logic.3.1 Basic Concepts in Deductive Reasoning
As noted in Chapter 2, at the broadest level there are two types of arguments: deductive and inductive. The difference between these types is largely a matter of the strength of the connection between premises and conclusion. Inductive arguments are defined and discussed in Chapter 5; this chapter focuses on deductive arguments. In this section we will learn about three central concepts: validity, soundness, and deduction.
Validity
Deductive arguments aim to achieve validity, which is an extremely strong connection between the premises and the conclusion. In logic, the word valid is only applied to arguments; therefore, when the concept of validity is discussed in this text, it is solely in reference to arguments, and not to claims, points, or positions. Those expressions may have other uses in other fields, but in logic, validity is a strict notion that has to do with the strength of the connection between an argument’s premises and conclusion.
To reiterate, an argument is a collection of sentences, one of which (the conclusion) is supposed to follow from the others (the premises). A valid argument is one in which the truth of the premises absolutely guarantees the truth of the conclusion; in other words, it is an argument in which it is impossible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false. Notice that the definition of valid does not say anything about whether the premises are actually true, just whether the conclusion could be false if the premises were true. As an example, here is a silly but valid ar.
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4 Mistakes in Reasoning: The World of Fallacies
boy at chalkboard, puzzled at two math equations, 2+2=4 and 3+3=7
Have you ever heard of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates? Morons!
—Vizzini, The Princess Bride
So far we have looked at how to construct arguments and how to evaluate them. We've seen that arguments are constructed from sentences, with some sentences providing reasons, or premises, for another sentence, the conclusion. The purpose of arguments is to provide support for a conclusion. In a valid deductive argument, we must accept the conclusion as true if we accept the premises as true. A sound deductive argument is valid, and the premises are taken to be true. Inductive arguments, in contrast, are evaluated on a continuous scale from very strong to very weak: the stronger the inductive argument, the more likely the conclusion, given the premises.
What We Will Be Exploring
We will look at mistakes in reasoning, known as fallacies.
We will examine how these kinds of mistakes occur.
We will see that errors in reasoning can take place because of the structure of the argument.
We will discover that different errors in reasoning arise due to using language illegitimately, requiring close attention be paid to that language.
Generally, we want our arguments to be "good" arguments—sound deductive arguments and strong inductive arguments. Unfortunately, arguments often look good when they are not. Such arguments are said to commit a fallacy, a mistake in reasoning. Wide ranges of fallacies have been identified, but we will look at only some of the most common ones. When trying to construct a good argument, it is important to be able to identify what bad arguments look like. Then we can avoid making these mistakes ourselves and prevent others from trying to convince us of something on the basis of bad reasoning!
4.1
What Is a Fallacy?
image
The French village of Roussillon at sunrise. Roussillon is in Vaucluse, Provence. It would be a fallacy to assume that because someone lives in France, he or she lives in Paris.
Most simply, a fallacy is an error in reasoning. It is different from simply being mistaken, however. For instance, if someone were to say that "2 + 3 = 6," that would be a mistake, but it would not be a fallacy. Fallacies involve inferences, the move from one sentence (or a set of sentences) to another. Here's an example:
If I live in Paris, then I live in France.
I live in France.
Therefore,
I live in Paris.
Here, we have two premises and a conclusion. The first sentence is a conditional, and we can accept it as true. Let's assume the second sentence is also true. But even if those two premises were true, the conclusion would not be true. While it may be true that if I live in Paris then I live in France, and it may be true that I live in France, it does not follow that I live in Paris, because I could live in any number of other places in France. Thus, the inference from the .
Chapter 9Practicing Effective CriticismThe principles of cha.docx
Chapter 9
Practicing Effective Criticism
The principles of charity and accuracy govern the interpretation of arguments—they help you decide what the argument actually is. But once you have figured out what the argument is, you will want to evaluate it. In general, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of arguments or other works is known as criticism. In everyday language, criticism is often assumed to be negative—to criticize something is to say what is wrong with it. In the case of argumentation, however, criticism means to provide a more general analysis and evaluation of both the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. This section will focus on what constitutes good criticism and how you can criticize in a productive manner. Understanding how to properly critique an argument will also help you make your own arguments more effective.
When criticizing arguments, it is important to note both the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. Very few arguments are so bad that they have nothing at all to recommend them. Likewise, very few arguments are so perfect that they cannot be improved. Focusing only on an argument’s weaknesses or only on its strengths can make you seem biased. By noting both, you will not only be seen as less biased, you will also gain a better appreciation of the true state of the argument.
