The document discusses various adaptations parasites have evolved to survive in their hosts. It describes physiological adaptations like asexual reproduction, hermaphroditism, and high fecundity that allow parasites to rapidly increase their numbers. Behavioral adaptations help parasites find and transmit between hosts, like periodic larval emergence. Structural adaptations enhance attachment and penetration of hosts, such as suckers and hooks. Many parasites also modify host behaviors to aid transmission.
This document provides an overview of the ecology of parasites. It discusses parasites' host environments and adaptations to exploit host resources. Parasites are site-specific within hosts, inhabiting different internal and external microenvironments. Parasite populations are described using quantitative terms like density, prevalence, and aggregation. Macroparasites are large parasites that do not multiply within hosts, while microparasites are small parasites that do multiply. Population structure graphs show how parasites are distributed among host individuals. Epidemiology studies disease transmission and distribution at both the macro and micro levels.
Termites live in complex colonies found in regions around the world. They communicate chemically through pheromones and live in castes that work cooperatively. The colonies contain a king and queen that lay eggs, supplementary royalty, wingless workers that build and maintain the nest, soldiers that defend the colony, and proboscideans that have elongated heads. Termites digest wood and plant material with the help of symbiotic protozoa.
This document discusses various parasitic adaptations that allow parasites to survive within host organisms. It provides examples of parasites that have different body shapes and sizes depending on the available space in the host, including intracellular parasites that are very small and intestinal parasites that are larger. It also describes how parasites have structures like hooks or suckers to attach to host tissues, protective coverings to avoid digestive enzymes, and can utilize aerobic or anaerobic respiration depending on oxygen levels. Parasites also exhibit high reproductive rates and complex life cycles involving multiple larval stages. Overall, the document outlines morphological, anatomical and physiological changes parasites undergo to adapt to the host environment.
[1] The document discusses various types of animal behaviors including innate behaviors, learned behaviors, and different patterns of behaviors such as feeding behavior, social behavior, predatory behavior, and reproductive behavior.
[2] It provides examples of different types of innate responses in animals like tropisms, taxes, kineses, and reflexes. Learned behaviors can develop through experiences and include habituation, imprinting, and conditioning.
[3] The document also examines various patterns of behaviors in detail including social behavior in insects like bees, parental behavior in birds and mammals, and anti-predator behaviors used by animals for protection.
Polymorphism and polyphenism refer to the appearance of different forms or morphs within a single species. Polymorphism can include differences in color, size, or other attributes that are genetically determined. Polyphenism involves differences in phenotypes that arise from the same genotype in response to environmental conditions. Examples of polymorphism and polyphenism discussed in the document include sexual dimorphism, geographic polymorphism, mimicry complexes in Lepidoptera, and polyphenic traits like insect castes and seasonal color changes that maximize survival and reproduction.
are worm-like parasites. The clinically relevant groups are separated according to their general external shape and the host organ they inhabit. There are both hermaphroditic and bisexual species.
The definitive classification is based on the external and internal morphology of egg, larval, and adult stages.
Helminth is a general term meaning worm. The helminths are invertebrates characterized by elongated, flat or round bodies.
In flatworms or platyhelminths (platy from the Greek root meaning “flat”) include flukes and tapeworms.
Roundworms are nematodes (nemato from the Greek root meaning “thread”).
Parasitism has evolved over time as parasites adapt to their hosts. Parasites like malaria originated in primates in Africa and later transferred to humans. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted via mosquito bites and Plasmodium falciparum is thought to have evolved from gorillas to infect humans around 50,000 years ago. Parasites continue evolving in response to hosts and their environments.
This document provides an overview of the ecology of parasites. It discusses parasites' host environments and adaptations to exploit host resources. Parasites are site-specific within hosts, inhabiting different internal and external microenvironments. Parasite populations are described using quantitative terms like density, prevalence, and aggregation. Macroparasites are large parasites that do not multiply within hosts, while microparasites are small parasites that do multiply. Population structure graphs show how parasites are distributed among host individuals. Epidemiology studies disease transmission and distribution at both the macro and micro levels.
Termites live in complex colonies found in regions around the world. They communicate chemically through pheromones and live in castes that work cooperatively. The colonies contain a king and queen that lay eggs, supplementary royalty, wingless workers that build and maintain the nest, soldiers that defend the colony, and proboscideans that have elongated heads. Termites digest wood and plant material with the help of symbiotic protozoa.
This document discusses various parasitic adaptations that allow parasites to survive within host organisms. It provides examples of parasites that have different body shapes and sizes depending on the available space in the host, including intracellular parasites that are very small and intestinal parasites that are larger. It also describes how parasites have structures like hooks or suckers to attach to host tissues, protective coverings to avoid digestive enzymes, and can utilize aerobic or anaerobic respiration depending on oxygen levels. Parasites also exhibit high reproductive rates and complex life cycles involving multiple larval stages. Overall, the document outlines morphological, anatomical and physiological changes parasites undergo to adapt to the host environment.
[1] The document discusses various types of animal behaviors including innate behaviors, learned behaviors, and different patterns of behaviors such as feeding behavior, social behavior, predatory behavior, and reproductive behavior.
[2] It provides examples of different types of innate responses in animals like tropisms, taxes, kineses, and reflexes. Learned behaviors can develop through experiences and include habituation, imprinting, and conditioning.
[3] The document also examines various patterns of behaviors in detail including social behavior in insects like bees, parental behavior in birds and mammals, and anti-predator behaviors used by animals for protection.
Polymorphism and polyphenism refer to the appearance of different forms or morphs within a single species. Polymorphism can include differences in color, size, or other attributes that are genetically determined. Polyphenism involves differences in phenotypes that arise from the same genotype in response to environmental conditions. Examples of polymorphism and polyphenism discussed in the document include sexual dimorphism, geographic polymorphism, mimicry complexes in Lepidoptera, and polyphenic traits like insect castes and seasonal color changes that maximize survival and reproduction.
are worm-like parasites. The clinically relevant groups are separated according to their general external shape and the host organ they inhabit. There are both hermaphroditic and bisexual species.
The definitive classification is based on the external and internal morphology of egg, larval, and adult stages.
Helminth is a general term meaning worm. The helminths are invertebrates characterized by elongated, flat or round bodies.
In flatworms or platyhelminths (platy from the Greek root meaning “flat”) include flukes and tapeworms.
Roundworms are nematodes (nemato from the Greek root meaning “thread”).
Parasitism has evolved over time as parasites adapt to their hosts. Parasites like malaria originated in primates in Africa and later transferred to humans. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted via mosquito bites and Plasmodium falciparum is thought to have evolved from gorillas to infect humans around 50,000 years ago. Parasites continue evolving in response to hosts and their environments.
