The business cycle refers to periodic fluctuations in economic activity, involving periods of expansion and contraction. A business cycle involves peaks of economic activity following expansion, and troughs of economic decline. It includes the phases of expansion, crisis/recession, recovery/revival, and affects factors like GDP, employment levels, production, prices and profits over time. The causes of business cycles can include changes in consumption, business investment, government policies, innovations, and political/external events.
CA NOTES ON BUSINESS CYCLES IN BUSINESS ECONOMICS
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CA NOTES ON BUSINESS CYCLES IN BUSINESS ECONOMICS
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Trade (Business) Cycle content slideshow. Designed for the Economic A level qualification. Can be used in revision and in class.
Subtopics
Intro to the Trade Cycle
Phases of the Trade Cycle (Booms, Recessions, Slumps, Recoveries)
Business Cycle is part and parcel of any economic system. Any business or economy goes through a periodic cycle of highs and lows depending on the various endogenous or exogenous variables over a period of time which is inevitable and uncertain.
Inflation refers to the sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time. When inflation occurs, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services, leading to a decrease in the purchasing power of money. Inflation is typically measured using various economic indicators, such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). These indices track the average price changes of specific baskets of goods and services over time.
In these slides we discuss about Economic Growth & Business Cycle like GDP, Real GDP, Ways of measuring GDP, GNP, Aggregate Demand and Supply, Stages and Shape of Business Cycle, Growth / Expansion, Peak / Boom, Recession, Depression
CA NOTES ON BUSINESS ECONOMICS
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Trade (Business) Cycle content slideshow. Designed for the Economic A level qualification. Can be used in revision and in class.
Subtopics
Intro to the Trade Cycle
Phases of the Trade Cycle (Booms, Recessions, Slumps, Recoveries)
Business Cycle is part and parcel of any economic system. Any business or economy goes through a periodic cycle of highs and lows depending on the various endogenous or exogenous variables over a period of time which is inevitable and uncertain.
Inflation refers to the sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time. When inflation occurs, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services, leading to a decrease in the purchasing power of money. Inflation is typically measured using various economic indicators, such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). These indices track the average price changes of specific baskets of goods and services over time.
In these slides we discuss about Economic Growth & Business Cycle like GDP, Real GDP, Ways of measuring GDP, GNP, Aggregate Demand and Supply, Stages and Shape of Business Cycle, Growth / Expansion, Peak / Boom, Recession, Depression
CA NOTES ON BUSINESS ECONOMICS
FREE AFFIDAVITS AND NOTICES FORMATS
FREE AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS FORMATS
FREE LLB LAW NOTES
FREE CA ICWA NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIRST SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SECOND SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW THIRD SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FOURTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIFTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SIXTH SEM NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FOUNDATION NOTES
FREE CA ICWA INTERMEDIATE NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FINAL NOTES
KANOON KE RAKHWALE INDIA
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LAW FIRMS IN DELHI
CA FIRM DELHI
VISIT : https://www.kanoonkerakhwale.com/
VISIT : https://hirelawyeronline.com/
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As Europe's leading economic powerhouse and the fourth-largest hashtag#economy globally, Germany stands at the forefront of innovation and industrial might. Renowned for its precision engineering and high-tech sectors, Germany's economic structure is heavily supported by a robust service industry, accounting for approximately 68% of its GDP. This economic clout and strategic geopolitical stance position Germany as a focal point in the global cyber threat landscape.
In the face of escalating global tensions, particularly those emanating from geopolitical disputes with nations like hashtag#Russia and hashtag#China, hashtag#Germany has witnessed a significant uptick in targeted cyber operations. Our analysis indicates a marked increase in hashtag#cyberattack sophistication aimed at critical infrastructure and key industrial sectors. These attacks range from ransomware campaigns to hashtag#AdvancedPersistentThreats (hashtag#APTs), threatening national security and business integrity.
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Techniques to optimize the pagerank algorithm usually fall in two categories. One is to try reducing the work per iteration, and the other is to try reducing the number of iterations. These goals are often at odds with one another. Skipping computation on vertices which have already converged has the potential to save iteration time. Skipping in-identical vertices, with the same in-links, helps reduce duplicate computations and thus could help reduce iteration time. Road networks often have chains which can be short-circuited before pagerank computation to improve performance. Final ranks of chain nodes can be easily calculated. This could reduce both the iteration time, and the number of iterations. If a graph has no dangling nodes, pagerank of each strongly connected component can be computed in topological order. This could help reduce the iteration time, no. of iterations, and also enable multi-iteration concurrency in pagerank computation. The combination of all of the above methods is the STICD algorithm. [sticd] For dynamic graphs, unchanged components whose ranks are unaffected can be skipped altogether.
Levelwise PageRank with Loop-Based Dead End Handling Strategy : SHORT REPORT ...Subhajit Sahu
Abstract — Levelwise PageRank is an alternative method of PageRank computation which decomposes the input graph into a directed acyclic block-graph of strongly connected components, and processes them in topological order, one level at a time. This enables calculation for ranks in a distributed fashion without per-iteration communication, unlike the standard method where all vertices are processed in each iteration. It however comes with a precondition of the absence of dead ends in the input graph. Here, the native non-distributed performance of Levelwise PageRank was compared against Monolithic PageRank on a CPU as well as a GPU. To ensure a fair comparison, Monolithic PageRank was also performed on a graph where vertices were split by components. Results indicate that Levelwise PageRank is about as fast as Monolithic PageRank on the CPU, but quite a bit slower on the GPU. Slowdown on the GPU is likely caused by a large submission of small workloads, and expected to be non-issue when the computation is performed on massive graphs.
