This document summarizes the technical assistance provided to least developed countries in the context of the Doha Development Round at the World Trade Organization. It finds that while the activities planned are laudable, the scope, effectiveness and efficiency of programs like the Integrated Framework and Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme are of concern and may not achieve their objectives due to budgetary constraints and limited additional resources. The document questions whether the high level of technical assistance pledged in 2002 has been effectively delivered and suggests reassessing these programs to better fulfill the development goals of the Doha Round for least developed countries.
The document discusses the potential link between career guidance, human resources development, migration, labor market efficiency, training quality, and democracy. It argues that career guidance can help address challenges related to migration between Europe and MENA countries by improving education and skills matching labor demands. Effective career guidance systems also support public policy goals in education, employment, and social cohesion. While challenges remain in implementing career guidance programs in MENA, governments and support organizations could help by developing long-term strategies and providing technical assistance.
20090516 gsdr 2 - a2 k research in africa -- programmeLichia Saner-Yiu
This seminar will present findings from an 18-month study of copyright law and access to educational materials in 8 African countries. The study examined whether copyright law maximizes access to learning materials on the continent. Researchers will share results showing how copyright law in different countries affects access. Panel discussions will consider implications for international copyright norm-setting and reforms needed at regional and national levels in Africa. The seminar is part of a series providing a platform for development researchers to engage with Geneva-based international organizations.
This document provides information about a book titled "Negotiations Between State Actors and Non-State Actors: Case Analyses from Different Parts of the World". The book contains case studies of negotiations between state and non-state actors from various regions. It is edited by Raymond Saner and M. Varinia Michalun and published in 2009 by Republic of Letters Publishing BV. The book is part of the International Negotiation Series, which is edited by Daniel Druckman and William Donohue and has an editorial board of experts in the field of negotiation and conflict resolution.
20080731 summary of session 1 - rapporteur peggy mlewaLichia Saner-Yiu
The document summarizes key points from a food crisis conference held on July 17, 2008. Speakers noted that the food crisis has doubled since 1990 due to issues like population growth outpacing food production, constraints on production, and climate change. Proposed solutions included reducing subsidies and trade barriers to stimulate production and improve distribution. There was no consensus on all factors contributing to the crisis. Solutions discussed included direct food support, export restrictions, and policy reforms prioritizing agriculture. Early warning systems were recommended, along with interventions at global, international and national levels to address issues like environmental degradation and lack of infrastructure. National policies focused on agriculture were seen as important to addressing food security.
This chapter provides an overview of assessment and accreditation of non-formal management education programs. It discusses the growth of non-formal management education to meet demands for continuous learning. While assessment and accreditation systems are well-developed for formal management education, the same cannot be said for non-formal programs. The chapter examines accreditation approaches used in some Western countries like the US, Switzerland, and through ISO standards.
20090104 oecd china country note second draft -2_Lichia Saner-Yiu
This document provides a draft country note on tertiary education in China as part of an OECD review. It summarizes China's significant achievements in expanding tertiary education participation and research output in recent decades. However, it also notes challenges around maintaining quality, equitable access, and matching graduate skills with labor market needs. The review team addresses seven policy areas and provides pointers for improving planning, access, learning effectiveness, quality assurance, financing, innovation linkages, and internationalization of China's large and evolving tertiary education system.
The document discusses prospects for the development of Chinese tertiary education in 2020. It predicts that: (1) the scale of tertiary education will expand greatly, with enrollment increasing from 230 million to 400 million; (2) the quality of tertiary education will improve through various projects and some universities and disciplines will rank worldwide; and (3) investment in tertiary education will increase noticeably, accounting for 4-5% of GDP, improving lifelong learning opportunities. China aims to develop an innovative, harmonious society by 2020.
20081012 programm graz heimat in the public spaceLichia Saner-Yiu
The document outlines the schedule and program for an intercultural dialogue workshop taking place from October 11-19, 2008 in Graz, Austria. The workshop, called H.E.I.M.A.T., brings together partners and artists to discuss and promote the communication of cultural identity in public spaces through concrete art projects. Activities during the 8-day workshop include city tours, lectures, workshops, and art performances. The overall aims are to create networks, share knowledge, and test art projects exploring cultural identity in the city of Graz.
The document discusses the potential link between career guidance, human resources development, migration, labor market efficiency, training quality, and democracy. It argues that career guidance can help address challenges related to migration between Europe and MENA countries by improving education and skills matching labor demands. Effective career guidance systems also support public policy goals in education, employment, and social cohesion. While challenges remain in implementing career guidance programs in MENA, governments and support organizations could help by developing long-term strategies and providing technical assistance.
20090516 gsdr 2 - a2 k research in africa -- programmeLichia Saner-Yiu
This seminar will present findings from an 18-month study of copyright law and access to educational materials in 8 African countries. The study examined whether copyright law maximizes access to learning materials on the continent. Researchers will share results showing how copyright law in different countries affects access. Panel discussions will consider implications for international copyright norm-setting and reforms needed at regional and national levels in Africa. The seminar is part of a series providing a platform for development researchers to engage with Geneva-based international organizations.
This document provides information about a book titled "Negotiations Between State Actors and Non-State Actors: Case Analyses from Different Parts of the World". The book contains case studies of negotiations between state and non-state actors from various regions. It is edited by Raymond Saner and M. Varinia Michalun and published in 2009 by Republic of Letters Publishing BV. The book is part of the International Negotiation Series, which is edited by Daniel Druckman and William Donohue and has an editorial board of experts in the field of negotiation and conflict resolution.
20080731 summary of session 1 - rapporteur peggy mlewaLichia Saner-Yiu
The document summarizes key points from a food crisis conference held on July 17, 2008. Speakers noted that the food crisis has doubled since 1990 due to issues like population growth outpacing food production, constraints on production, and climate change. Proposed solutions included reducing subsidies and trade barriers to stimulate production and improve distribution. There was no consensus on all factors contributing to the crisis. Solutions discussed included direct food support, export restrictions, and policy reforms prioritizing agriculture. Early warning systems were recommended, along with interventions at global, international and national levels to address issues like environmental degradation and lack of infrastructure. National policies focused on agriculture were seen as important to addressing food security.