The document discusses the larval forms of different classes of echinoderms. It describes six different larval forms - bipinnaria, branchiolaria, ophiopluteus, echinopluteus, auricularia, and doliolaria. Each larval form is characteristic of one or more echinoderm classes. The larval forms are bilaterally symmetrical and free-swimming, undergoing metamorphosis to become radially symmetrical adults. Studying the larval forms provides insights into the evolutionary relationships between different echinoderm classes.
This document discusses crustacean parasites and provides examples. It begins with definitions of crustacea and parasites. Crustaceans have segmented bodies, a hard exoskeleton, and appendages. Parasites live in or on a host and obtain nutrients from the host. The document then covers characteristics of crustaceans, their classification, examples of parasitic crustaceans including copepods, branchiura, and cirripedia. It describes how parasites adapt to the host and affect the host, often preventing reproduction or causing disease.
PHYLUM ANNELIDA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO METAMERISMLimitlessSourav
The document provides information about the phylum Annelida and segmentation. It discusses:
1) Annelids exhibit complete internal and external metamerism, with their bodies divided into similar segments by grooves and septa.
2) The three classes of annelids - Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, and Hirudinea - vary in their locomotory appendages and habitats.
3) Metamerism originated through various proposed theories but its exact origin remains unclear. Metamerism provides advantages for locomotion and structural evolution.
the presentation will help you learn more about how the insect eyes really work in field conditions and more over for the better understanding you can take help from from book: THE INSECTS:STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION byR.F.CHAPMAN.....as the contents of my presentation are from that book only.....
There are three types of insect development: holometabolous (complete metamorphosis from larva to pupa to adult), hemimetabolous (partial metamorphosis from nymph to adult), and ametabolous (no metamorphosis from pronymph to adult). In holometabolous insects, imaginal cells develop into adult structures during the pupal stage through programmed cell death of larval cells and differentiation of imaginal discs, controlled by the hormones ecdysone and juvenile hormone. Ecdysone triggers molting and metamorphosis while juvenile hormone prevents metamorphosis and ensures additional larval stages; in the final larval stage, low juvenile hormone allows ecdysone to
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
Protozoans exhibit a variety of locomotory methods including amoeboid movement using pseudopodia, swimming movement using flagella or cilia, gliding movement using contractile myonemes, and metabolic movement through changes in body shape. Locomotion allows protozoans to search for food, mates, shelter and escape from predators. The document discusses the structures and mechanisms involved in each type of locomotion.
The document summarizes the evolution of the horse over 50 million years from Eohippus to modern Equus. Key stages included Mesohippus which lived 38 million years ago in North America and had 3 toes, with the middle toe larger. Merychippus originated 12-6 million years ago and was the first single-toed horse with strong legs to increase speed and power. Pliohippus resembled a pony and lived in the late Miocene period in North America, being considered a direct link to modern Equus horses.
Zoological nomenclature establishes scientific names for animal taxa according to a set of international rules to ensure names are unique, universal, and stable, with each taxon having a designated type specimen to serve as the objective standard for applying its name. The principle of priority dictates that the oldest available name for a taxon is the valid name, while the principle of the first reviser resolves situations where two names have the same date. Names apply to both living and extinct animals according to these principles and rules.
This document discusses different types of taxonomic characters that can be used to distinguish between taxa. There are 5 main kinds of characters: 1) Morphological characters related to external features, structures, internal anatomy, development stages, and karyology. 2) Physiological characters like growth rates, temperature tolerances, and biochemical processes. 3) Ecological characters like habitat, food preferences, breeding seasons. 4) Ethological characters regarding behavior like mating calls and web patterns. 5) Geographical characters about distribution patterns that can help clarify taxonomy. A wide variety of observable attributes can serve as taxonomic characters to differentiate between species and other taxonomic levels.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
different kinds of taxonomic characters and its functionsana sana
This document discusses the five main types of taxonomic characters used to classify organisms: morphological, physiological, ecological, ethological, and geographical. It provides examples of characters under each type, such as external features, anatomy, genetics, metabolism, behavior, habitat preferences, and geographic distributions. The document emphasizes that taxonomic characters should be evaluated together to properly identify and relate different species.
There are two main animal mating systems: monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy involves an animal having only one mate, while polygamy involves having multiple mates. Polygamy includes polygyny, where one male mates with multiple females, polyandry, where one female mates with multiple males, and polygynandry, where multiple males mate with multiple females. Polygyny is the most common type of polygamy in the animal kingdom. It provides advantages for males in increasing reproductive success but can negatively impact genetic diversity, while females may experience infanticide from new dominant males.
This document discusses microevolution and the processes that cause evolution at the population level, including mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection. It provides examples of each, such as Darwin's finches to illustrate natural selection and cheetahs to demonstrate the bottleneck effect of genetic drift. The document seeks to explain how populations evolve over time through changes in allele frequencies from these various evolutionary forces.
Orthogenesis is the theory that organisms evolve in a definite direction due to some internal mechanism, rejecting natural selection. Allometry describes the relationship between an organism's size and its body parts, such as brain size increasing with body size. Adaptive radiations occur when environmental changes open new niches, causing rapid speciation and phenotypic adaptation in a relatively short time, as seen with Hawaiian honeycreepers adapting to different island environments.
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
its all about respiratory system of insects, arrangement and position of spiracles system. Types of different respiratory systems in aquatic insects.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
Global change, parasites, and community assembly: How a parasite expanded its...Erica Tsai
This document discusses how climate change may have impacted the range expansion of the beechdrop parasite (Epifagus virginiana) in relation to its host, the American beech (Fagus grandifolia). The authors analyze fossil pollen records, genetic data from both species, and build spatial models to infer the potential migration corridors used by the parasite as it followed its host northward from refugia after the last glacial maximum. They aim to better understand how host density and dispersal influence parasite colonization of new areas during climate-driven range shifts.
Some Additional Terminology (Parasitology)Osama Zahid
This document defines several key terminology used in parasitology and infectious diseases. It provides definitions for terms like anthroponoses, epidemic, epizootic, epizoic, incidences, infection, infestation, latent, parasitemia, pathogenic, premunition, prevalence, virulence, and zoonosis. It also defines parasitology-related terms like juvenile stage, haematophagous, host specificity, hyperparasitism, hyperplasia, hypertrophy, larva, parthenogenesis, periodicity, pinocytosis, polymorphic, predator, synergism, tolerence, trophozoite, cyst, vector, and reservoir host.
