2.22.2010 organelles
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Greg Cells create organelles that concentrate proteins and enzymes in specific areas. The endomembrane system includes the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and transport vesicles. The endoplasmic reticulum buds vesicles that are sent to the Golgi apparatus, then to the plasma membrane. Isolated organelles include the nucleus and mitochondria.
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Most living organisms are made up of cells, which are the basic structural and functional units of life. An animal cell has two main parts: a plasma membrane and a nucleus. The plasma membrane is a thin, elastic, and porous membrane formed of lipoprotein that separates the intracellular contents from the outside environment and is selectively permeable. The nucleus contains nuclear material including a nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin reticulum, and nucleolus.
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The document discusses the fundamental unit of life - the cell. It describes the nucleus, which contains nucleolus and chromatin. Organisms are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic based on their nuclear organization. The cytoplasm contains organelles that perform specific functions for the cell, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, plastids, and vacuoles. The nucleolus controls metabolic activities and inheritance, while chromatin condenses into chromosomes during cell division. Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles and have a single chromosome, while eukaryotes have multiple chromosomes and organelles.
cell organelles.pptx
This document discusses the structure and functions of the cell membrane and intracellular components of cells. It describes that the cell membrane is composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. It also summarizes the structures and roles of integral membrane proteins, peripheral proteins, and glycocalyx. The document then outlines the cytoplasmic components including membranous organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria. It also discusses non-membranous organelles, cytosol, and the cytoskeleton composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Cell structure and function
Here are the key organelle markers and their associated enzymes:
1. Mitochondria - ATP synthase (located in the inner mitochondrial membrane)
2. Lysosome - Cathepsin (lysosomal storage disorders occur due to deficiencies in cathepsin enzymes)
3. Golgi body - Galactosyltransferase (involved in glycoconjugate synthesis in the Golgi)
4. Microsomes (Endoplasmic Reticulum fragments) - Glucose-6-phosphatase (involved in glucose metabolism in the smooth ER)
Parts of the cell
The document describes the structure and function of major cell organelles. It discusses the cell membrane, a semi-permeable barrier composed of phospholipids and proteins. Inside the cell are organelles including mitochondria for energy production, ribosomes for protein synthesis, the endoplasmic reticulum for manufacturing and transport, Golgi bodies for packaging, vacuoles for storage, lysosomes for digestion, and the nucleus containing DNA. Each organelle performs essential functions for cellular processes and maintenance.
Cell
The document summarizes key components and functions of eukaryotic cells. It describes the cell membrane as composed of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates that act as a selective barrier. It also discusses several intracellular organelles - the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, ribosomes, lysosomes - and their roles in processes like protein synthesis, energy production, metabolism, and waste digestion. The plasma membrane, organelles, and their specialized functions allow cells to carry out life's processes.
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Anatomy & Physiology Lecture Notes - Ch. 3 cells - part 3
Anatomy & Physiology Lecture Notes - Ch. 3 cells - part 3
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Silversun ticket
This ticket is for Gregory Stimac to attend a Silversun Pickups concert on July 30, 2010 at 8:00 PM at the Knitting Factory Concert House in Spokane, WA. The ticket price is $24.50 plus $5.11 in fees. The ticket states it must be presented in its entirety for entry and is non-refundable unless the event is rescheduled.
Test 1 article
The document summarizes a study that used live cell imaging to visualize hepatitis C virus (HCV) entry into human liver cells. Key findings include:
1) HCV was labeled with fluorescent membrane dyes and found to move along actin stress fibers in an actin-dependent manner after internalization, suggesting clathrin-mediated endocytosis.
2) Inhibition of clathrin machinery or related host factors blocked HCV entry. Immunofluorescence showed HCV co-localizing with clathrin and early endosomes.
3) While tight junction proteins were thought to mediate HCV entry, live imaging found internalization occurring outside of tight junctions, indicating their role may be overstated.
4
Review session
Chelators are used in tissue dissociation as they bind calcium and magnesium ions, allowing the removal of tight cell junctions. RNA probes can be produced by inserting a gene of interest into a plasmid with a viral promoter, which is then transfected into bacteria for transcription and isolation of the encoded protein. Antibodies recognize epitopes, which are antigen sites on proteins, and secondary antibodies are used to tag primary antibodies with fluorescent markers for visualization. Western blotting identifies and quantifies specific proteins in samples but does not localize where they are within cells. GFP tagging allows visualization of a protein's localization and interactions in living cells.
2.1.2010
This document discusses the composition and structure of cell membranes. It notes that membranes contain lipids like sterols and glycolipids that form lipid rafts and help attach proteins. Membranes contain different ratios of proteins to lipids depending on their origin, such as mitochondria or myelin sheaths. The document categorizes types of membrane proteins and how they can attach to or span the membrane. It also outlines techniques for extracting and analyzing membrane proteins, such as using detergents and SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis.