This chapter provides an overview of assessment and accreditation of non-formal management education programs. It discusses the growth of non-formal management education to meet demands for continuous learning. While assessment and accreditation systems are well-developed for formal management education, the same cannot be said for non-formal programs. The chapter examines accreditation approaches used in some Western countries like the US, Switzerland, and through ISO standards.
20090104 oecd china country note second draft -2_Lichia Saner-Yiu
This document provides a draft country note on tertiary education in China as part of an OECD review. It summarizes China's significant achievements in expanding tertiary education participation and research output in recent decades. However, it also notes challenges around maintaining quality, equitable access, and matching graduate skills with labor market needs. The review team addresses seven policy areas and provides pointers for improving planning, access, learning effectiveness, quality assurance, financing, innovation linkages, and internationalization of China's large and evolving tertiary education system.
The document discusses prospects for the development of Chinese tertiary education in 2020. It predicts that: (1) the scale of tertiary education will expand greatly, with enrollment increasing from 230 million to 400 million; (2) the quality of tertiary education will improve through various projects and some universities and disciplines will rank worldwide; and (3) investment in tertiary education will increase noticeably, accounting for 4-5% of GDP, improving lifelong learning opportunities. China aims to develop an innovative, harmonious society by 2020.
20081012 programm graz heimat in the public spaceLichia Saner-Yiu
The document outlines the schedule and program for an intercultural dialogue workshop taking place from October 11-19, 2008 in Graz, Austria. The workshop, called H.E.I.M.A.T., brings together partners and artists to discuss and promote the communication of cultural identity in public spaces through concrete art projects. Activities during the 8-day workshop include city tours, lectures, workshops, and art performances. The overall aims are to create networks, share knowledge, and test art projects exploring cultural identity in the city of Graz.
This document discusses technical assistance and capacity building for least developed countries (LDCs) in the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It summarizes developments in trade-related technical assistance (TRTA) and trade-related capacity building (TRCB) since the Doha Development Round, including the Integrated Framework for TRTA to LDCs. However, it notes that there are still shortcomings, such as budget constraints affecting implementation, conditionalities of assistance that may be prohibitive for LDCs, and that assistance has not reached all LDCs. It concludes that the current approach of focusing on market access and WTO compliance through assistance may not adequately address LDCs' supply-side constraints and needs for reducing
This guide helps businesses take advantage of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement. The agreement simplifies customs procedures, allowing businesses to become more competitive. This jargon-free guide explains the provisions with a focus on what businesses need to know to take advantage of the agreement. It will also help policy makers identify their needs for technical assistance to implement and monitor it. - See more at: http://www.intracen.org/wto-trade-facilitation-agreement-business-guide-for-developing-countries/#sthash.UA1o6V3G.dpuf
This session will review the development cooperation provisions of the EPA Agreement and examine the role of the institutions charged with the responsibility of the provision of development assistance. This discussion should emphasize the need for strategic planning when requesting assistance or cooperation and the importance of technical assistance utilized for capacity building.
Presentation by Kariyma Baltimore - Trade Officer
The Commission on Enterprise, Business Facilitation and Development, at its eighth session in
Geneva (12–15 January 2004), discussed the issues note “Policy options for strengthening SME
competitiveness” (TD/B/COM.3/58), which recommends concrete policy options that developing
countries could adopt to strengthen enterprise competitiveness. The Commission decided to continue
its work in this area with a focus on enhancing the export competitiveness of small and medium-size
enterprises, including through possible link-ups to international supply chains.
The document discusses how the ICT industry in Europe is affected by the economic downturn. It outlines the main challenges as reduced IT budgets, increased competition, and difficulties obtaining financing. However, it also discusses hopes for the industry, as ICT is critical to economic growth and some areas like cloud computing still have potential. It recommends companies adapt to changes, look to local and international markets, and that the ServiceOne Alliance could provide opportunities for collaboration between members.
Global value chains can contribute to productive
capacity development through several
mechanisms, including technology dissemination
and skills and knowledge development. They
can also open up opportunities for longer-term
industrial upgrading, especially in coordination
with other policy areas such as science, technology
and innovation policies that support technological
learning and boost competitiveness.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: Rethinking the Role of Foreign Direct Invest...Dr Lendy Spires
In the face of inadequate resources to finance long-term development in Africa and with poverty reduction and other Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) looking increasingly difficult to achieve by 2015, attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) has assumed a prominent place in the strategies of economic renewal being advocated by policy makers at the national, regional and international levels.
The experience of a small number of fast-growing East Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs), and recently China, has strengthened the belief that attracting FDI is key to bridging the resource gap of low-income countries and avoiding further build-up of debt while directly tackling the causes of poverty.
Since the Asian crisis, while on the one hand a more cautionary note has been sounded about premature financial liberalization, on the other hand calls for an accelerated pace of opening up to FDI have intensified, on the assumption that this will bring not only more stable capital inflows but also greater technological know-how, higher-paying jobs, entrepreneurial and workplace skills, and new export opportunities (Prasad et al., 2003).
This is not an altogether new direction in development policy thinking, particularly in the African context. Immediately following independence, policy makers across the region hoped that attracting FDI, often with the bait of high tariff protection and generous incentive packages, would provide the catalyst for a “late industrialization” drive (Mkandawire, 2001: 306).
And following the debt crisis of the early 1980s, the architects of structural adjustment also saw increased FDI as key to sustained economic recovery, this time in conformity with “market fundamentals”. From this perspective, the pursuit of responsible macroeconomic policies combined with an accelerating pace of liberalization, deregulation and, above all, privatization were expected to attract FDI to Africa (World Bank, 1997: 51; IMF, 1999).
Despite the efforts of African governments to comply with this policy advice, the record of the past two decades with respect to reducing poverty and attracting FDI has been disappointing at best. In response, a second generation of reforms, introduced in the late 1990s, has sought to address shortcomings in programme design and implementation by placing much greater emphasis on
Regulatory reform in the telecommunication industry in spainCMR WORLD TECH
The document provides an overview of regulatory reform in Spain's telecommunications industry. It discusses the key drivers of reform, including requirements from the EU and WTO. Spain liberalized its telecom market on December 1, 1998, ending Telefonica's 74-year monopoly. The regulatory framework in Spain aims to promote competition, universal service obligations, new technologies, efficient use of resources, and user interests. While rules are largely in line with EU directives, effective implementation will be important to ensure fair competition as the market continues to open.