The document discusses the larval forms of different classes of echinoderms. It describes six different larval forms - bipinnaria, branchiolaria, ophiopluteus, echinopluteus, auricularia, and doliolaria. Each larval form is characteristic of one or more echinoderm classes. The larval forms are bilaterally symmetrical and free-swimming, undergoing metamorphosis to become radially symmetrical adults. Studying the larval forms provides insights into the evolutionary relationships between different echinoderm classes.
This document discusses crustacean parasites and provides examples. It begins with definitions of crustacea and parasites. Crustaceans have segmented bodies, a hard exoskeleton, and appendages. Parasites live in or on a host and obtain nutrients from the host. The document then covers characteristics of crustaceans, their classification, examples of parasitic crustaceans including copepods, branchiura, and cirripedia. It describes how parasites adapt to the host and affect the host, often preventing reproduction or causing disease.
PHYLUM ANNELIDA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO METAMERISMLimitlessSourav
The document provides information about the phylum Annelida and segmentation. It discusses:
1) Annelids exhibit complete internal and external metamerism, with their bodies divided into similar segments by grooves and septa.
2) The three classes of annelids - Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, and Hirudinea - vary in their locomotory appendages and habitats.
3) Metamerism originated through various proposed theories but its exact origin remains unclear. Metamerism provides advantages for locomotion and structural evolution.
the presentation will help you learn more about how the insect eyes really work in field conditions and more over for the better understanding you can take help from from book: THE INSECTS:STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION byR.F.CHAPMAN.....as the contents of my presentation are from that book only.....
There are three types of insect development: holometabolous (complete metamorphosis from larva to pupa to adult), hemimetabolous (partial metamorphosis from nymph to adult), and ametabolous (no metamorphosis from pronymph to adult). In holometabolous insects, imaginal cells develop into adult structures during the pupal stage through programmed cell death of larval cells and differentiation of imaginal discs, controlled by the hormones ecdysone and juvenile hormone. Ecdysone triggers molting and metamorphosis while juvenile hormone prevents metamorphosis and ensures additional larval stages; in the final larval stage, low juvenile hormone allows ecdysone to
Taxonomic Collections, Preservation and Curating of InsectsKamlesh Patel
Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics.
The classification of organisms is according to hierarchal system or in taxonomic ranks (eg; domain, kingdom, phylum class, order, family, genus and species) based on phylogenetic relationship established by genetic analysis.
Taxonomic Collection : Biological collection are typically preserved plant or animals specimens along with specimen documentations such as labels and notations.
Dry Collection - Dry collections consist of those specimens that are preserved in a dry state.
Wet Collection - Wet collections are specimens kept in a liquid preservative to prevent their deterioration.
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
Protozoans exhibit a variety of locomotory methods including amoeboid movement using pseudopodia, swimming movement using flagella or cilia, gliding movement using contractile myonemes, and metabolic movement through changes in body shape. Locomotion allows protozoans to search for food, mates, shelter and escape from predators. The document discusses the structures and mechanisms involved in each type of locomotion.
The document summarizes the evolution of the horse over 50 million years from Eohippus to modern Equus. Key stages included Mesohippus which lived 38 million years ago in North America and had 3 toes, with the middle toe larger. Merychippus originated 12-6 million years ago and was the first single-toed horse with strong legs to increase speed and power. Pliohippus resembled a pony and lived in the late Miocene period in North America, being considered a direct link to modern Equus horses.
Zoological nomenclature establishes scientific names for animal taxa according to a set of international rules to ensure names are unique, universal, and stable, with each taxon having a designated type specimen to serve as the objective standard for applying its name. The principle of priority dictates that the oldest available name for a taxon is the valid name, while the principle of the first reviser resolves situations where two names have the same date. Names apply to both living and extinct animals according to these principles and rules.
This document discusses different types of taxonomic characters that can be used to distinguish between taxa. There are 5 main kinds of characters: 1) Morphological characters related to external features, structures, internal anatomy, development stages, and karyology. 2) Physiological characters like growth rates, temperature tolerances, and biochemical processes. 3) Ecological characters like habitat, food preferences, breeding seasons. 4) Ethological characters regarding behavior like mating calls and web patterns. 5) Geographical characters about distribution patterns that can help clarify taxonomy. A wide variety of observable attributes can serve as taxonomic characters to differentiate between species and other taxonomic levels.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
different kinds of taxonomic characters and its functionsana sana
This document discusses the five main types of taxonomic characters used to classify organisms: morphological, physiological, ecological, ethological, and geographical. It provides examples of characters under each type, such as external features, anatomy, genetics, metabolism, behavior, habitat preferences, and geographic distributions. The document emphasizes that taxonomic characters should be evaluated together to properly identify and relate different species.
There are two main animal mating systems: monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy involves an animal having only one mate, while polygamy involves having multiple mates. Polygamy includes polygyny, where one male mates with multiple females, polyandry, where one female mates with multiple males, and polygynandry, where multiple males mate with multiple females. Polygyny is the most common type of polygamy in the animal kingdom. It provides advantages for males in increasing reproductive success but can negatively impact genetic diversity, while females may experience infanticide from new dominant males.
This document discusses microevolution and the processes that cause evolution at the population level, including mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection. It provides examples of each, such as Darwin's finches to illustrate natural selection and cheetahs to demonstrate the bottleneck effect of genetic drift. The document seeks to explain how populations evolve over time through changes in allele frequencies from these various evolutionary forces.
Orthogenesis is the theory that organisms evolve in a definite direction due to some internal mechanism, rejecting natural selection. Allometry describes the relationship between an organism's size and its body parts, such as brain size increasing with body size. Adaptive radiations occur when environmental changes open new niches, causing rapid speciation and phenotypic adaptation in a relatively short time, as seen with Hawaiian honeycreepers adapting to different island environments.
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
its all about respiratory system of insects, arrangement and position of spiracles system. Types of different respiratory systems in aquatic insects.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
Global change, parasites, and community assembly: How a parasite expanded its...Erica Tsai
This document discusses how climate change may have impacted the range expansion of the beechdrop parasite (Epifagus virginiana) in relation to its host, the American beech (Fagus grandifolia). The authors analyze fossil pollen records, genetic data from both species, and build spatial models to infer the potential migration corridors used by the parasite as it followed its host northward from refugia after the last glacial maximum. They aim to better understand how host density and dispersal influence parasite colonization of new areas during climate-driven range shifts.
