4.3 using studies wisely
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The document discusses different types of studies and the inferences that can be drawn from them. Random selection of individuals allows inferences about a population, while random assignment to groups allows inferences about causation. Observational studies using non-randomly assigned groups can infer characteristics of populations but not causation. Only randomized experiments and observational studies using random selection can potentially establish causal relationships.
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Active Nurses per 100,000 people, by state
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State Nurses
State Nurses2
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Ohio. 1021
Alaska. 717
Maine 1093
Oklahoma 742
Arizona 585
Maryland 906
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We do not reject H_0 at the 5% level and conclude that patients have not significantly changed on the program.
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Choose one answer:
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log_{10} annual cigarette consumption (lb/person), x
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Introduction
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Summary of Case Study
The ever increasingly high incidence of breast cancer conditions has posed serious challenges in the nursing profession. Provision of appropriate healthcare to the cancer patients has been lacking leading to adverse effects of the proliferation of cancerous cells which further worsen the conditions of the patients. As primary care, clinicians have the responsibility to stressing providing healthcare services within healthcare facilities as well as monitoring treatment in home based facilities to help manage cancer condition. Most cancer patient need clinicians who practice evidence-based clinical practices (Riva, Malik, Burnie, Endicott, & Busse, 2012).
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PICOT Format
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STATISTICS QUIZE
1. Which of the following research designs includes both an intervention and randomization?
Group of answer choices
Grounded theory research
Non-experimental research
Time series design
Experimental research
2. What is the initial question the researcher should ask when selecting a research design for a particular study?
Group of answer choices
What is the norm in the research topic area?
What type of data analysis techniques will be used?
What instruments will be used to measure the variables in the study?
What is the primary purpose of the study?
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Group of answer choices
What is the experience of women with hyperthyroidism and resolution of sypmtoms after treatment?
What is the relationship between amount of exercise/week and arthralgia in women with estrogen receptor positive breast cancer who are being treated with an aromatase inhibitor?
What is the prevalence of heroin addiction amongst adults ages 18-45 in the Greater Cincinnati region?
In patients undergoing a total hip arthroplasty, which of the following treatments is most effective in the decolonization of MRSA: preoperative povidone iodine or posteroperative mupirocin?
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Group of answer choices
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Quasi-experimental research
Experimental research
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Group of answer choices
Instruments that are valid for measuring the identified variables are a source of bias.
The researcher can not be a source of bias in a study because he/she is in control
Preconcieved ideas about what the finding of a study will be may lead to bias in intrepreting data.
It is the same as manipulation because the researcher determines the treatment to be given.
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Group of answer choices
An underhanded strategy designed to make subject behave as the researcher wants them to.
Controlling the environment in which the research takes place
An intervention or treatment introduced by the researcher to assess its impact on the dependent variable.
The ability of the researcher to be able to handle or use the equpiment needed to collect data in the study
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Group of answer choices
Representative
Distribution
Sampling
Mean
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Group of answer choices
Using a natural clinical setting
Selecting individuals that are relatively alike in relation to var.
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STAT225: Introduction to Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences
1. In a school election, five people run for student body president. The actual number of votes for each candidate would be a(n) variable. If the total number of votes were removed and the candidates were listed in order of least to most popular, this would be a(n)
variable.
a. ratio; ordinal b. ordinal; ratio c. ratio; nominal
d. nominal; ordinal
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a. type of leadership position b. the 12 women in the study
c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
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c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
Please use the following information to answer questions 4 through 9
An industrial psychologist at a company has heard that desk bikes could help employees to lose weight, increase their stamina, and improve productivity. Sixteen employees were provided with desk bikes and the total number of pounds they lost, after one month, was recorded. Here are the data, in pounds lost, per employee:
4
8
12
0
2
20
18
0
12
6
12
16
10
8
12
4
4. What is the range of this distribution?
a. 0 t o 20 b. 20
c. 18 d. 4
5. What is the mean number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
9.88
b.
10.4
c.
12
d.
9
6. What is the median number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
8
b.
9
c.
10
d.
11
7. What is the variance of the number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
37.33
b.
9.72
c.
9.85
d.
6.11
8. What is the Interquartile range for this distribution?
a.
4
b.
8
c.
9
d.