1) The WTO's concept of standards is outdated as it was established before globalization and digital technologies like the Internet.
2) Open standards developed through globally inclusive communities have been highly successful in driving innovation, trade growth, and development by removing barriers.
3) The WTO needs to update its definitions and processes around standards to acknowledge open standards and more inclusive, transparent standardization processes in order to better support innovation in the 21st century.
The document provides an overview of economic development and opportunities for cooperation between Hong Kong and Guangdong province in China. It discusses Guangdong's advantages including low costs, complete industry chains, and skilled workforce. Hong Kong also has advantages as an international financial center with rule of law. There are complementary opportunities between Hong Kong's services sector and Guangdong's manufacturing. Major problems faced by Hong Kong businessmen include lack of mainland market knowledge and underutilization of international networks.
This document provides information on the World Trade Organization (WTO):
1. It lists the name of the current Director-General of the WTO, Pascal Lamy, and details that he assumed the role in 1995 in Geneva, Switzerland following the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations.
2. It describes some of the key functions of the WTO, including administering trade agreements, providing a forum for trade negotiations, setting procedures for settling disputes between members, and assisting developing countries.
3. It notes that the WTO coordinates with its Secretariat staff of over 500 people including economists, statisticians, lawyers and other experts to facilitate its work.
Bd ites strategy_paper_final_draft_2008Fokhruz Zaman
This document provides a strategy to develop the ITES (ICT Enabled Services) sector in Bangladesh. It was produced through collaboration between sector stakeholders, the Ministry of Commerce, and the International Trade Centre. The strategy aims to strengthen the sector through four main objectives: 1) Defining new market approaches and executing them to meet international demand. 2) Increasing management capabilities and operational capacity for new markets. 3) Upgrading business and trade facilitation services. 4) Improving power utilities, technical facilities, and communication infrastructure. The strategy establishes a framework for stakeholders to work together on implementation plans to realize the strategic vision of enhancing the sector's competitiveness and contribution to the national economy.
Ibm unit 2 international trade and investmentGanesha Pandian
This document provides an overview of international trade and investment topics. It discusses the role of organizations like the WTO and GATT in promoting global trade. It covers various trade theories like comparative advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The document also examines foreign direct investment, factors influencing FDI, and India's FDI policy. Additionally, it defines regional trade blocks and provides examples of major trade blocks like the EU, NAFTA, and ASEAN.
The document provides an overview of economic cooperation within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. It discusses GCC adoption of new IT standards to control costs. Yemen aims to provide laborers to GCC to strengthen economic ties. Financial markets and banking sectors in GCC countries have grown significantly since the 1970s due to increased oil prices. However, GCC countries remain dependent on oil revenues and would benefit from further economic diversification and cooperation, particularly in petrochemical industries, to compete globally.
The document is a ministerial declaration from a meeting of Least Developed Country trade ministers in Bali, Indonesia ahead of the 9th WTO Ministerial Conference. It calls on WTO members to address various issues important to LDCs, including improving duty-free and quota-free market access, preferential rules of origin, assistance for cotton producers, services exports, trade facilitation with support for LDCs, agriculture, development issues, intellectual property, LDC accessions to the WTO, technical assistance, aid for trade, and support for the Enhanced Integrated Framework.
Josep Xercavins presentation (CTT for FfD Ubuntu Campaign in UN)xerca
This document discusses a proposed currency transaction tax (CTT) as an innovative financing mechanism to raise funds for development. It notes that official development assistance is decreasing while challenges like achieving the Millennium Development Goals, food crises, and climate change remain. The document references a report by a UN technical group that found a very low 0.005% CTT tax rate could stably and predictably raise significant funding without disrupting markets. It proposes including agreement on this CTT levy in the outcome of the 2008 Doha Review of the Monterrey Consensus on financing for development.
José Luis Domínguez, Marketing Director of SATEC, presented at the ServiceOne Alliance Conference in Madrid on September 17, 2009. He discussed the economic downturn in Europe and its effects on the ICT industry, as well as opportunities for growth. Key points included: IT budgets are falling globally but some technologies still offer growth; the ICT industry underpins many other sectors and innovation will be important for economic recovery; and partnerships through alliances like ServiceOne can help companies pursue new opportunities internationally by sharing solutions, resources, and references.
The document provides an organizational critique of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses the influence and role of the WTO in the world. It outlines several significant dilemmas and issues faced by the WTO, including agriculture, access to patented medicines, non-agricultural market access, export subsidies, administration of tariff quotas, and dissatisfaction among developing countries. It also discusses several key criticisms of the WTO related to its lack of transparency and democracy, prioritization of corporate profits over human rights, environmental and labor protections, undermining of local decision making, and disadvantages it creates for small and poor countries. The conclusion calls for reforms to improve participation of developing countries and enhance transparency.
The document recommends that G20 governments ratify and implement the WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement to reduce trade costs and facilitate global value chains. It notes that while 159 WTO members signed the agreement, only 12 have ratified it so far, including 5 G20 members. Full implementation could boost global GDP by $1 trillion and create millions of jobs. The document calls on G20 countries to accelerate ratification, establish trade committees, commit to high-quality implementation plans, and coordinate assistance to developing countries to fully realize the agreement's benefits.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades - World Trade Organisationrullibrary
A guide to the various kinds of information that can be found through the World Trade Organisations website, focusing especially on tariffs and trades.
20090711 talke given by molinier, director of undp geneva office 8.07.09Lichia Saner-Yiu
The Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development (CSEND) promotes equitable, sustainable and integrated development through dialogue and institutional learning. Diplomacy Dialogue is a branch of CSEND, a non-profit research and development organization based in Geneva, Switzerland since 1993 that aims to further CSEND's mission.