Some Additional Terminology (Parasitology)Osama Zahid
This document defines several key terminology used in parasitology and infectious diseases. It provides definitions for terms like anthroponoses, epidemic, epizootic, epizoic, incidences, infection, infestation, latent, parasitemia, pathogenic, premunition, prevalence, virulence, and zoonosis. It also defines parasitology-related terms like juvenile stage, haematophagous, host specificity, hyperparasitism, hyperplasia, hypertrophy, larva, parthenogenesis, periodicity, pinocytosis, polymorphic, predator, synergism, tolerence, trophozoite, cyst, vector, and reservoir host.
Dr. Md. Shohidullah Miah's document discusses animal nutrition and digestion. It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document defines crude protein, crude fiber, and ash, which are components estimated in proximate analysis of feeds. It also discusses carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals and vitamins as major nutrients required for animal nutrition. Finally, it summarizes the digestive system and process, including mechanical and chemical breakdown of feedstuffs and absorption of digested nutrients through the intestinal wall.
This document provides an overview of parasitology and summarizes key information about parasitic protozoans. It describes the life cycles of various protozoans including their modes of reproduction (e.g. fission, budding), hosts, and transmission. Representative parasitic protozoans are grouped by their structures and include flagellates like Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas vaginalis, amoeboid forms like Entamoeba histolytica, ciliates like Balantidium coli, and sporozoans like Plasmodium species which cause malaria. Details are provided on the life cycles and pathogenesis of several important protozoan parasites.
Andrews 1979 Host Specificity of the parasite fauna of perchChris Andrews
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Is host specificity the cause or the consequence of parasite diversification:...Jan Stefka
This document summarizes research on the relationship between host specificity and parasite diversification. It discusses how host specificity can arise as both a cause and consequence of speciation processes in parasites. The document presents case studies on lice and helminths that show examples of both host specificity developing in allopatry during speciation, and ongoing host-dependent speciation within parasite lineages. It concludes that while host specificity sometimes drives speciation in parasites, it can also be a product of speciation occurring in isolation between parasite populations.
This document summarizes parasite habitat and host location. It discusses where parasites mature, noting some larvae develop elsewhere before migrating to a second host. It also outlines the cues parasites use to locate hosts, including the host itself, byproducts, plants hosts use, chemical odors and sounds. The host selection process involves finding the host habitat, locating the host, accepting the suitable host, and the host's suitability depending on its immune response. Parasites obtain nutrition through holophytic, holozoic or saprozoic means.
Parasites typically have several characteristics that allow them to survive in hosts, such as being highly reproductive, having morphological or physiological specializations, and showing site specificity. They are usually non-lethal to the host, more numerous than the host, and smaller than the host. Parasites also evolve ways to evade the host's immune system, such as antigenic variation, tough exteriors, or intracellular habitats. When a parasite infects a foreign host, it will often be killed immediately, may survive for a short time but not reproduce, or possibly develop to maturity without causing disease, but the most common fate is death.
THE ECOLOGY OF TIMING IN HOST- PARASITE INTERACTIONSAidan O'Donnell
This document summarizes research on the effects of timing on interactions between Plasmodium parasites and their mosquito hosts. The studies show that:
1) The density of Plasmodium parasites varies depending on whether the light/dark cycle of the host mouse is matched or mismatched to the parasite's internal clock.
2) Infecting mosquitoes in the morning versus evening results in no difference in infection success but differences in fecundity and likelihood to lay eggs, with morning-infected mosquitoes more likely to lay eggs later.
3) Timing of infection is therefore important both directly for the parasites and indirectly by influencing mosquito reproduction, with implications for transmission potential depending on vector feeding times
This document summarizes different types of biotic interactions in an ecosystem:
Mutualism includes relationships like mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots, nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legumes, and lichens. Commensalism includes epiphytic plants, lianas that climb trees, and epizoic algae on animal fur. Negative interactions include exploitation like parasites on plants and animals and carnivorous plants. Antibiosis refers to inhibition or death of one organism by another through metabolic toxins. Competition occurs when organisms seek inadequate resources and can be intraspecific between members of a species or interspecific between different species.
The tapeworm is a parasitic flatworm that lives in the small intestines of humans. It attaches to the gut wall using hooks and suckers. New segments are produced at the neck and older segments are pushed to the back and grow larger. The tapeworm has a flat body made of up to 1000 segments, each containing 50,000 eggs. It absorbs nutrients from the host's intestines, causing harm like gut blockage and weight loss, while gaining benefits like a food supply and shelter. The tapeworm has a two-host lifecycle alternating between pigs and humans, with pigs acting as an intermediate host where the parasite forms cysts in muscle tissue.
The document discusses host microbial interactions and the innate immune response. It describes how pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) like Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) from bacteria. TLRs activate signaling pathways that induce inflammation and the production of cytokines and antimicrobial peptides. The document outlines TLR expression and function in various periodontal tissues and resident cells, and how periodontal pathogens can stimulate inflammatory responses through PRRs, potentially contributing to periodontal disease.
This document discusses various adaptations that help organisms survive in their environments. It begins by defining adaptations as inherited characteristics that aid survival and reproduction. Structural adaptations are physical traits like camouflage, mimicry, and body structures. Behavioral adaptations include migration, hibernation, and living in groups. The document provides many examples of structural and behavioral adaptations in animals and plants, such as stripes that camouflage tigers or seed dispersal mechanisms that help plants spread. Overall, adaptations allow organisms to respond to their environments in ways that enhance fitness.
The document discusses roundworms (nematodes) that are parasitic. It describes 11 known species that fall into two main clades - encapsulated and non-encapsulated. The encapsulated clade parasitizes only mammals, while some non-encapsulated species infect mammals, birds, and reptiles. Two species, T. papuae and T. zimbabwensis, are unique in being able to complete their lifecycle in both warm- and cold-blooded hosts.
This document discusses different types of parasitic worms (helminths) that can infect humans, including roundworms, whipworms, and flatworms. It provides details on common roundworm infections like ascariasis and trichuriasis. Flatworms discussed are tapeworms like Taenia solium and Taenia saginata transmitted via undercooked pork and beef. The document also briefly mentions trematodes or flukes, like Schistosoma japonicum, which is a zoonotic parasite with a wide host range.
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic organisms that exist in both free-living and parasitic forms. They display a wide variety of body structures and can move using cilia, flagella, or pseudopods. Protozoan cells contain membrane-bound organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, and lysosomes. Reproduction can occur asexually through binary fission or multiple fission, or sexually through conjugation of gametes from two parent cells.
1. Flatworms are acoelomate, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical organisms classified in the phylum Platyhelminthes.
