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8business cycles-110505123053-phpapp01
This document discusses business cycles and theories of business cycles. It defines business cycles as alternating periods of economic prosperity and depression, characterized by fluctuations in production, prices, employment, and other economic indicators. Several theories of business cycles are presented, including monetary, psychological, overproduction, underconsumption, innovation, and accelerator theories. The multiplier-accelerator model is described as a way fluctuations can be generated through the interaction of investment, consumption, and aggregate demand. Methods to control business cycles discussed include monetary policy, fiscal policy, and automatic stabilizers.
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8business cycles-110505123053-phpapp01
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- 2. So far……… Development &analysis of determination of income and output => how investment, savings & consumption interact to determine income – static theory of income determination.
- 3. Dynamics of Income Movements Whyexpansion comes to an end? Why does the economy move downwards? Why and how does a slump come to an end? How a recovery begins and gives rise to prosperity?
- 4. Business Cycles An importantfeature of a capitalist economy is the existence of alternate periods of prosperity and depression. Sweeping fluctuations in economic activity, viz. Production, prices, employment, etc.
- 5. “A trade cycleis composed of good trade characterized by rising prices and low unemployment percentages, alternating with periods of bad trade characterized by falling prices and high unemployment percentages.” Keynes
- 6. The business cyclerepresents wavelike fluctuations in the level of business activity from the equilibrium or trend line. Schumpeter
- 7. Generalising… The business cycleis an alternate expansion and contraction in overall business activity, as evidenced by fluctuations in measures of aggregate economic activity, such as the gross product, the index of industrial production, and employment and income.
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- 9. A Typical BusinessCycle Number of Years LevelofBusinessActivity P M depression boom recessionprosperity recovery X Y O
- 10. Depression Business activity isfar below normal. Sharp reduction in production, mass unemployment, falling prices, falling profits, low wages, contraction of credit, high rate of business failure => all-round pessimism. Construction activity comes more or less to a standstill. Food, clothing industry not much affected.
- 11. Recovery Slight improvement ineconomic activity. Industrial production picks up. Employment increases. Slow but sure rise in prices & profits. Wages also rise. New investments in K-goods industry. Banks expand credit Business inventories start rising slowly. Atmosphere of cautious hope.
- 12. Prosperity Increased production. High capitalinvestment in basic industries Expansion of bank credit. High prices and profits Optimism is very high.
- 13. Boom Stage of rapidexpansion in business activity to new highs. High stock and commodity prices. High profits. Overfull employment. Boom carries within in the seeds of self- destruction. Boom is followed by bust.
- 14. Recession Collapse of firmscreates panic. Banks withdraw loans. Prices fall and confidence is shaken. Construction activity slows down. Unemployment appears in basic capital goods industry => spreads to other industries. Fall in income, prices, profits……
- 15. Classification of Business Cycles Prof.James Estey
- 16. Major & MinorCycles Major cycles may be defined as the fluctuations of business activity occurring between successive crises. Also called Juglar cycles. Approx. Length – 8.33 yrs. Each major cycle is made up of 2 or 3 minor cycles. The upswing of business in major cycles is often interrupted by minor downswings. Likewise, the downswings. Also called Kitchin cycles. Approx Length - 40 months
- 17. Building Cycles This refersto the cycle of building construction. The duration of the building cycle is longer than that of the business cycle. The duration of the building cycle varies between 15 – 20 years. The average of the building cycle is 18 yrs, just twice the length of the business cycles. There were 6 complex building cycles in the USA in the period 1830 to 1934.
- 18. Kondratieff Cycles or LongWaves They are a 50 – 60 years cycle. The long waves in economic activity were discovered by the Russian economist, Kondratieff, hence the name. On the basis of statistical data for the period 1780–1920, Kondratieff was able to establish 2 ½ long cycles in England and France, each full cycle being of the duration of 60 years.
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- 20. Sunspot theory W. StanleyJevons (British) 1875 Variations in atmosphere of the sun – frequency and magnitude of sunspots – cause rhythmical fluctuations in business activity Dark spots on the surface of the sun => affect agricultural crops => affect other sectors => influence the level of business activity Prof Henry L. Moore – 8 yr cycle of rainfall in America
- 21. Psychological theory Prof A.C. Pigou => in his work Industrial Fluctuations Changes in psychology of industrialists => waves of optimism and pessimism He could not explain the cause of the changes in psychology.