This document discusses technical assistance and capacity building for least developed countries (LDCs) in the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It summarizes developments in trade-related technical assistance (TRTA) and trade-related capacity building (TRCB) since the Doha Development Round, including the Integrated Framework for TRTA to LDCs. However, it notes that there are still shortcomings, such as budget constraints affecting implementation, conditionalities of assistance that may be prohibitive for LDCs, and that assistance has not reached all LDCs. It concludes that the current approach of focusing on market access and WTO compliance through assistance may not adequately address LDCs' supply-side constraints and needs for reducing
This guide helps businesses take advantage of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement. The agreement simplifies customs procedures, allowing businesses to become more competitive. This jargon-free guide explains the provisions with a focus on what businesses need to know to take advantage of the agreement. It will also help policy makers identify their needs for technical assistance to implement and monitor it. - See more at: http://www.intracen.org/wto-trade-facilitation-agreement-business-guide-for-developing-countries/#sthash.UA1o6V3G.dpuf
This session will review the development cooperation provisions of the EPA Agreement and examine the role of the institutions charged with the responsibility of the provision of development assistance. This discussion should emphasize the need for strategic planning when requesting assistance or cooperation and the importance of technical assistance utilized for capacity building.
Presentation by Kariyma Baltimore - Trade Officer
The Commission on Enterprise, Business Facilitation and Development, at its eighth session in
Geneva (12–15 January 2004), discussed the issues note “Policy options for strengthening SME
competitiveness” (TD/B/COM.3/58), which recommends concrete policy options that developing
countries could adopt to strengthen enterprise competitiveness. The Commission decided to continue
its work in this area with a focus on enhancing the export competitiveness of small and medium-size
enterprises, including through possible link-ups to international supply chains.
The document discusses how the ICT industry in Europe is affected by the economic downturn. It outlines the main challenges as reduced IT budgets, increased competition, and difficulties obtaining financing. However, it also discusses hopes for the industry, as ICT is critical to economic growth and some areas like cloud computing still have potential. It recommends companies adapt to changes, look to local and international markets, and that the ServiceOne Alliance could provide opportunities for collaboration between members.
Global value chains can contribute to productive
capacity development through several
mechanisms, including technology dissemination
and skills and knowledge development. They
can also open up opportunities for longer-term
industrial upgrading, especially in coordination
with other policy areas such as science, technology
and innovation policies that support technological
learning and boost competitiveness.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: Rethinking the Role of Foreign Direct Invest...Dr Lendy Spires
In the face of inadequate resources to finance long-term development in Africa and with poverty reduction and other Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) looking increasingly difficult to achieve by 2015, attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) has assumed a prominent place in the strategies of economic renewal being advocated by policy makers at the national, regional and international levels.
The experience of a small number of fast-growing East Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs), and recently China, has strengthened the belief that attracting FDI is key to bridging the resource gap of low-income countries and avoiding further build-up of debt while directly tackling the causes of poverty.
Since the Asian crisis, while on the one hand a more cautionary note has been sounded about premature financial liberalization, on the other hand calls for an accelerated pace of opening up to FDI have intensified, on the assumption that this will bring not only more stable capital inflows but also greater technological know-how, higher-paying jobs, entrepreneurial and workplace skills, and new export opportunities (Prasad et al., 2003).
This is not an altogether new direction in development policy thinking, particularly in the African context. Immediately following independence, policy makers across the region hoped that attracting FDI, often with the bait of high tariff protection and generous incentive packages, would provide the catalyst for a “late industrialization” drive (Mkandawire, 2001: 306).
And following the debt crisis of the early 1980s, the architects of structural adjustment also saw increased FDI as key to sustained economic recovery, this time in conformity with “market fundamentals”. From this perspective, the pursuit of responsible macroeconomic policies combined with an accelerating pace of liberalization, deregulation and, above all, privatization were expected to attract FDI to Africa (World Bank, 1997: 51; IMF, 1999).
Despite the efforts of African governments to comply with this policy advice, the record of the past two decades with respect to reducing poverty and attracting FDI has been disappointing at best. In response, a second generation of reforms, introduced in the late 1990s, has sought to address shortcomings in programme design and implementation by placing much greater emphasis on
Regulatory reform in the telecommunication industry in spainCMR WORLD TECH
The document provides an overview of regulatory reform in Spain's telecommunications industry. It discusses the key drivers of reform, including requirements from the EU and WTO. Spain liberalized its telecom market on December 1, 1998, ending Telefonica's 74-year monopoly. The regulatory framework in Spain aims to promote competition, universal service obligations, new technologies, efficient use of resources, and user interests. While rules are largely in line with EU directives, effective implementation will be important to ensure fair competition as the market continues to open.
1) The WTO's concept of standards is outdated as it was established before globalization and digital technologies like the Internet.
2) Open standards developed through globally inclusive communities have been highly successful in driving innovation, trade growth, and development by removing barriers.
3) The WTO needs to update its definitions and processes around standards to acknowledge open standards and more inclusive, transparent standardization processes in order to better support innovation in the 21st century.
The document provides an overview of economic development and opportunities for cooperation between Hong Kong and Guangdong province in China. It discusses Guangdong's advantages including low costs, complete industry chains, and skilled workforce. Hong Kong also has advantages as an international financial center with rule of law. There are complementary opportunities between Hong Kong's services sector and Guangdong's manufacturing. Major problems faced by Hong Kong businessmen include lack of mainland market knowledge and underutilization of international networks.
This document provides information on the World Trade Organization (WTO):
1. It lists the name of the current Director-General of the WTO, Pascal Lamy, and details that he assumed the role in 1995 in Geneva, Switzerland following the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations.
2. It describes some of the key functions of the WTO, including administering trade agreements, providing a forum for trade negotiations, setting procedures for settling disputes between members, and assisting developing countries.
3. It notes that the WTO coordinates with its Secretariat staff of over 500 people including economists, statisticians, lawyers and other experts to facilitate its work.
Bd ites strategy_paper_final_draft_2008Fokhruz Zaman
This document provides a strategy to develop the ITES (ICT Enabled Services) sector in Bangladesh. It was produced through collaboration between sector stakeholders, the Ministry of Commerce, and the International Trade Centre. The strategy aims to strengthen the sector through four main objectives: 1) Defining new market approaches and executing them to meet international demand. 2) Increasing management capabilities and operational capacity for new markets. 3) Upgrading business and trade facilitation services. 4) Improving power utilities, technical facilities, and communication infrastructure. The strategy establishes a framework for stakeholders to work together on implementation plans to realize the strategic vision of enhancing the sector's competitiveness and contribution to the national economy.