12
9. How many outliers are in this distribution?
a. 0 b. 1
c. 2
d. Unable to determine from this information
The following graph depicts the typical relationship found between physiological arousal (anxiety) levels (e.g., range from 0 = no anxiety to 10=extreme anxiety) and test performance (e.g., percentage of correct answers on test).
Please use the following information to answer questions 10 and 11.
100%
Test Performance (in Percentage)
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Relationship Between Physiological Arousal Level and Test
Performance
0 2 4 6 8 10
Physiological Arousal Level
10. Based on this graph, what type of relation exists between physiological arousal level and test performanc.
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Questions:
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Social Media Site Percentage Who Use Most Often
Facebook 43%
Instagram 18%
Snapchat 15%
Twitter 8%
Google+ 4%
Pinterest 3%
a) What is the sum of the percentages for these top social media sites? What percent of Americans aged 12–24 use other social media sites most often?
b) Make a bar graph to display these data. Be sure to include an “Other social media site’’ category.
c) Would it be correct to display these data in a pie chart? Why or why not?
2. Table below gives the number of active nurses per 100,000 people in each state.
a) Why is the number of nurses per 100,000 people a better measure of the availability of nurses than a simple count of the number of nurses in a state?
b) Make a stemplot that displays the distribution of nurses per 100,000 people. The data will first need to be rounded. What units are you going to use for the stems? The leaves? You should round the data to the units you are planning to use for the leaves before drawing the stemplot. Write a brief description of the distribution. Are there any outliers? If so, can you explain them?
Active Nurses per 100,000 people, by state
State Nurses
State Nurses
State Nurses2
Alabama. 911
Louisiana. 881
Ohio. 1021
Alaska. 717
Maine 1093
Oklahoma 742
Arizona 585
Maryland 906
Oregon 803
Arkansas 798
Massachusetts 1260
Pennsylvania 1030
California 630
Michigan 849
Rhode Island 1104
Colorado 831
Minnesota 1093
South Carolina 834
Connecticut 1017
Mississippi 950
South Dakota 1296
Delaware 1155
Missouri 1038
Tennessee 984
Florida ...
Research Essay Conclusion
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MedicalResearch.com: Medical Research Exclusive Interviews June 6 2015
This document summarizes an interview on a study examining the effectiveness of state strategies for increasing organ donations. The main findings were that states have implemented many creative strategies but they have had almost no effect on donation or transplantation rates. The only strategy found to have a small positive effect was dedicating state revenue to organ donation activities. Clinicians and patients should take away that new strategies are needed to address the ongoing organ shortage.
1. In a study, 28 adults with mild periodontal disease are assesse
1. In a study, 28 adults with mild periodontal disease are assessed before and 6 months after the implementation of a dental-education program intended to promote better oral hygiene. After 6 months, periodontal status improved in 15 patients, declined in 8, and remained the same in 5.
Choose one answer:
Assess the impact of the program statistically (use a two-sided test).
We do not reject H_0 at the 5% level and conclude that patients have not significantly changed on the program.
We reject H_0 at the 5% level and conclude that patients have significantly changed on the program.
We reject H_0 at the 5% level and conclude that patients have not significantly changed on the program.
We do not reject H_0 at the 5% level and conclude that patients have significantly changed on the program.
2. data can be ordered but do not have specific numeric values. Thus, common arithmetic cannot be performed on ordinal data in a meaningful way.
Choose one answer:
ordinal
interval
ratio
nominal
3. A ______________ design is a type of randomized clinical trial in which each participant is randomized to either group A or group B which receive different treatments, then later switch treatments.
Choose one answer:
cross-over
case-control
prospective
retrospective
4. Suppose researchers do an epidemiologic investigation of people entering a sexually transmitted disease clinic. They find that 160 of 200 patients who are diagnosed as having gonorrhea and 50 of 105 patients who are diagnosed as having nongonococcal urethritis have had previous episodes of urethritis.
Are the present diagnosis and prior episodes of urethritis associated? (Hint: a chi-square test with Yates' correction)
Choose one answer:
Gonorrhea patients are significantly more likely to have prior episodes of urethritis than NGU patients.
Gonorrhea patients are not significantly more likely to have prior episodes of urethritis than NGU patients.
5. The _______ rate is defined as the proportion of participants in the placebo group who actually receive the active treatment outside the study protocol.