2. Class Turbellaria contains free-living flatworms like the planarian Dugesia, which have a simple nervous system with anterior ganglia and ventral nerve cords, a complete digestive system with a mouth and blind gut, and a protonephridial excretory system.
3. Turbellarians reproduce both asexually through fission and sexually as simultaneous hermaphrodites, exchanging sperm through direct internal fertilization.
This lesson is one small part of a larger science unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit comes with a bundled homework package, detailed lesson notes, worksheets, review games, and much more. Students learn about Parasites and then create their own PowerPoitn about a Parasite. I usually have the whole class run their presentations on their laptops. I turn out the lights, play some creepy music and the students roam the room visiting presentations and recording information. This lesson is just one small part of my curriculum.
The document outlines the classification and characteristics of medically important parasites. It discusses the classification of parasites into helminths (trematodes, cestodes, nematodes) and protozoa. For each type of parasite, it describes morphological features, life cycles, important stages, habitats, and modes of infection. The objectives are to differentiate parasite types based on these characteristics and list examples of medically significant parasites.
The document discusses various aspects of intellectual property rights in the Philippines. It defines intellectual property and the government agencies responsible for implementation. It then provides details on patents, trademarks, copyright, industrial designs, and utility models. Requirements for registration and protection are outlined for each area. The key concepts of novelty, inventor step, and industrial applicability are discussed in relation to patent eligibility.
Nematodes are the most abundant multi-cellular animals. They live in soil, water, and parasitize animals and plants. They have a bilaterally symmetrical triploblastic body with a complete digestive system, cuticle layer, pseudocoelom, and longitudinal muscles. Parasitic nematodes include roundworms, hookworms, trichina worm, pinworm, and filarial worms which infect humans and other animals through ingestion, skin penetration, or mosquito/fly transmission.
This document discusses protozoa and includes the following key points:
1. It provides diagrams of different types of protozoa including amoebas, flagellates, ciliates, and heliozoans.
2. It discusses the life cycles, modes of nutrition, and environmental factors affecting various protozoa.
3. It explains the importance of protozoa in soil fertility, wastewater treatment, and breaking down pollutants like oil spills by grazing on bacteria.
This document provides information about protozoa. It begins by defining protozoa as eukaryotic, unicellular organisms that lack cell walls and use cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia for motility. There are around 20,000 protozoan species, most of which are free-living in water or soil. Some can be parasitic or symbiotic. Important medically relevant protozoa include Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia, which can cause intestinal infections. Other protozoan diseases mentioned are African sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei and Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. The document also briefly discusses helmin
Protozoans are unicellular eukaryotes that lack cell walls and motility is provided by cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia. They ingest food and can reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding or sexually through conjugation or gamete fusion. Plasmodium, a protozoan parasite, causes the disease malaria in humans. It has a complex life cycle alternating between mosquito and human hosts. In humans it evades the immune system by hiding in the liver and red blood cells, where it consumes hemoglobin and reproduces asexually.
This document summarizes the life cycles of several important microorganisms. It describes that Penicillium reproduces asexually through conidiospores and sexually through ascospores. Saccharomyces yeast can reproduce through budding or sporulation depending on environmental conditions. The life cycle of Streptomyces involves forming spores, substrate mycelium, and aerial mycelium to produce spore chains. Industrial uses of microbes like Penicillium and Streptomyces include producing enzymes, acids, and antibiotics.
Morphology, Classification, Cultivation and Reproduction of FungiKrutika Pardeshi
This presentation is Useful for B. Pharmacy SEM III Students to study the Topic Fungi According to PCI Syllabus.
It Consist of Morpholoy of Fungi, Cultivation , Reproduction and Classification of Fungi.
1. Protozoa is a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms that includes free-living, parasitic and mutualistic forms. They exhibit different modes of nutrition and locomotion.
2. Historically, protozoa included many disparate groups but is now defined as unicellular organisms with sometimes colonial or multicellular stages. They lack specialized tissues and organs.
3. Major protozoan groups include the SAR supergroup containing amoebas, flagellates and foraminifera, as well as ciliates, apicomplexans, microsporidians and others. Many are important as parasites, in nutrient cycling or in forming structures like coral reefs
Toxoplasmosis is caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It can infect humans, sheep, goats, and other mammals. Definitive hosts are cats, which shed infectious oocysts in their feces. Humans can become infected by ingesting oocysts from contaminated food, water, or soil or by eating undercooked meat containing cysts. Congenital toxoplasmosis occurs when a woman is infected during pregnancy, which can cause fetal abnormalities. Diagnosis involves serological tests to detect antibodies or PCR to detect the parasite's DNA.
Leucocytozoon is a protozoan parasite transmitted between birds and blackfly vectors. It infects the red blood cells of over 100 bird species. The parasite has a complex life cycle involving development in the blackfly and birds. In birds, sporozoites infect liver cells before spreading to other organs. Most infections are asymptomatic but can cause anemia and death in young birds. Diagnosis is via blood smears and treatment involves controlling blackfly vectors.
This document outlines Ainsworth's 1973 classification system for fungi. It proposes the kingdom Mycota, divided into the divisions Myxomycota (slime molds) and Eumycota (true fungi). Eumycota is further divided into several subdivisions including Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. Each subdivision contains multiple classes and orders of fungi classified based on characteristics like cell structure, life cycle stages, and reproductive structures. The classification aims to group fungi based on morphology and natural relationships rather than previous artificial systems.
This document provides information about the nutrition and feeding mechanisms of various parasites and protozoa. It discusses several different feeding methods including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and absorption of dissolved nutrients. Specific examples are given for protozoan groups like rhizopods, kinetoplastids, apicomplexans, diplomonads, and ciliates. The feeding processes of individual parasites like Plasmodium and Giardia are also described.
The document summarizes fertilization and apomixis in plants. It describes the key events of fertilization including pollen germination, tube growth, entry into the ovule, movement of sperm towards the egg and polar nuclei, and fusion of gametes. It also discusses types of apomixis such as agamospermy involving adventive embryony or diplospory, and vegetative reproduction through bulbs or runners. Apomixis is defined as asexual reproduction that avoids meiosis and fertilization, and can be non-recurrent from unfertilized eggs, or recurrent from archesporial or nucellar cells.