Ibm unit 2 international trade and investmentGanesha Pandian
This document provides an overview of international trade and investment topics. It discusses the role of organizations like the WTO and GATT in promoting global trade. It covers various trade theories like comparative advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The document also examines foreign direct investment, factors influencing FDI, and India's FDI policy. Additionally, it defines regional trade blocks and provides examples of major trade blocks like the EU, NAFTA, and ASEAN.
The document provides an overview of economic cooperation within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. It discusses GCC adoption of new IT standards to control costs. Yemen aims to provide laborers to GCC to strengthen economic ties. Financial markets and banking sectors in GCC countries have grown significantly since the 1970s due to increased oil prices. However, GCC countries remain dependent on oil revenues and would benefit from further economic diversification and cooperation, particularly in petrochemical industries, to compete globally.
The document is a ministerial declaration from a meeting of Least Developed Country trade ministers in Bali, Indonesia ahead of the 9th WTO Ministerial Conference. It calls on WTO members to address various issues important to LDCs, including improving duty-free and quota-free market access, preferential rules of origin, assistance for cotton producers, services exports, trade facilitation with support for LDCs, agriculture, development issues, intellectual property, LDC accessions to the WTO, technical assistance, aid for trade, and support for the Enhanced Integrated Framework.
Josep Xercavins presentation (CTT for FfD Ubuntu Campaign in UN)xerca
This document discusses a proposed currency transaction tax (CTT) as an innovative financing mechanism to raise funds for development. It notes that official development assistance is decreasing while challenges like achieving the Millennium Development Goals, food crises, and climate change remain. The document references a report by a UN technical group that found a very low 0.005% CTT tax rate could stably and predictably raise significant funding without disrupting markets. It proposes including agreement on this CTT levy in the outcome of the 2008 Doha Review of the Monterrey Consensus on financing for development.
José Luis Domínguez, Marketing Director of SATEC, presented at the ServiceOne Alliance Conference in Madrid on September 17, 2009. He discussed the economic downturn in Europe and its effects on the ICT industry, as well as opportunities for growth. Key points included: IT budgets are falling globally but some technologies still offer growth; the ICT industry underpins many other sectors and innovation will be important for economic recovery; and partnerships through alliances like ServiceOne can help companies pursue new opportunities internationally by sharing solutions, resources, and references.
The document provides an organizational critique of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses the influence and role of the WTO in the world. It outlines several significant dilemmas and issues faced by the WTO, including agriculture, access to patented medicines, non-agricultural market access, export subsidies, administration of tariff quotas, and dissatisfaction among developing countries. It also discusses several key criticisms of the WTO related to its lack of transparency and democracy, prioritization of corporate profits over human rights, environmental and labor protections, undermining of local decision making, and disadvantages it creates for small and poor countries. The conclusion calls for reforms to improve participation of developing countries and enhance transparency.
The document recommends that G20 governments ratify and implement the WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement to reduce trade costs and facilitate global value chains. It notes that while 159 WTO members signed the agreement, only 12 have ratified it so far, including 5 G20 members. Full implementation could boost global GDP by $1 trillion and create millions of jobs. The document calls on G20 countries to accelerate ratification, establish trade committees, commit to high-quality implementation plans, and coordinate assistance to developing countries to fully realize the agreement's benefits.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades - World Trade Organisationrullibrary
A guide to the various kinds of information that can be found through the World Trade Organisations website, focusing especially on tariffs and trades.
20090711 talke given by molinier, director of undp geneva office 8.07.09Lichia Saner-Yiu
The Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development (CSEND) promotes equitable, sustainable and integrated development through dialogue and institutional learning. Diplomacy Dialogue is a branch of CSEND, a non-profit research and development organization based in Geneva, Switzerland since 1993 that aims to further CSEND's mission.
20090708 commodities in the if study undp annex vLichia Saner-Yiu
This document contains country commodity development strategy maps for multiple countries in Africa. It provides a breakdown of 14 criteria related to commodity development across three levels of intervention (policy, institution, enterprise) for several key commodities in each country. Color coded cells indicate where the country's Diagnostic Trade Integration Study (DTIS) corresponds with each criterion. For Mauritania specifically, it analyzes 3 commodities - fisheries, rice and cattle - across the 14 criteria and 3 levels of intervention, with the DTIS corresponding to 30 of the 126 total cells (24%).
The article analyzes the scheduled commitments and exemptions of the 30 OECD member countries regarding financial services under the GATS. It finds that while most OECD members have committed to market access and national treatment for foreign banks, there is variability in the depth of their commitments. Specifically, limitations on market access and national treatment in country schedules determine the level of entry, establishment and competition foreign banks face. The degree of financial services liberalization also diverges between de jure commitments and the de facto situation. Overall, improvements to liberalization will depend more on unilateral opening, regional agreements, and pressures from international financial institutions than further WTO negotiations.
This document summarizes a paper that discusses the possible impact of regional trade agreements (RTAs) on foreign direct investment (FDI) and trade flows in the Americas. It first briefly examines selected RTAs with investment protection provisions, including NAFTA, the Group of Three, and the Andean Community of Nations. It then analyzes the effect of RTA membership on FDI flows in the Andean subregion using a gravity model. The evidence suggests that RTAs in the region foster trade but divert FDI in the Andean Community despite investment protection. The implications of a proposed hemispheric Free Trade Area of the Americas, which includes investment protection, on FDI flows are then considered.
This document summarizes a journal article that explores the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) influence on trade policies in low-income countries, particularly through programs like HIPC and PRGF. It begins by outlining the IMF's traditional focus on monetary and fiscal policy stability. It then discusses how the IMF's guidance has incorporated "Washington Consensus" priorities of trade liberalization. The document analyzes whether the IMF oversteps its mandate by influencing trade policies and critiques if pushing liberalization on low-income countries is appropriate given lack of consensus on benefits. It concludes by questioning if the IMF would better fulfill its core role and improve coherence across institutions by redirecting focus away from trade.