6. I DID IT
7. I DID IT
8. I DID IT
9. For any sample point ( x subscript i, y subscript i), the ___________________ of that point about the regression line is defined by ( stack y subscript i with hat on top minus top enclose y). (Hint: the blank is two words)
10. The following statistics are taken from an article by Burch relating cigarette smoking to lung cancer. The article presents data relating mortality from lung cancer to average cigarette consumption (lb/person) for females in England and Wales over a 40-year period. The data are given in the table below.
Cigarette consumption and lung-cancer mortality in England and Wales, 1930-1969
Period
log_{10} mortality (over 5 years), y
log_{10} annual cigarette consumption (lb/person), x
1930-1934
-2.35
-0.26
1935-1939
-2.20
-0.03
1940-1944
-2.12
0.30
1945-1949
-1.95
0.37
1950-1954
-1.85
0.40
1955-1959
-1.80
0.50
1960-1 ...
Prevent AMD 2019 SlideShre
A quick overview of our national project to reduce the frequency and severity of vision loss from age related macular degeneration (AMD)
PreventAMD2020 SlideShow
This document describes the PreventAMD2019 program, which aims to reduce the incidence of age-related macular degeneration through early detection and lifestyle changes. It utilizes the Pharmanex Biophotonic Scanner to quickly and reliably measure antioxidant levels and motivate patients. The program is sponsored by The Foundation of a Healthy America and seeks a visionary practice in each state to implement antioxidant scanning and lifestyle coaching to help prevent chronic diseases through measurement and incentivizing positive behavior changes.
Prevent AMD 2019 SlideShow
This document describes the PreventAMD2019 program, which aims to reduce the incidence of age-related macular degeneration through screening and lifestyle motivation. It utilizes the Pharmanex Biophotonic Scanner to quickly and reliably measure antioxidant levels and give patients a score to monitor changes over time. The program is sponsored by The Foundation of a Healthy America and seeks a visionary practice in each state to implement regular scanning and incentivize patients to improve their scores through exercise, diet, supplements and other lifestyle changes.
Social Uses of Personal Health Information Within PatientsLikeMe (4 Aud 1000 ...
The document discusses the PatientsLikeMe online community, where patients with various health conditions can share personal health information. It finds that patients use the site in three key ways: [1] to ask targeted questions of others with similar experiences, [2] to provide advice and recommendations based on personal experiences, and [3] to form relationships with others facing shared health concerns. The analysis suggests these social interactions allow patients to support each other and make more informed health decisions together than they could alone.
Evidence-Based Practices & NursingIntroduction Normally,.docx
Evidence-Based Practices & Nursing
Introduction
Normally, PICOT format is helpful in formulation of questions in an evidenced based clinical practice. PICOT generated questions generally fall under for main categories of clinical practices. These include; therapy, prevention, diagnosis, etiology as well as Prognosis. The essential elements in PICOT questions. The PICOT format is valuable in addressing research questions comprehensively. Five elements are normally addressed including; population, intervention, comparison, outcome and time as well (Riva, Malik, Burnie, Endicott, & Busse, 2012).
Summary of Case Study
The ever increasingly high incidence of breast cancer conditions has posed serious challenges in the nursing profession. Provision of appropriate healthcare to the cancer patients has been lacking leading to adverse effects of the proliferation of cancerous cells which further worsen the conditions of the patients. As primary care, clinicians have the responsibility to stressing providing healthcare services within healthcare facilities as well as monitoring treatment in home based facilities to help manage cancer condition. Most cancer patient need clinicians who practice evidence-based clinical practices (Riva, Malik, Burnie, Endicott, & Busse, 2012).
Research Question
In cancer patients receiving chemotherapy, will they have better white blood cell count monitoring with a follow-up at home versus follow-up at a health care facility during their treatment?
PICOT Format
1) P-Population: Patients aged 18-60 years-old, breast cancer who have not received chemotherapy in the past six months are subjected to the treatment. Patients with other serious health conditions such as heart diseases were excluded in the study. 30 patients, with 15patients stationed at the healthcare facility while the other 15 patients receiving home-based care, are expected to take part in the study.
2) I -Intervention: The patients will receive dosage based on the age, sex and health general body health as well as the stage of cancer cells proliferation in the body. The patients are required take the prescribed drugs at regular intervals. The subjects will be subjected to treatment under the same during the research study.