1.27.2010 lecture
1. DNA or RNA probes can be used to detect specific sequences of interest in cells through techniques like Southern blots, Northern blots, and in situ hybridization.
2. PCR and RT-PCR can be used to amplify nucleic acid sequences, allowing detection of low concentrations. Reverse transcriptase is used to generate cDNA from mRNA.
3. Techniques like overexpression and tagging of proteins allow studying the function and localization of proteins in cells. Fluorescent tags like GFP enable visualization of proteins in living cells.
1.22.2010
There are several key principles of microscopy. Thicker samples require sectioning to be accurately imaged. Various microscopy techniques like light, fluorescent, and electron microscopy can be used to image fixed or live samples. Confocal live imaging uses layered excitation of fluorescent molecules to visualize distinct optical layers within tissue. The resolution, contrast, magnification, and type of microscopy technique used depend on the size and features of structures needing examination.
1.20.2010 lecture
1. Cysteine forms disulfide bonds in proteins during processing in the Golgi apparatus. These bonds make proteins either hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
2. There are two main types of primary cell cultures: epithelial cells which are tightly connected, and mesenchymal cells which are more loosely connected. Primary cultures maintain characteristics of the original tissue but can divide indefinitely in controlled environments.
3. Techniques for dissociating tissues into single cells for primary culture include chemical digestion using enzymes like trypsin, and mechanical disruption using homogenization. Cells are then centrifuged and plated to form a primary culture.
Test article 2
The document discusses mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistant mice (DKO mice) as a model for type 2 diabetes. Electron microscopy showed DKO mice had larger, fewer mitochondria than controls. Foxo1, a transcription factor regulated by insulin, was dysregulated in DKO mice, affecting genes controlling mitochondrial function. Immunoblotting showed altered levels of fission/fusion proteins in DKO mice mitochondria. Respiration and ATP production were lower in DKO mice mitochondria, as was electron transport chain activity. Ppargc1a, a regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, was highly expressed but inhibited by acetylation in DKO mice. Restoring Ppargc1a function or deleting Foxo1 improved mitochondrial morphology and
Review session for test 2
This document provides an overview of phospholipid formation and the Krebs cycle. It discusses how enzymes transfer fatty acids from fatty acyl CoA to glycerol-3-phosphate to form diacylglycerol. Diacylglycerol is then used with choline transferase to generate phosphatidylcholine, a major phospholipid. It also lists oxaloacetate as the starting point of the Krebs cycle and notes the steps that yield NADH and GTP, as well as the regulatory steps involving changes in Gibbs free energy.
3.1.2010
The document summarizes key aspects of protein transport within cells, including:
1) Proteins entering the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) have an N-terminal signal sequence that is recognized by signal recognition particle (SRP) to initiate translocation. Chaperone proteins such as BiP assist with proper folding within the ER lumen.
2) Transmembrane proteins maintain their orientation throughout transport, with alpha helices embedding in membranes. Multiple transmembrane proteins have multiple start and stop sequences recognized by SRP.
3) Vesicle transport between organelles is mediated by SNARE proteins on transport vesicles (v-SNAREs) and target membranes (t-SNAREs) that facilitate docking and fusion
2.26.2010
Peroxisomes are organelles that oxidize fatty acids, producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which they then decompose to water and oxygen using the enzyme catalase. They can also utilize organic compounds as a source of hydrogen. Peroxisomes replicate through division or can form de novo from the endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins destined for peroxisomes contain a peroxisome targeting signal (PTS1) that directs them to the organelle.
2.24.2010
The document summarizes key processes that occur in the endomembrane system. It describes how the rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins and lipids. It then discusses post-translational modifications that occur in the Golgi apparatus, including glycosylation. From the Golgi, vesicles traffic proteins to other organelles or secrete them. Lysosomes contain enzymes to break down molecules. Autophagy and phagocytosis allow degradation of old organelles or foreign particles respectively. Peroxisomes contain enzymes to break down toxic metabolites.
2.22.2010
Actin filaments interact with myosin proteins to enable cell movement. Specifically, myosin I interacts with actin filaments and transports vesicles along actin filaments, moving toward the plus end. When the globular heads of myosin bind to actin filaments, they cause the filaments to bend inward toward the minus end, shortening the sarcomere. Myosin II is involved in cell division. There are several steps to cell movement, including formation of a leading edge and protrusion of lamellipodia and filopodia, which adhere to actin filaments via myosin I, and severing and contraction of actin filaments at the cell rear mediated by myosin II.