As we have seen, logical arguments are composed of premises and conclusions and the relation of inference between these. If an argument fails to establish its conclusion, then the problem might lie with one of the premises or with the inference drawn. So objections to arguments are mostly objections to premises or to inferences. A handy way of remembering this comes by way of the philosophical lore that all objections reduce to either “Oh yeah?” or “So what?” (Sturgeon, 1986).
Oh Yeah? Criticizing Premises
The “Oh yeah?” objection is made against a premise. A response of “Oh yeah?” means that the responder disagrees with what has been said, so it is an objection that a premise is either false or insufficiently supported.
Of course, if you are going to object to a premise, you really need to do more than just say, “Oh yeah?” At the very least, you should be prepared to say why you disagree with the premise. Whoever presented the argument has put the premise forward as true, and if all you can do is simply gainsay the person, then the discussion is not going to progress much. You need to support your objection with reasons for doubting the premise. The following is a list of questions that will help you not only methodically criticize arguments but also appreciate why your arguments receive negative criticism.
Is it central to the argument? The first thing to consider in questioning a premise is whether it is central to the argument. In other words, you should ask, “What would happen to the argument if the premise were wrong?” As noted in Chapter 5, inductive arguments can often remain fairly strong even if some of their premises turn ...
Poor Reasoning and Fallacies Cheat Sheet Appeal to the Pe.docx
Poor Reasoning and Fallacies Cheat Sheet
Appeal to the People (Bandwagon) - Claiming that something is true just because many people
believe it is. Example: Everybody buys this product, so it must be the best one.
Faulty Appeal to Authority - Using research without naming the source, such as, "Many researchers
say..." or answering questions one is not qualified to answer. Example: I asked my dentist if he thought
this mole was cancerous. He said “No” so I do not need to get it checked out.
Proof by Lack of Evidence (Burden of Proof) - Asserting something is true just because there is no
evidence it's false. Example: UFO’s exist because no one has ever been able to prove they don’t.
Innuendo – Making a claim without actually making the claim. Example:
Non Sequitur - It doesn't follow logically. Samantha lives in a large building; therefore she must have a
large home.
Fake Dilemma (Black and White) – Presenting two alternative states as the only possibilities, when in
fact there are more. Example: "You are either for the U.S. or against the U.S." doesn't allow for neutral
countries.
Naturalistic Fallacy (Appeal to Nature) - Making the argument because something is “natural”, it is
therefore valid, good or the way it’s supposed to be. Example: This product uses all natural ingredients
therefore it’s the only one on the market you should buy.
Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question) – Using the statement to prove the conclusion and the
conclusion to prove the statement. Example: The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this
because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and
Should Not Ever Be Questioned.
Overgeneralization – Asserting something is an entire class of things when it may not be true for all
members of the class. Example: Beth is a Psychology student and shy is shy, therefore all psychology
students are shy.
False Analogy (Slippery Slope) – Making a false or misleading analogy. Example: Colin Closet asserts
that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we'll be allowing people to marry their
parents, their cars and even monkeys.
Jumping to Conclusions – Drawing conclusions with little evidence. Example: My son is crying, you
must have taken his toy.
Being Unrealistic – Using only information in an unrealistic manner. Example: The candidates just all
graduated from college… therefore they should not take a job for less than 6 figures.
Verbal Fallacies (Ambiguity) – Accenting, omitting, or misusing certain words to influence or mislead
the reader or listener. Example: After the team lost, Susan became mad. (upset, angry, insane, happy…
who knows)
Using only information that supports your argument (Texas Sharpshooter) - Example: Research
says a glass of wine a day is good for my heart. So drinking is good for my heart!
Source: Jesse Ri.
1.4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency
Course lecture I developed over section 1.4 of Patrick Hurley\'s "A Concise Introduction to Logic".