This document discusses inter-ministerial policy coordination (IMPC) and its role in governance. It provides background on definitions of governance, challenges in transition economies, and the importance of coordination across government ministries to effectively participate in international regimes. The document focuses on IMPC as a crucial governance mechanism and discusses how coordination enables better performance and prevents fragmentation across government organizations.
This document provides an executive summary of an OECD report on tertiary education in China. The summary includes:
1) An overview of China's tertiary education system, including its size, structure, and recent reforms.
2) A discussion of key challenges facing China's tertiary education sector, such as balancing autonomy and regulation, improving quality assurance, and increasing equitable access.
3) Recommendations for future policy developments in areas like system governance, labor market linkages, financing, and internationalization.
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The Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development (CSEND) promotes equitable, sustainable and integrated development through dialogue and institutional learning. Diplomacy Dialogue is a branch of CSEND, a non-profit R&D organization based in Geneva, Switzerland since 1993 that aims to further CSEND's mission.
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Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
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Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
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𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
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3. Journal of World Trade 40(3): 467±494, 2006.
# 2006 Kluwer Law International. Printed in The Netherlands.
Technical Assistance to Least-Developed
Countries in the Context of the Doha
Development Round: High Risk of Failure
Raymond SANER* and Laura PAEZ**
Â
In 2002, World Trade Organization (WTO) Members pledged more than 30
million Swiss francs to ensure the achievement of the Doha Development Round
(DDR). This amount was meant to finance 514 technical assistance and capacity
building activities listed in the WTO Annual Technical Assistance Plan (TAP). In
addition, 49 least-developed countries (LDCs) would receive assistance through the
Integrated Framework (IF), to help them integrate trade policy into their development
strategies. Concerns have arisen as to the scope, effectiveness and efficiency of the IF, as
well as other trade-related technical assistance programmes. While the activities
planned are laudable, the authors question whether they can be achieved and suggest a
reassessment of the IF in order to fulfil the objectives of the DDR.
I. DOHA DEVELOPMENT ROUND AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR DEVELOPMENT
The World Trade Organization (WTO) has been given the explicit mandate by its
membership to promote the development of developing and least-developed countries
(LDCs) in its trade agenda. The WTO adopted a Work Programme in its Ministerial
Declaration of 14 November 2001, known as the Doha Development Round (DDR),
conducive to the fulfilment of development objectives (WTO, 2001a).
Several paragraphs of the DDR Work Programme set out development-related
obligations, both in hortatory and binding language for the WTO membership. These
are Implementation-Related Issues and Concerns (para. 13), Small Economies (para.
35), Least-Developed Countries (paras 42 and 43), Special and Differential Treatment
(para. 44), and, notably, Technical Cooperation and Capacity Building (paras 38, 39, 40
and 41). The final category of obligations dealing with Technical Assistance (TA) and
Capacity Building (CB) addresses the pivotal measures required to reduce poverty in
developing states and in LDCs.
The vital nature of TA and CB is immediately apparent and referred to in the
Preamble of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA):
* Raymond Saner PhD and Med, Director of Centre for Socio Eco-Nomic Development (CSEND).
CSEND is a non-governmental research and development organization (NGRDO) E-mail: <saner@csend.org>
<raysaner@yahoo.co.uk>.
** Laura Paez, MSc PhD, University of Zurich, associate trade researcher, CSEND. The authors would like
Â
to thank an anonymous referee for helpful and detailed comments and Travis DeArman for his contribution to this
article.
4. 468 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
``The majority of WTO Members are developing countries. We seek to place their needs and
interests at the heart of the Work Programme adopted in this Declaration . . . In this context,
enhanced market access, balanced rules, and well targeted, sustainably financed technical assistance
and capacity-building programmes have important roles to play.'' (emphasis added) (WTO, 2001a:
para. 2)
In addition to a specific mandate for technical assistance, due consideration is also
given to technical assistance and capacity building in all of the issues of the Work
Programme. The WTO commitment to LDCs specifically articulates:
``The delivery of WTO technical assistance shall be designed to assist developing and least-developed
countries and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines, implement
obligations and exercise the rights of membership, including drawing on the benefits of an open, rules-based
multilateral trading system.'' (emphasis added) (WTO, 2001a: para. 38)
Specific obligations of Trade-Related Technical Assistance and Trade-related
Capacity Building (TRTA/CB) in the Work Programme of the DDR include
providing secure and predictable funding (WTO, 2001a: para. 40). This has been
translated into the design and adoption of an Annual Technical Assistance Plan (TAP),
issued by the WTO Secretariat and approved by the membership, defining the
allocation of capital and human resources to TRTA/CB projects for LDCs.
In addition to funding, the mandate for technical assistance envisions coordinated
delivery of TRTA/CB by the WTO Secretariat in conjunction with the Development
Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD, other international agencies such as the
United Nations Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the
International Trade Centre (ITC), as well as bilateral donors and country
beneficiaries. This inter-institutional effort is deemed ``. . . to identify ways of
enhancing and rationalizing the Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical
Assistance to Least-Developed Countries and the Joint Integrated Technical
Assistance Programme (JITAP)'' (WTO, 2001a: para. 39).
II. D EVELOPMENTS IN TRADE-RELATED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND TRADE-
RELATED CAPACITY BUILDING SINCE THE DDR
The explicit mandate of Trade-Related Technical Assistance and Trade-Related
Capacity Building (TRTA/CB) in the WTO has led to the implementation of the
DDR Declaration. What has been delivered so far is: (a) a revised and enhanced JITAP,
implemented in 16 countries (WTO, 2003b); (b) the Integrated Framework for Trade-
Related Technical Assistance to Least-Developed Countries (IF); (c) a TAP, containing
the funding and allocation priorities and activities and a Doha Development Agenda
Global Trust Fund (DDAGTF) (see Table 1), which consolidates external funds and
resources from donors for WTO TRTA/CB activities; and (d) a WTO/OECD joint
Trade Capacity Building Database (TCBDB), documenting on all the TRTA/CB
related activities (WTO, 2002c).
5. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 469
In the two years following the clear mandate established by the 2002 DDA
proceedings, the WTO has published data on the progress of TRTA activities, as
depicted in Figures 1±3, which illustrate the changes in WTO TRTA activities,
expenditure and resources.1
FIGURE 1: NUMBER OF TRTA ACTIVITIES
Source: WTO, Annual Report 2005, p. 158.