1. A business cycle refers to periods of expansion and
contraction. A peak is the high point following a
period of economic expansion. A trough is the low
point following a period of economic decline.
What is a business cycle
2. The recurring and fluctuating levels of economic
activity that an economy experiences over a long period
of time.
3.
4. Expansion: Increase in production and prices, low
interests rates.
Crisis: Stock exchanges crash and multiple
bankruptcies of firms
occur.
Recession: Drops
interests rates.
in prices and in output high
Recovery/Revival: Stocks recover because of the fall
in prices and incomes.
PHASE OF BUSINESS CYCLE
9. DURING DEPRESSION
ONLY CONSUMER GOODS ARE
PURCHASED
DURABLE GOODS
REMAIN UNSOLD
OLD DURABLE GOODS
EITHER GET CONSUMED
OR BECOME OBSOLETE
PURCHASE OF GOODS
AGAIN BECOMES
NECESSARY
PRODUCERS
PURCHASE THESE
GOODS
PRODUCTION IS ENCOURAGED
INCREASE IN EMPLOYMENT
INCREASE IN DEMAND FOR
CONSUMER GOODS
GREATE
R
PRODUCTION
OFCAPITAL
GOODS
ENCOURAGEMENT TO PRODUCE
CONSUMER AS WELL
PRODUCTIVE GOODS
PROGRESS IN BOTH INDUSTRIES
FULL
EMPLOYMENT
11. INCREASED DEMAND
DURING BOOM
BRINGS IN LESS
EFFICIENT
MEANS OF
PRODUCTION
MONEY MARKET ALSO
BECOMES COSTLIER
DEMAND FOR LOANS
PUSHES UP INTREST
RATES
QUANTITY OF
INVESTMENT
BEGINS TO
DECREASE
COST OF PRODUCTION
GOES UP
PRICES OF COMMODITIES
RISE SHARPLY
BEGINNING OF DEPRESSION
12. What causes recession
Decrease in spending by
consumers due to lack of faith in
the economy
Less consumption would mean
decline in demand for products
Which leads the manufacturers to
cut down on production
Lower production would
lead to job cuts
Which leads to high levels of
unemployment
Which perpetuates the cycle due to
limited spending
13. The business cycle is the periodic but irregular up-
and-
down movements in economic activity, measured
by fluctuations in Real GDP and other
macroeconomic variables.
14. CAUSES OF BUSINESS
CYCLES
• Internal Factors:
1. Consumption: When consumer spending increases, businesses will increase
production- causing them to hire more workers and purchase more materials
and capital goods. When consumer spending decreases, the opposite will occur.
2. Business investment: The purchasing of capital goods increases the number of
jobs in the economy because people have to make those goods. If investments
increases, the economy will grow, if investment decreases, the economy will
contract.
3. Government activity: The government can influence the business cycle
through fiscal policy (its tax and spend policies) and monetary policy (its
control of the money supply, largely through the federal reserve).
15. CONTI…
• External factors
1.Inventions and innovation: Major changes in technology can influence
the business cycle. Usually technological changes move the economy in a
positive direction, but this is not always so.
2.Wars and political events: The impact of such events on the economy
are very fact specific- in other words, difficult to generalize about.
17. INTRODUCTION
Inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the
price level or a fall in the value of money.
When the level of currency of a country exceeds the level of
production, inflation occurs.
Value of money depreciates with the occurrence of inflation.
18. DEFINITION
According to C.CROWTHER, “Inflation is State in which the
Value of Money is Falling and the Prices are rising.”
In Economics, the Word inflation Refers to General rise in
Prices Measured against a Standard Level of Purchasing Power.
19. CAUSES OF INFLATION
FACTORS ON DEMAND SIDE:
oIncrease in money supply.
oIncrease in disposable income.
oDeficit financing.
oForeign exchange reserves.
20. CONTD……
FACTORS ON SUPPLY SIDE
oRise in administered prices.
oErratic agriculture growth.
oAgricultural price policy.
oInadequate industrial growth.
22. EFFECT OF
INFLATION
• They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it
difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term.
• Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of
money discourages investment and saving.
23. • There can also be negative impacts to trade from an
increased instability in currency exchange prices caused
by unpredictable inflation.
• Higher income tax rates.
• Inflation rate in the economy is higher than rates in
other countries; this will increase imports and reduce
exports, leading to a deficit in the balance of trade.
26. CONSEQUENCES OF
INFLATION
Adverse effect on production
Adverse effect on distribution of income
Obstacle to development
Changes in relative prices
Adverse effect on the B.O.P
27. MEASURES OF INFLATION
1. Monetary policy
• Credit Control
• Demonetization of Currency
• Issue of New Currency
2. Fiscal policy
• Reduction in Unnecessary Expenditure
• Increase in Taxes
• Increase in Savings
• Surplus Budgets
• Public Debt
3. Other Measures
• To Increase Production
• Rational Wage Policy
• Price Control