Class Trematoda. Tapeworms as parasites of human beingEneutron
This document provides information on various medically important worms (helminths). It begins by classifying helminths into two phyla - Platyhelminthes and Nemathelminthes. Platyhelminthes includes the classes Trematoda (flukes) and Cestoidea (tapeworms). The document then describes the life cycles and characteristics of various trematode parasites, including Fasciola hepatica, Opisthorchis felineus, Clonorchis sinensis, Dicrocoelium lanceatum, and Paragonimus westermani. It also covers the blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma, which cause schistosomiasis
The document outlines the key discoveries in cell theory from 1665 to 1924. Some of the early discoveries include Hooke observing "cells" in cork in 1665, van Leeuwenhoek observing microorganisms in water, and Schleiden and Schwann establishing that cells are the fundamental unit of life in 1838-39. The timeline then provides more details on later discoveries such as Brown observing the cell nucleus in 1831 and developments that led to the acceptance of cell theory.
This document discusses various types of asexual reproduction in organisms. It describes mechanisms such as binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation, fragmentation, parthenogenesis, and apomixis. It notes that asexual reproduction is common in single-celled organisms and plants but relatively rare in animals. While it provides short term benefits, sexual reproduction allows for more genetic diversity and adaptation to changing environments. The document also discusses alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction in some species and inheritance of asexual reproduction traits.
Fasciola hepatica, commonly known as the sheep liver fluke, is a parasitic flatworm that infects the livers of sheep and other mammals. It has a complex life cycle involving two host species - a primary host such as sheep and a secondary intermediate host, which is a freshwater snail. Within the host, it progresses through several larval stages including miracidium, sporocyst, redia, cercaria and metacercaria before developing into an adult. The adult lives in the bile ducts of the liver where it reproduces sexually. Its eggs are released in feces to continue the life cycle. F. hepatica infection causes disease and economic losses in livestock.
Hookworms are intestinal parasitic roundworms that infect the small intestine. They have a direct lifecycle where the infective third stage larva penetrates the skin and migrates through the lungs before reaching the small intestine to mature and reproduce. Eggs are passed in feces. Pathogenesis is due to the host immune response to migrating larvae, mechanical damage from larval migration, effects of adult worms in the intestines including blood loss. Common symptoms include iron deficiency anemia.
This document discusses several phyla of acoelomate bilateral animals including flatworms, mesozoans, and ribbon worms. Key points include: flatworms are acoelomates with an incomplete digestive system and protonephridia; mesozoans are microscopic parasites considered a link between protozoa and metazoa; ribbon worms use a proboscis to capture prey and have a complete digestive system and closed blood vessels. These phyla are generally considered part of the superphylum Lophotrochozoa.
The document discusses four mosquito-borne viral diseases: dengue, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever, and chikungunya fever. It provides details on the causative viruses, transmission cycles, symptoms, treatment and prevention for each disease. Dengue is the most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne disease and exists throughout the tropics, mainly spread by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted in a zoonotic cycle between birds and pigs, with Culex mosquitoes acting as vectors. Yellow fever virus circulates between non-human primates and humans in Africa and South America. Chikungunya virus causes debilitating symptoms
The document discusses mosquito-borne diseases malaria and lymphatic filariasis, outlining their causative agents, life cycles, symptoms, treatment and prevention. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, killing over 1 million people annually. Lymphatic filariasis is caused by parasitic worms transmitted by Culex and Mansonia mosquitoes and can lead to severe swelling of limbs.
Mosquitoes play an important role as disease vectors for diseases like dengue, malaria, and filariasis. There are over 3000 mosquito species worldwide, with about 100 that transmit diseases to humans. The document discusses the anatomy, life cycle, and behaviors of mosquitoes and disease-transmitting mosquitoes like Anopheles. It provides details on mosquito-borne diseases, their pathogens, and vector mosquito species.
This document discusses vectors and disease transmission. It begins by introducing important concepts regarding vectors, including definitions of vector and vectorial capacity. It then discusses arthropods as common disease vectors, focusing on mosquitoes transmitting diseases like dengue, malaria, and filariasis. The document outlines criteria for identifying vectors, including their contact with hosts, biological association with disease occurrence, ability to transmit disease experimentally, and extrinsic and intrinsic incubation periods. It also covers vector competence, types of transmission (mechanical, biological), and factors influencing a vector's ability to transmit pathogens.
The document discusses current advancements in parasite treatment and control, including vaccines, DNA/RNA technology, and other methods. It describes different types of vaccines including attenuated, killed, sub-unit, toxoid, and DNA vaccines. Effectiveness depends on understanding the parasite's biology and life cycle. DNA/RNA technology could prove useful by targeting unique epigenetic pathways in parasites. Overall the document provides an overview of recent developments in parasite vaccines and control methods.
The document discusses various control methods for parasitic diseases, including:
1) Education to promote behavioral changes that reduce transmission.
2) Environmental modifications like improved sanitation, irrigation, and animal housing.
3) Grazing management and pasture rotation/resting to reduce parasite populations on pastures.
4) Biological control using predators, parasites, or fungi to control parasite populations.
An integrated approach combining these non-drug methods can control parasites while limiting reliance on pharmaceutical treatments.
The document discusses treatment and control methods for parasites. It covers the importance of understanding parasite life cycles for effective treatment and control. It describes properties of ideal antiparasitic drugs, including being able to kill 100% of parasites, having a broad spectrum of action, rapid action, providing long-lasting protection, being simple to administer, requiring few treatments, being safe with minimal side effects, being affordable, and not having contraindications. The document also discusses how a parasite's life cycle can influence its treatment and control.
3 nutrition and es of parasites trematode, cestode and acanthocephalanIrwan Izzauddin
1) Cestodes lack a digestive tract and must absorb all nutrients through their tegument or outer covering. Small molecules like glucose can enter via active transport or diffusion through carrier proteins or pores.
2) The tegument surface has numerous finger-like microtriches that increase absorptive area. Enzymes may also help digest some particles at the surface.
3) Exchange of proteins and amino acids occurs between the parasite and host, reaching equilibrium. Amino acid and purine/pyrimidine transport is complex, involving multiple carrier systems.
Nematodes have a complete digestive system comprised of three main parts - the stomodaeum, intestine, and proctodaeum. The stomodaeum includes structures like the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus. The esophagus pumps food into the simple tubular intestine, where digestion and absorption occurs. Undigested waste is expelled through the proctodaeum and anus. Nematodes have different feeding apparatus depending on their lifestyle, such as styles for piercing plant cells or teeth for cutting animal tissues. Their secretory-excretory systems also vary in structure between free-living and parasitic forms.
2. A PARASITE’S ECOLOGICAL NICHE
A parasite’s ecological niche includes resources provided by the living body of
another species as well as abiotic conditions encountered by transmission stages
such as eggs, cysts, spores, and juveniles.
The digestive tract thus providing numerous microenvironments.