FIGURE 2: WTO TECHNICAL ASSISTANCEÐEXPENDITURE
Source: WTO, Annual Report 2005, p. 158.
1 For complete graphs, see WTO, Annual Report 2005, pp. 157±159.
6. 470 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
FIGURE 3: WTO TECHNICAL ASSISTANCEÐRESOURCES
Source: WTO, Annual Report 2005, p. 159.
In examining Figure 1, it is apparent that while there is an overall positive trend in
TRTA activities, the increase is marginally significant. Taking 2002 (the year in which
the DDA obligations were undertaken) as a starting point, one observes that TRTA
activities increased from 488 to 501, or less than 3 percent, and actually fell during
2003.
The data on TRTA expenditure in Figure 2 at first glance appears to be more
hopeful, but must be considered carefully in the light of two shortcomings. First, it
must be noted that the entire expenditure increase post DDA was partly linked to WTO
extra budgetary spending. In fact, no permanent increase was made in the WTO regular
budget spending for TRTA after the DDA. This information is particularly worrisome
if considered jointly with the information illustrated in Figure 3. The increase of
TRTA resources was entirely attributable to voluntary contributions from Member
States. Third, Figure 3 also registers a sharp decrease of voluntary contributions from 25
million Swiss francs in 2003 to only 15 million Swiss francs in 2004, with no changes
whatsoever in the share of the WTO's regular budget to compensate for the fall in
TRTA resources in the previous year. If this is any indication of a trend, then TRTA
faces a very uncertain budgetary present and future.
III. THE REVISED AND ENHANCED JOINT INTEGRATED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
PROGRAMME
The Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme (JITAP) was originally a
joint initiative between UNCTAD, ITC and WTO, dedicated to enhancing the export
capacities of African developing countries and promoting their active participation in
the multilateral trading system.
7. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 471
In 2002, an evaluation of the JITAP was issued by two independent evaluators,
based on their interface with the organizations, donors and recipient countries involved
at all levels. Although the evaluators recognized the value of the JITAP contribution to
the multilateral trading system, they also drew attention on the shortcomings of the
programme, criticizing the asymmetrical application, a lack of sub-regional scales of
TRTA, a preference for national rather than local institutions, and most importantly a
focus on market access and market issues, even though supply-side issues dominate
LDC concerns.
To address these issues, the report recommends ``A future JITAP should focus on
. . . on building HRD capacities, through extensive engagement of local institutions;
and through assistance to the development of export-sector strategies, focusing on
supply-side issues. Greater emphasis on trade and poverty issues is essential in these
three areas'' (De Silva and Weston, 2002).
What follows is a more extensive analysis of the Integrated Framework (IF)
instrument, as it was created with the specific aim of helping least-developed countries
which are the main focus of this article.
IV. THE INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK FOR TRADE-RELATED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO
LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
A. OVERVIEW
The Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least-
Developed Countries (IF) was initiated in late 1997 as a joint programme between the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the WTO, the
International Trade Centre (ITC), the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and
the Bretton Woods Institutions (World Bank and International Monetary Fund) to
strengthen LDCs' trade capacities.2
Relaunched in 2000, after an exhaustive review of its first three years, the IF
revised programme sought to resolve previous implementation problems in LDCs, by
introducing ``mainstream trade''3 into the national development plans of the
beneficiary States. The preferred format of such development plans were so-called
``Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers'' (PRSPs), developed by the Bretton Woods
Institutions and used in the context of conditional debt financing. Under the IF,
coordinated TRTA/CB was to be delivered in areas specified by LDCs in their
development plans. This new approach of the IF, translated into an expanded work
programme to include more countries and increased funding with a trust fund
managed by UNDP (see Table 4).
2 For complete information on the IF, see <www.integratedframeowrk.org>. Also see WTO (2000a).
3 For a complete analysis of the elements and conditions of mainstreaming trade, see WTO (2001a).
8. 472 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
The IF was endorsed in the Doha Declaration, setting specific tasks in the context
of the WTO, as follows: (i) the design of a work programme for LDCs, (ii) the increase
of funding through donor Members' contributions, and (iii) the delivery of an interim
report by December 2002, as well as a full report by the DG on all issues affecting LDCs
in the V Ministerial.4
B. THE IF AND LDCS
The progress in fulfilling the IF mandate raises several considerations worthy of
mention. First, in terms of IF coverage of issues, the Sub Committee on Least-
Developed Countries produced the WTO Work Programme for the Least-Developed
Countries (LDCs) shortly after Doha, in February 2002 (WTO, 2002e). The
programme highlighted the core systemic issues of relevance for LDCs in the context
of the WTO. These issues were market access, TRTA/CB, support to the agencies
dealing with export and production diversification, mainstreaming trade into the LDC-
III Programme Action, participation and accession to the multilateral trading system,
and a follow-up to LDC-related decisions and declarations.
The Work Programme was further enhanced and narrowed by the New Strategy for
WTO Technical Cooperation for Capacity Building, Growth and Integration, issued in the
same month (WTO, 2002f). Concretely, the strategy consists of 10 points that are
summarized below:
± Technical Assistance is seen as a mechanism for ``mainstreaming'' trade into
national development strategies, in particular within programmes such as the
PRSPs.
± Joint application of the revised IF is foreseen by the six agencies, where supply
side constraints and capacity deficits prevail, and where trade is
``mainstreamed''. Here, the WTO has clarified that providing trade-related
infrastructure falls outside its mandate and resources.
± Effective and sustained coordination is to be sought with bilateral donors
under the DAC/OECD, in the context of the Integrated Framework Steering
Committee (IFSC).
C. SHORTCOMINGS
As is the case with the JITAP, a first shortcoming of IF seems to be the budgetary
constraints. This has affected the extent, comprehensiveness and speed of implementa-
tion of TRTA/CB. For instance, even though funds have been made available for
mainstreaming trade, one of the priorities in the context of the WTO DDAGTF, the
ability to guarantee sustainable financing, remains a major concern (see Figure 1).