Critical Task 3 Rubric Critical Elements Exemplary (1.docx
Critical Task 3 Rubric
Critical Elements Exemplary (100%) Proficient (85%) Needs Improvement (55%) Not Evident (0%) Value
Main Elements Includes all of the main
elements and requirements
and cites ample appropriate
support to illustrate each
element
Includes most of the main
elements and requirements
and cites appropriate support
to illustrate each element
Includes some of the main
elements and requirements
Does not include any of the
main elements and
requirements
25
Inquiry and Analysis Explores multiple reasons and
offers accurate and in-depth
analysis of the argument in its
structural form
Explores some reasons and
offers somewhat accurate and
somewhat in-depth analysis of
the argument in its structural
form
Explores minimal reasons and
offers minimally accurate
analysis of the argument in its
structural form
Does not explore reasons and
analysis of evidence and does
not offer accurate analysis of
the argument in its structural
form
25
Integration and
Application
All of the course concepts are
correctly applied
Most of the course concepts
are correctly applied
Some of the course concepts
are correctly applied
Does not correctly apply any of
the course concepts
10
Critical Thinking Demonstrates comprehensive
exploration of issues and ideas
before accepting or forming an
opinion or conclusion about
the argument
Demonstrates moderate
exploration of issues and ideas
before accepting or forming an
opinion or conclusion about
the argument
Demonstrates minimal
exploration of issues and ideas
before accepting or forming an
opinion or conclusion about
the argument
Does not demonstrate
exploration of issues and ideas
before accepting or forming an
opinion or conclusion about
the argument
20
Reflection and
Research
Incorporates a highly pertinent
life goal or issue of significant
importance
Incorporates a life goal or issue
of somewhat significant
importance
Incorporates a life goal or issue
of minimally significant
importance
Does not incorporate a life goal
or issue of significant
importance
10
Writing
(Mechanics/Citations)
No errors related to
organization, grammar and
style, and citations
Minor errors related to
organization, grammar and
style, and citations
Some errors related to
organization, grammar and
style, and citations
Major errors related to
organization, grammar and
style, and citations
10
Earned Total 100%
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMS
Hypothetical thinking involves “If . . . then . . .” reasoning. According to some psychologists, the mental model for hypothetical thinking is built into our brain and enables us to understand rules and predict the consequences of our actions. We’ll be looking at the use of hypothetical reasoning in ethics in greater depth in Chapter 9. Hypothetical arguments are also a basic building block of computer programs.
A hypothetical syllogism is a form of deductive.
Informal FallaciesEnterline Design Services LLCiStockThinkst.docx
Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Reflect back on what you have learned in this course about how to .docx
Reflect back on what you have learned in this course about how to construct high-quality arguments for positions. “refer to the attached reading chapter for help”
· Give an example of how the ability to think logically and to construct good arguments could help you in your career and in your daily life?
· In what ways the skill of being able to evaluate the quality of reasoning on all sides will better enable you to discover what is true and to make better choices?
· Finally, consider the argument you have been developing for your writing assignments. How has fairly considering multiple points of view helped you clarify your own perspective?
· What advice would you give to people to help them understand issues more clearly and objectively while being fair to all sides? Feel free to comment on any other values you have gained from this course so far.
Your journal entry must be at least 250 words. You do not need to follow APA style for this journal entry, but you should proofread your work to eliminate errors of grammar and spelling.
3
Deductive Reasoning
White cups stacked with one red cup in the middle.
moodboard/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Define basic key terms and concepts within deductive reasoning.
Use variables to represent an argument’s logical form.
Use the counterexample method to evaluate an argument’s validity.
Categorize different types of deductive arguments.
Analyze the various statements—and the relationships between them—in categorical arguments.
Evaluate categorical syllogisms using the rules of the syllogism and Venn diagrams.
Differentiate between sorites and enthymemes.
By now you should be familiar with how the field of logic views arguments: An argument is just a collection of sentences, one of which is the conclusion and the rest of which, the premises, provide support for the conclusion. You have also learned that not every collection of sentences is an argument. Stories, explanations, questions, and debates are not arguments, for example. The essential feature of an argument is that the premises support, prove, or give evidence for the conclusion. This relationship of support is what makes a collection of sentences an argument and is the special concern of logic. For the next four chapters, we will be taking a closer look at the ways in which premises might support a conclusion. This chapter discusses deductive reasoning, with a specific focus on categorical logic.
3.1 Basic Concepts in Deductive Reasoning
As noted in Chapter 2, at the broadest level there are two types of arguments: deductive and inductive. The difference between these types is largely a matter of the strength of the connection between premises and conclusion. Inductive arguments are defined and discussed in Chapter 5; this chapter focuses on deductive arguments. In this section we will learn about three central concepts: validity, soundness, and deduction.
.
Understanding arguments, reasoning and hypotheses
As researchers working in government, influencing service design, we need to know that our research is methodologically sound, our research findings are grounded in empirical data and our recommendations are logically derived.
'Understanding arguments, reasoning and hypotheses' is the first in a series of 5 short courses, covering introduction courses to various aspects of methodology in research, from the use of grounded theory in discovery research, to hypothesis testing and sampling in more experimental research.
In this course, you'll learn:
About arguments
- what we mean by an argument
- how to identify a valid/invalid argument
- what we mean by premises
- what validity and soundness of arguments mean
About reasoning
- what is deductive reasoning and where do we use it
- what is inductive reasoning and where do we use it
- what is abductive reasoning and where do we use it
About hypotheses
- what is a hypotheses and a null hypothesis
- how do we test them
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1.3 Deduction And Induction
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