3) C-Comparison: All the subject regardless of variations in their level of dose requirement will be subjected to the same treatment for the same duration, 3months. Standardized treatment will be given to subjects with no extreme variations in their level of dose requirement and would be used as an active control group. Using this strategy, it will be possible to minimize the non-specific effects due to a group of the patient receiving treatment within the healthcare.
4) O-Outcome: The response in chemotherapy treatments will be check by examining the numbers of defective cancerous cells in the body tissues. The patients will report to the theatre in order to be examined by an oncologist. The results will be recorded i ...
DNP-816 Analysis & Applic of Health Data for ANPSTATISTICS QUIZ.docx
DNP-816: Analysis & Applic of Health Data for ANP
STATISTICS QUIZE
1. Which of the following research designs includes both an intervention and randomization?
Group of answer choices
Grounded theory research
Non-experimental research
Time series design
Experimental research
2. What is the initial question the researcher should ask when selecting a research design for a particular study?
Group of answer choices
What is the norm in the research topic area?
What type of data analysis techniques will be used?
What instruments will be used to measure the variables in the study?
What is the primary purpose of the study?
3. Which of the following research questions is the appropriate question for a correlational research design?
Group of answer choices
What is the experience of women with hyperthyroidism and resolution of sypmtoms after treatment?
What is the relationship between amount of exercise/week and arthralgia in women with estrogen receptor positive breast cancer who are being treated with an aromatase inhibitor?
What is the prevalence of heroin addiction amongst adults ages 18-45 in the Greater Cincinnati region?
In patients undergoing a total hip arthroplasty, which of the following treatments is most effective in the decolonization of MRSA: preoperative povidone iodine or posteroperative mupirocin?
4. Match the types of quantitative research listed below with the sample study titles.
Group of answer choices
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Quasi-experimental research
Experimental research
5. Bias is a term used to indicate that data in a study are being distorted or slanted away from reality by some influencing factor. Which of the following is true about bias in research?
Group of answer choices
Instruments that are valid for measuring the identified variables are a source of bias.
The researcher can not be a source of bias in a study because he/she is in control
Preconcieved ideas about what the finding of a study will be may lead to bias in intrepreting data.
It is the same as manipulation because the researcher determines the treatment to be given.
6. Manipulation is a term used in quasi and experimental research to mean:
Group of answer choices
An underhanded strategy designed to make subject behave as the researcher wants them to.
Controlling the environment in which the research takes place
An intervention or treatment introduced by the researcher to assess its impact on the dependent variable.
The ability of the researcher to be able to handle or use the equpiment needed to collect data in the study
7. We do not know whether the pattern of results found in our samples accurately reflects what is happening in the population or if it is the result of what type of error?
Group of answer choices
Representative
Distribution
Sampling
Mean
8. Extraneous variables may be controlled by:
Group of answer choices
Using a natural clinical setting
Selecting individuals that are relatively alike in relation to var.
STAT225 Introduction to Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences.docx
STAT225: Introduction to Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences
1. In a school election, five people run for student body president. The actual number of votes for each candidate would be a(n) variable. If the total number of votes were removed and the candidates were listed in order of least to most popular, this would be a(n)
variable.
a. ratio; ordinal b. ordinal; ratio c. ratio; nominal
d. nominal; ordinal
2. A researcher was interested in the effects of gender on attitudes toward women in leadership positions. The researcher surveyed a group of individuals, 12 of whom were men and 12 of whom were women. In this example, what is the explanatory/independent variable?
a. type of leadership position b. the 12 women in the study
c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
3. A researcher was interested in the effects of gender on attitudes toward women in leadership positions. The researcher surveyed a group of individuals, 12 of whom were men and 12 of whom were women. In this example, what is the response/dependent variable?
a. type of leadership position b. the 12 women in the study
c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
Please use the following information to answer questions 4 through 9
An industrial psychologist at a company has heard that desk bikes could help employees to lose weight, increase their stamina, and improve productivity. Sixteen employees were provided with desk bikes and the total number of pounds they lost, after one month, was recorded. Here are the data, in pounds lost, per employee:
4
8
12
0
2
20
18
0
12
6
12
16
10
8
12
4
4. What is the range of this distribution?
a. 0 t o 20 b. 20
c. 18 d. 4
5. What is the mean number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
9.88
b.
10.4
c.
12
d.
9
6. What is the median number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
8
b.
9
c.
10
d.
11
7. What is the variance of the number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
37.33
b.
9.72
c.
9.85
d.