2.19.2010
1) Microtubules grow by the addition of tubulin dimers to the plus end, with polymerization favored at this end. The plus end carries a GTP cap that stabilizes the microtubule.
2) Microtubules undergo treadmilling as the GTP cap moves down the length of the microtubule until reaching the minus end, where GTP is hydrolyzed.
3) Dynamic instability occurs when a microtubule switches between growth and shrinkage, providing a source of tubulin for other microtubules. Growing microtubules are favored when GTP-tubulin concentrations are high.
2.17.2010
1) The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that regulate cell structure, motility, and transport of organelles.
2) Microtubules are involved in cell division and shape cellular structures like cilia. Microfilaments help with cell motility and division. Intermediate filaments provide structural support and strength to cells.
3) Mutations in proteins that make up the cytoskeleton can cause diseases like epidermolysis bullosa and Lou Gehrig's disease that impact skin, muscle, and nerve cells.
2.15.2010
The document summarizes key aspects of electron transport chains and ATP synthesis in mitochondria. It discusses how:
1) Ubiquinone pumps two hydrogen ions across the membrane after accepting two electrons, and cytochrome c transfers electrons to complex III.
2) ATP synthase is made of FO and F1 complexes, with F1 generating ATP using energy from protons pumped through FO.
3) The proton motive force drives ATP synthesis through chemiosmotic coupling, with ATP synthase functioning reversibly to generate or hydrolyze ATP.
2.12.2010
The document summarizes key aspects of cellular respiration, including:
1) Glycolysis can be reversed through gluconeogenesis to generate glucose from other sources.
2) Pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix and is converted to acetyl-CoA, which fuels the Krebs cycle to generate NADH, FADH2, and GTP while producing CO2.
3) The electron transport chain uses the energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and phosphate.
2.10.2010
1. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate through a series of 10 steps, generating 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
2. Key regulated steps include conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate which traps glucose in the cell, and conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate which controls glycolysis.
3. Pyruvate generated by glycolysis can then undergo fermentation, producing lactate or ethanol to regenerate NAD+ and allow glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
2.8.2010
1) Active transport uses energy, usually from ATP hydrolysis, to move molecules against their concentration or electrochemical gradients. This includes direct transporters that directly hydrolyze ATP and indirect transporters where one molecule moves down its gradient to drive another up its gradient.
2) Passive transport utilizes concentration and electrochemical gradients to move molecules down their gradients and does not require energy. Facilitated diffusion uses carrier proteins to increase the rate of diffusion for molecules.
3) Ion channels selectively allow specific ions like sodium or potassium to diffuse passively down their gradients to help maintain membrane potentials and drive processes like action potentials in neurons.
3.19.2010
Small G proteins bind either GDP or GTP and function as molecular switches. When bound to GTP, they interact with and activate target proteins. Heterotrimeric G proteins are composed of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits and bind to G protein-coupled receptors in the cell membrane. When a ligand binds the receptor, it activates the G protein, causing the alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP. The alpha subunit then activates downstream effector molecules like adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), which activates protein kinase A and triggers phosphorylation of target proteins to elicit cellular responses.
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2.22.2010 organelles
- 2. Cells create organelles where the proteins/enzymes are concentrated in particular areas in the cell.
- 5. Golgi
- 7. Endosomes
- 8. Lysosomes
- 9. Continuous w/ nuclear envelope, specifically ER
- 10. Transport vesicles to the plasma membrane
- 12. Nucleus
- 13. Mitochondria
- 14. Peroxisomes
- 15. Debated issue if part of isolated or endomembrane system
- 16. Can bud off from ER like a similar organelle, lysosomes
- 17. Can bud off from ER so can be isolated or part of endomembrane sys.
- 20. Smooth ER
- 21. Buds and sends vesicles to golgi
- 22. Cis
- 23. Medial
- 24. Trans regions of golgi
- 25. Trans golgi to plasma membrane is the direction of budding
- 26. Synthesis of lipids, cholesterol, steroids
- 28. Ca2+ must be kept at low concentrations because it’s a signaling molecule.
- 30. Hydroxylation, where –OH groups are placed on to alcohol and drug molecules to make them more soluble so they can be removed easier
- 31. Catalyzed by cytochrome P-450
- 32. Upregulated when high levels of alcohol or drugs
- 33. Alcoholics have cronically high levels of cytochrome P-450
- 34. Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
- 35. Storage molecules can be broken down and used for glycolysis (example)
- 36. Rough ER
- 37. Contains ribosome on its membrane
- 41. Carb groups are placed onto proteins to glycosylate
- 42. N-glycosylation
- 43. Cisternae
- 44. The name ER tells you that it’s a network within the cytoplasm continuous with nuclear envelope.