- 22. Overproduction theory Socialist mindedeconomists Several rival firms producing the same commodity want to capture market => produce more stocks than can sell => overproduction => prices fall => rise in cost of production => marginal firms collapse => depression
- 23. Over-saving theory Under-consumption theory Capitalistsociety => inequality of incomes Propertied class has too much wealth => save => invest the savings in business Worker class => not enough purchasing power to buy goods produced Overproduction => fall in prices => depression Too much saving and too little consumption is the cause of business depression.
- 24. Innovation theory Joseph Schumpeter(USA) Innovation – something new that changes the existing method of production Whenever innovation takes place, it causes disequilibrium in the economy => continues till re-adjustment at some new equilibrium level.
- 25. Monetary theory Business cycleis a “purely monetary phenomenon” An elastic money supply => alternate expansion and contraction of money
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- 27. Multiplier Ratio of changein income to change in investment. δY 1 K = ----------- = ------------- δI 1 - c
- 28. Accelerator Invented by A.Aftalion and T.N. Carver. Shows the effect of a change in consumption on investment. Hayek explains the concept: “since the production of any given amount of final output usually requires an amount of capital several times larger……. during any short period of time, any increase in final demand will give rise an additional demand for capital goods several times larger than the new final demand”.
- 29. Acceleration principle Investment dependson rate of interest Investment an endogenous variable – by being dependent on changes in national income Lipsey – possibility of systematic fluctuations because level of investment is related to changes in national income.
- 30. Two relationships… Between consumptiondemand and investment spending: An increase in demand for consumption goods can cause a proportionately larger accelerated increase in investment spending. E.g. a 10% increase in demand may lead to 100% increase in investment spending as business firms increase their production capacity to meet increased demand. When an increase in aggregate demand slows it’s upward pace and begins to level off, a decline in investment spending can occur, even if aggregate demand continues to grow.
- 31. Level of investmentis a function of the rate of change in consumption (output) and not the level of consumption (output). Measures change in investment goods industry as a result of changes in consumption goods industry. δI a = -------------- δC
- 32. Generation of Business Cycle J.R.Hicks =>. Cyclical fluctuations occur due to the combined action of the multiplier and accelerator => called the ‘leverage effect’. Ia => k => Y => a => Ib => k => ….
- 33. Example: An investment ofRs. 10 cr is made by the government on an infrastructure project. Given mpc = 0.5, a = 2. Map the changes in income over the next 10 years.
- 34. Multiplier Period Initial Outlay Induced Consumption Induced Net Investment Total increase inNY 1 Rs.10 0 0 Rs. 10 2 Rs.10 Rs. 5 Rs. 10 Rs. 25 3 Rs.10 Rs. 12.5 Rs. 15 Rs. 37.5 4 Rs.10 Rs. 18.75 Rs. 12.5 Rs. 41.25 5 Rs.10 Rs. 20.62 Rs. 3.74 Rs. 34.36 6 Rs.10 Rs. 17.18 Rs. – 6.88 Rs.20.3 7 Rs.10 Rs. 10.15 Rs. – 14.06 Rs. 6.09 8 Rs.10 Rs. 3.05 Rs. –14.20 Rs. –1.15 9 Rs.10 Rs. - 0.58 Rs. – 7.27 Rs. 2.15 10 Rs.10 Rs. 1.07 Rs. 3.32 Rs. 14.39 11 Rs.10 Rs. 7.20 Rs. 12.25 Rs. 29.44
- 35. Increase in NationalIncome -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Years NationalIncome(Rs.cr)
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- 37. Monetary Policy Check undueexpansion of money supply through proper and adequate cover against note-issue Check expansion of bank credit Bank rate, open market operations, reserve ratios, moral suasion, etc.
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- 39. Automatic Stabilizers An automaticstabilizer is an economic shock absorber that helps smooth the cyclical business fluctuations of its own accord, without requiring deliberate action on the part of the government.
- 40. Progressive income tax Peoplein higher income bracket are taxed at progressively higher rates Unemployment insurance Prosperity: employers pay taxes to government but payment of doles to the unemployed is considerably lower. Recession: government lowers taxes but pays out doles to unemployed.