6.11
8. What is the Interquartile range for this distribution?
a.
4
b.
8
c.
9
d.
12
9. How many outliers are in this distribution?
a. 0 b. 1
c. 2
d. Unable to determine from this information
The following graph depicts the typical relationship found between physiological arousal (anxiety) levels (e.g., range from 0 = no anxiety to 10=extreme anxiety) and test performance (e.g., percentage of correct answers on test).
Please use the following information to answer questions 10 and 11.
100%
Test Performance (in Percentage)
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Relationship Between Physiological Arousal Level and Test
Performance
0 2 4 6 8 10
Physiological Arousal Level
10. Based on this graph, what type of relation exists between physiological arousal level and test performanc.
Medical Question Answering: Dealing with the complexity and specificity of co...
This document provides an overview of Dr. Asma Ben Abacha's work on medical question answering. It discusses the challenges of consumer health question answering, including analyzing and understanding complex questions. It also discusses challenges in retrieving relevant and reliable answers. The document outlines Dr. Ben Abacha's research projects on recognizing question entailment to answer new questions, summarizing consumer health questions, answering medication questions using a new dataset, and visual question answering using medical images. It provides results of experiments on these tasks and discusses insights and needed solutions for advancing medical question answering.
1.Questions 1 and 2 are based on the following informationYou.docx
1.
Questions 1 and 2 are based on the following information:
You are called to investigate a possible health problem in an office building that may be due to a potential environmental toxin. You arrange with a company that occupies two levels of the building to follow all 300 office employees for 30 days. Every day the employees report their health status. Nothing happens until day 10, when 35 employees report of respiratory distress. On day 20, 70 employees report of respiratory distress. The remaining employees do not report any problems over the 30 day period.
What is the incidence rate of respiratory distress in this study population?
a. 1.4 per 100 person-days
b. 2.1 per 100 person-days
c. 2.8 per 100 person-days
d. 1.0 per 100 person-days
1 point
2.
What is the cumulative incidence of respiratory distress over a 30-day period?
a. 35%
b. 65%
c. 11.6 per 100 person-days
d. 35 per 100 person-days
1 point
3.
Question 3 is based on the following data among women in the United States (US)
3.Based on the information provided, what can you conclude about the crude mortality rate from cervical cancer among women 30-49 years of age in the US?
a. The crude mortality rate from cervical cancer among women 30-49 years of age was 1.2 times higher in 1980 than in 2000.
b. The crude mortality rate from cervical cancer among women 30-49 years of age was the same in 1980 as it was in 2000.
c. The crude mortality rate from cervical cancer among women 30-49 years of age was 1.2 times higher in 2000 than in 1980.
d. The crude mortality rate from cervical cancer among women 30-49 years of age cannot be calculated either for 1980 or 2000.
1 point
4.
Questions 4 and 5 are based on the following information:
Imagine researchers have developed a new rapid screening test for tuberculosis, which they hope will replace the sputum culture (reference standard). To pilot this new test, 1,000 participants were given both test.
Rapid test result
Sputum culture test result
Positive
Negative
Positive
120
360
Negative
30
490
4. What is the specificity of the new rapid test for detecting tuberculosis (tuberculosis is defined as positive for sputum culture test)? Show your work, and report your answer as a percent rounded to the percent’s tenths decimal place (i.e., to the nearest 0.1%). (If no work is shown, half credit will be deducted from the grading of your response to this question, even if your final answer is correct.)
Enter Answer
Your answer will appear here.
1 point
5.
If the true prevalence of tuberculosis were to decrease in the above study population, what effect would this have on the positive predictive value of the new rapid test for detecting tuberculosis?
a. The positive predictive value would increase.
b. The positive predictive value would decrease.
c. The positive predictive value would not change.
d. The impact on the positive predictive value would depend on the sensitivity.
1 point
6.
Which of the following options best represents the term “incubat.
2 stanford talkdyer
The document discusses using mobile health technologies like text messaging to improve diabetes management and outcomes for teens. It outlines a proposed study to test if weekly personalized text messages over 3 months can significantly lower HbA1c levels compared to standard care. The study would enroll 100 teens split evenly between a control group receiving standard care and an intervention group receiving the text messages.
Xplore health Lesson Plan
Project IBSL for STEM club Evangeliki Model High School of Smyrna.
Using Resources by STEM Alliance repository.
“Skin cancer into the research microscope of students”.