- A trip through the gut could be described also in terms of different symbionts
encountered along the way,
- from Entamoeba gingivalis in the mouth,
- to fourth-stage juvenile Ascaris lumbricoides in the stomach,
- to Taenia saginata (or many other helminths) in the small intestine,
- to Dientamoeba fragilis, Entamoeba coli, Endolimax nana, and Trichuris trichiura
in the large intestine, and
- finally to pinworms (Enterobius vermicularis) crawling around the anal orifice
The blood system
Coelom – body cavity
In special cells – e.g microphage
Organ – e.g lungs, liver, brain etc 2
3. IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
1) Total darkness
2) pH: 1.5 to 8.4
3) Many enzymes – digestive enzymes are also
capable of digesting and destroying the parasites.
4) Physiological, chemical and mechanical changes
5) Low level of oxygen
3
4. TOTAL DARKNESS
No light inside the host.
Can be problematic to parasites.
4
6. ENZYMES AND CHEMICAL PROBLEMS
Food processing occurs in distinct phases, from
- chewing and salivary amylase action of the mouth,
- to the acid pH and proteolytic enzyme reactions of the
stomach,
- to more neutral pH and numerous amylases, proteases,
lipases, and nucleases working in the small intestine,
- to reclamation of water in the large intestine and
- subsequent elimination of solid wastes.
Chemical – Different subtracts ingested by the host can
be problematic to the parasites.
6
8. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MECHANICAL CHANGES
All these changes – fast and continuous can be problematic to
parasites
Physical
- Change in the habitat/ hosts
E.g filarial worms – mosquitoes human
Mechanical
– Peristalsis
continuous and expansion of the alimentary tract – pushes food –
esophagus – stomach – small intestine – large intestine
- Food and water flow
can be problematic to parasites
will sweep away the parasites present in the alimentary tract
8
9. LOW LEVEL OF OXYGEN
The low level of oxygen in the alimentary tract can be
problematic to parasites.
Low oxygen level for survival in the hosts.
9
11. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
1) Parasite reproduction
Among animals, parental care is one factor that tends to increase the
chance of an offspring surviving.
Parasites, on the other hand, exhibit little parental care, although
viviparity, or live birth, such as occurs in some nematodes and
monogeneans, can be considered a more “caring” approach than
indiscriminate scattering of eggs.
Parasites exhibit a variety of mechanisms that function to increase
the reproductive potential of those individuals that do succeed at
finding a host.
These mechanisms often take the form of asexual reproduction and
hermaphroditism. 11
12. Asexual reproduction often occurs in the larval or sexually immature
stages as either polyembryony or internal budding.
Hermaphroditism is the occurrence of both male and female sex
organs in a single individual.
It sometimes eliminates the necessity of finding an individual of the
opposite sex for fertilization if gonads of both sexes function
simultaneously and self fertilization is mechanically possible.
Reproductive encounters result in two fertilized female systems.
The specific manifestations of asexual reproduction and
hermaphroditism, however, differ depending on the group of 12
parasites.
14. Schizogony, or multiple fission, is asexual reproduction
characteristic of some parasitic protozoa
In schizogony the nucleus divides numerous times before cytokinesis
(cytoplasmic division) occurs, resulting in simultaneous production of
many daughter cells.
Simple binary fission is also asexual reproduction.
It is common among familiar free-living protozoa such as
Paramecium species as well as some amebas, including parasitic
ones.
As with any process in which numbers double regularly, rapid fission
can result easily in millions of offspring after only a few days.
14
16. Trematodes and some tapeworms reproduce asexually
during immature stages.
The juveniles (metacestodes) of several tapeworm
species are capable of external or internal budding of
more metacestodes.
The cysticercus juvenile of Taenia crassiceps, for
instance, can bud off as many as a hundred small bladder
worms while in the abdominal cavity of a mouse
intermediate host.
16
17. Each new metacestode develops a scolex and neck, and
when the mouse is eaten by a carnivore, each scolex
develops into an adult tapeworm.
The hydatid metacestode of Echinococcus granulosus is
capable of budding off hundreds of thousands of new
scolices within a fluid-filled bladder.
When such a packet of immature worms is eaten by a
dog, vast numbers of adult cestodes are produced.
17
18. Perhaps the most remarkable asexual reproduction in all
zoology is found among trematodes, a large and
successful group of parasites commonly called flukes.
These animals produce a series of embryo generations,
each within the body of the prior generation.
This is an example of polyembryony, in which many
embryos develop from a single zygote.
18
19. Trematode eggs hatch into miracidia, which enter a first
intermediate host, always a mollusc, and become sac like
sporocysts.
Sporocysts may give rise to daughter sporocysts, which,
in turn, may each produce a generation of rediae.
These then become filled with daughter rediae, which
finally produce cercariae.
And many flukes give birth to thousands of eggs each
day.
19
21. With hermaphroditism, a parasite evidently solves the problem of
finding a mate.
Many tapeworms and trematodes can fertilize their own eggs
This method, although not likely to produce many unusual genetic
recombinations, guarantees offspring.
Tapeworms also undergo continuous asexual production of segments
(strobilization) from an undifferentiated region immediately behind the
scolex, or attachment organ.
These segments, called proglottids, are each the reproductive
equivalent of a hermaphroditic worm, at least in the vast majority of
tapeworm species, because each contains both male and female
reproductive organs.
Each fertilized female system in each proglottid eventually becomes
21
filled with eggs containing larvae.
22. The result of this combination of asexual reproduction,
hermaphroditism, and self-fertilization is a true tapeworm
egg factory.
Whale tapeworms of the genus Hexagonoporus, for
example, are 100-foot reproductive monsters consisting
of about 45,000 proglottids, each with 5 to 14 sets of male
and female systems.
22
23. Parasites often increase reproductive potential through
production of vast numbers of eggs.
A common rat tapeworm, Hymenolepis diminuta, for
example, produces up to 250,000 eggs a day
During a period of slightly over a year, a single tapeworm
can thus generate a hundred million eggs.
If all these eggs reached maturity in new hosts, they
would represent more than 20 tons of tapeworm tissue. 23
24. Female nematodes are also sometimes prodigious egg
layers;
- E.g - A single Ascaris lumbricoides can produce more
than 200,000 eggs a day for several months, and over the
course of their lifetimes
- Members of the filarial genus Wuchereria bancrofti may
release several million young into their host’s blood.
Such high reproductive potential, of course, ensures that
such parasites will become medical and veterinary
problems when host populations are crowded and
transmission conditions are favorable.
24
25. 2) Secretion of certain enzymes
Parasite secrete pepsin if the environment gets too acidic
to neutralize the acidity environment
E.g – Hymenolepis diminuta, Taenia taeniaformis
Secrete anti-enyzmes
E.g – Ascaris spp.