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MedicalResearch.com: Medical Research Exclusive Interviews June 6 2015
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This document discusses the odds of a successful outcome of an event. It defines odds as the ratio of the probability of success to the probability of failure. It also notes that probability is a ratio of the desired outcome to the total possible outcomes. The document directs the reader to additional examples on specific pages to further illustrate the concept of odds and probability.
Logarithmic transformations
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2. There are two options for logarithmic transformations: taking the log of just the response variable y, or taking the log of both the explanatory variable x and the response variable y.
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Transforming data for inference
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
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4.3 using studies wisely
- 1. Using Studies Wisely Two types of inference: - inference about the population - inference about cause and effect Randomization helps you decide which type of inference is appropriate!! Random selection of individuals allows for inferences to be made about the population. Random assignment of individuals to groups allows for inferences to be made about cause and effect.
- 2. Using Studies Wisely Two examples: what can or can’t we infer….??? • The U.S. Census Bureau carries out a monthly Current Population Survey of about 60,000 households. Their goal is to use data from these randomly selected households to determine the percent of unemployed individuals in the population. • Scientists performed an experiment that randomly assigned 21 volunteer subjects to one of two treatment groups: sleep deprivation for one night or unrestricted sleep. The experiment hoped to show that sleep deprivation causes a decrease in performance two days later.
- 3. Using Studies Wisely Were individuals randomly assigned to groups? YES NO Inference about the population: YES Inference about cause and effect: YES Inference about the population: YES Inference about cause and effect: NO NO Were individuals randomly selected? YES Inference about the population: NO Inference about cause and effect: YES Inference about the population: NO Inference about cause and effect: NO
- 4. Using Studies Wisely A small town dentist wants to know if a daily dose of 500 mg of vitamin C will result in fewer canker sores in the mouth than taking no vitamin C. Design 1: Get all dentists in town with appointments in the next two weeks to take part in a study. Give each patient a survey with two questions: a) Do you take at least 500 mg of vitamin C each day? b) Do you frequently have canker sores? Based on patients’ answers to Question a, divide them into two groups, those who take at least 500 mg of vitamin C daily and those that don’t. Suppose she compares the proportions of patients in each group who complain of canker sores and she finds statistically significant differences compared to those that take at least 500 mg of vitamin C. What can the dentist conclude?????
- 5. Using Studies Wisely Design 2: Get all dental patients in town with appointments in the next two weeks to take part in a study. Randomly assign half of them to take 500 mg of vitamin C each day and the other half to abstain from taking vitamin C each day for three months. Suppose she compares the proportions of patients in each group who complain of canker sores and she finds statistically significant differences compared to those that take at least 500 mg of vitamin C. What can the dentist conclude?????
- 6. Using Studies Wisely Design 3: Select a random sample of dental patients in town and get them to take part in a study. Divide the patients into two groups, those who take at least 500 mg of vitamin C daily and those that don’t. Suppose she compares the proportions of patients in each group who complain of canker sores and she finds statistically significant differences compared to those that take at least 500 mg of vitamin C. What can the dentist conclude?????
- 7. Using Studies Wisely Design 4: Select a random sample of dental patients in town and get them to take part in a study. Randomly assign half of them to take 500 mg of vitamin C each day and the other half to abstain from taking vitamin C each day for three months. Suppose she compares the proportions of patients in each group who complain of canker sores and she finds statistically significant differences compared to those that take at least 500 mg of vitamin C. What can the dentist conclude?????
- 8. Using Studies Wisely A well-designed experiment tells us that changes in the explanatory variable causes changes in the response variable. The lack of realism can limit our ability to apply the conclusions of an experiment to the settings of greatest interest. Brake Lights
- 9. Using Studies Wisely In some cases, it isn’t practical or ethical: - Does texting while driving increase risk of accident? - Does going to church help you live longer? - Does smoking cause lung cancer? So we can’t do an experiment on this idea, so now what…??
- 10. Using Studies Wisely Criteria for establishing causation when you can’t experiment • Association is strong (smoking & cancer – very strong) • Association is consistent (many countries) • Larger values of the explanatory variable are associated with stronger responses (smoke more or longer, more cancer) • The alleged cause precedes the effect in time (30 years later) • The alleged cause is plausible (experiments with animals) Evidence for causation is overwhelming, BUT it is not as strong as evidence by an experiment