- 2 anti enzymes – Anti-trypsin
- Anti-chemotrypsin
25
26. 3) Can undergo anaerobic metabolism
- In the absence of oxygen, certain species of
parasite can undergoes an anaerobic metabolism.
- E.g – In tapeworms
26
27. 4) Thermoregulation
- Induction of certain protein to enhance the transmission
- E.g Fillarial worms – Brugia pahangi
- Mf – the most abundant protein small heat shock
proteins
- The synthesis of small Hsps by Mf may be an adaptive
response to the potentially hostile environment of the
mammalian blood stream.
27
28. BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS
Behavior is an important tool for animal survival this is
also true for parasites
Behavior can be used to enhance their chances for
success
There are numerous examples of parasite attributes that
presumably increase a species’ chances of encountering
new hosts.
These attributes often influence an intermediate host in
some way, making it more susceptible to predation by a 28
definitive host.
29. Simple host finding behaviors
Periodic Behaviors
Host Modifying Behaviors
Use of intermediate larval stages on intermediate
hosts
29
30. SIMPLE HOST FINDING BEHAVIORS
eg. Entobdella (Monogenea)
- skin parasite of a stingray
- eggs are released and settle to bottom
- larvae emerge from eggs within 3 seconds of sudden
darkness
- then swim vertically upwards
30
31. PERIODIC BEHAVIORS
Parasite keys in on cyclic stimulus
E.g Filarial Worms
- live in blood
- transmitted by mosquito or fly
- larvae (microfilariae) move to peripheral blood
on periodic basis
- corresponds to “biting hours” of local vector (flies &
mosquitoes)
31
32. E.g Guinea worm (nematode: Dracunculus
medinensis)
- occur in tropical areas; lots of rice fields
- eggs must be laid in water to be able to get to its
intermediate host
- female may contain up to 1 Million eggs each with a
developing larva inside
- larvae must be released in water to complete life cycle
- to do this female moves to part of body likely to be
immersed in water lower legs
- creates an ulcer
- discharges 1000’s of infective larvae 32
33. HOST MODIFYING BEHAVIORS
an alternative to modifying the parasites own behavior is
to alter the hosts behavior to make it more likely to
complete parasites life cycle
33
34. E.g Trematodes of the genus Dicrocoelium,
- Which infect large herbivores such as sheep
- The second intermediate host of Dicrocoelium
dendriticum is an ant.
- A metacercaria lodges in the ant’s brain, making the
insect move to the top of a grass blade, where its
likelihood of being accidentally ingested by a definitive
host is greatly increased.
34
35. E.g The immature stages of some thorny-headed worms
(phylum Acanthocephala)
- Infect freshwater crustaceans of order Amphipoda (side-
swimmers).
- Some acanthocephalan juveniles appear as conspicuous
white or orange spots in the hemocoel of the translucent
amphipods
- Making infected ones stand out from the uninfected.
35
36. E.g Fluke (Leucochloridium)
- Adult in birds; larva in snail
- When infected, snails tend to crawl to tips of
vegetation instead of hiding like normal in snail,
larvae migrate to tentacles of snail
- Larvae are brightly colored with red and green
bands
- makes snails very conspicuous in daytime
- At night the larvae withdraw into the snails body
36
37. USE OF INTERMEDIATE LARVAL STAGES ON
INTERMEDIATE HOSTS
To enhance chances of getting to final host
simplest life cycle:
- adult parasite eggs ingestion by new host
more complex life cycle:
- adult parasite eggs intermediate host definitive
host
most complex life cycle:
- flukes have several intermediate states that reproduce
37
38. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS
Modification of body structures/ functions
Reduction in “unnecessary” structures and
enhancement of reproductive capacity
Usually have a resistant stage in life cycle
38
39. MODIFICATION OF BODY STRUCTURES/ FUNCTIONS
1) Structures for penetration and attachment to host
- Attaching itself to the host using special organs
– suckers, hooks, extended lips/labium, bothrium
39
40. The mouth of Necator americanus. Ancylostoma duodenale,
Note the two broad cutting 40
plates in the ventrolateral
margins (top).
41. Scanning electron micrographs of
Haemonchus contortus,
Leptorhynchoides thecatus
ventral view of male. 41
Note some of the major anatomical
features of acanthocephalans. P,
proboscis; H, hook; N, neck; T, trunk
43. 2) Body thin and long
- E.g tapeworms
- Body can curve according to the current of the food flow
- No resistance
- Prevents being broken up by the food flow/ peristalsis
43
45. 3) Cell membrane
- E.g Entamoeba histolyca
- The cell membrane becomes turgid that will prevents the
entry of enzymes into its cyctoplasm
4) Bury itself deep in the mucosa
- Prevention method from being swept away especially in the
intestine
- E.g Entamoeba histolytica
5) Having a thick layer of body wall
- Prevent the entry of enzymes into the body
45
- E.g cuticle/ tegument – in many intestinal nematodes
46. REDUCTION IN “UNNECESSARY” STRUCTURES
1) Reduced sense organs
2) Reduced nervous system
3) Reduced locomotion
4) Reduced digestive system
- Some endoparasites have lost gut entirely
- Some ectoparasites use gut mainly for food storage
(eg. leeches, ticks)
5) Enhancement of reproductive capacity
- Reproductive organs are often the largest, most
apparent organ systems present compare to other organs
46
47. USUALLY HAVE A RESISTANT STAGE IN LIFE CYCLE
1) For getting from one host to another which is often in a
different kind of environment
2) If endoparasite - needs to survive trip through digestive
system
3) Formation of cysts
-Numerous parasites, such as juvenile tapeworms
(cestodes) in various tissues, achieve protection from the
host response by envelopment with cystic membrane.
47
48. ENCYSTMENT IN PROTOZOA
Many protozoa can secrete a resistant covering and enter
a resting stage, or cyst
Cyst formation is particularly common among parasitic
protozoa as well as among free-living protozoa found in
temporary bodies of water that are subject to drying or
other harsh conditions.
During encystment a cyst wall is secreted, and some food
reserves, such as starch or glycogen, are stored
48
49. In coccidians the cystic form is an oocyst, which is
formed after gamete union and in which multiple fission
(sporogony) occurs to produce sporozoites.
In eimerian coccidians, oocysts containing sporozoites
serve as resistant stages for transmission to new hosts,
In haemosporidians (including the causative agents of
malaria, Plasmodium spp.) oocysts serve as
developmental capsules for sporozoites within their insect
host.
49