4 See Doha Declaration, paras 42 and 43 (WTO, 2001a).
9. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 473
``In terms of liquidity, the DDAGTF was in the black at the end of June 2003. As the funds
received stood at CHF 13.2 million and total expenditures (including commitments undertaken
amounted to CHF 10.9 million by that time, a balance of CHF 2.2 million was available. The
terms of reference of the DDAGTF required, however, that the full amount be paid in the
WTO bank account by the end of the second quarter. That threshold has been missed by more
than CHF 10 million and could jeopardise the sustainability of the financing of training and
technical assistance activities for 2003 and beyond.'' (WTO, 2003b: para. 83)
A second limitation is mobilizing additional resources for capacity building
programmes highlighted in an earlier and very succinct report by the UNDP, the
responsible body for the management of the Integrated Framework Trust Fund
(IFTF), (UNDP, 2002). By the date the report was made public, the amount pledged
by the 17 bilateral and multilateral donors was US$ 10.5 million, of which only
US$ 6.9 million had been effectively disbursed in the IFTF (see Table 1). Given the
foreseeable growth in demand for TRTA/CB in LDCs, the DDR mandate on the
effective coordinated delivery of technical assistance with bilateral donors is, at best,
off track and hardly achievable.
TABLE 1: CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DOHA DEVELOPMENT AGENDA GLOBAL TRUST FUND
Donors CHF
2001 2002 2003 Total
Members and observers
Australia 400,377 432,850 833,227
Austria 292,000 292,000
Belgium 299,315 299,315
Canada 1,050,600 1,050,600
Czech Republic 12,570 12,570
Denmark 587,400 587,400
Estonia 10,265 10,265
European Commission 818,160 818,160
Finland ± ±
France 1,475,000 1,475,000
Germany 772,481 1,348,366 2,120,847
Greece ±
Hong Kong, China 722,525 722,525
Iceland 15,000 15,000 30,000
Ireland 496,740 496,740
Italy 1,468,000 1,468,000
Japan 1,581,657 210,275 1,791,932
Korea 429,379 429,379
Liechtenstein 20,000 20,000
Luxembourg 45,668 181,375 227,043
Netherlands 2,029,455 2,029,455
Nigeria 1,000 1,000
Norway 234,908 1,273,839 ± 1,508,747
Poland 20,000 20,000
Spain 8,078 110,959 119,037
Sweden 4,111,200 1,602,693 5,713,893
10. 474 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
TABLE 1: CONTINUED
Donors CHF
2001 2002 2003 Total
Switzerland 749,999 ± 749,999
Chinese Taipei 473,427 473,427
United Kingdom 558,945 ± 558,945
United States 2,454,808 ± 2,454,808
WTO Members 46,924 46,924
Total 289,910 19,399,209 6,672,118 26,361,237
IGOs
Arab Monetary Fund 123,118 123,118
Total ± 123,118 ± 123,118
NGOs and others
Total ± ± ± ±
Grand total 289,910 19,522,326 6,672,118 26,484,355
Source: WTO (2003b).
A third problem related to financing is the IF's conditionality; in order to become
an IF beneficiary, countries have to fulfil three basic criteria, namely (i) demonstrate
sufficient commitment to streamline trade into the respective national development
strategy (preferably PRSPs), (ii) the PRSPs process should be in a preparatory stage,
when requesting IF assistance, and (iii) meetings with the WB or the UNDP should
also be in a preparatory stage. The conditionality present throughout the process and
the subsequent high level of expectations on LDCs can be a prohibitive burden towards
those States in need of TRTA (see Figure 4).
In practice, the demands of IF conditionality require many of the human and
financial resources that LDCs are actually applying for under TRTA/CB. For example,
the IF requires the elaboration of a Diagnostic Trade Integration Study (DTIS),5 the
organization of national workshops to discuss the trade policies of the DTIS, and the
design of a Technical Assistance (TA) Action Plan. All of these activities need to be
endorsed by the government of the beneficiary country, as well as the stakeholders, and
subsequently need to be approved by the donors. It is contradictory to demand lengthy
processes requiring coordinated skills, resources and technical capacity often beyond
the possibilities of LDCs in order to qualify for TRTA/CB.
The IF conditionality is also present in the type of policy reforms undertaken by
countries in their DTIS. There seems to be a bias favouring those strategies that focus
5 DTISs are part of the diagnostic phase of IF, which comes into effect after the approval of assistance to a
particular LDC. This diagnostic phase entails a nation-wide process in close coordination with the World Bank,
seeking to stimulate discussion between the different sectors involved. The DTIS consists of the design of a plan of
action containing trade policy reforms and measures to be executed by the LDC, and which lays out the scope of
TRTA/CB delivery.
11. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 475
1 Review and analysis of
economic and export
performance
2. Assess macro-economic
environment
3. Document international policy
environment and market access
including trade restrictions and
preferential trade arrangements Key stakeholder input
(government, agencies,
entrepreneurs, civil society)
through:
. consultations during initial
4. Describe and analyse structure mission
of trade policy regime . circulation of draft report
. workshop during second
mission
Development of pro-poor trade
integration strategy
5. Analyse poverty impacts of Input from integrated
different policy options framework partners (WB, IMF,
WTO, ITC, UNDP,
UNCTAD) through IFWG
6. Analyse trade facilitation and
the efficiency of customs
administration
7. Review regulatory
environment for investment
8. Examine micro determinants
of competitiveness
FIGURE 4: FLOW DIAGRAM ON IF PROCESS
Source: Integrated Framework for Technical Assistance for Trade Development in Least-Developed
Countries. CambodiaÐAn Integration and Competitiveness Study Terms of Reference, at
<www.integratedframework.org/files/Cambodia_tor.pdf>.
12. 476 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
on compliance with WTO commitments and on the Singapore issues. Taking
Cambodia as an example, two of the main areas addressed in its IF were trade
facilitation (notably a Singapore issue) and accession to the WTO, with a particular
focus of achieving WTO compliance through legislative reform and institutionalization
of trade protection (The Royal Government of Cambodia, 2002). The same
observation has been made in relation to DTIS of other countries. As with JITAP,
critics feel that supply-side constraints have not been sufficiently addressed in the IF
(Canadian Council for International Co-operation, 2003).
A fourth shortcoming is the IF's lack of comprehensiveness and limited impact, as
opposed to its envisaged and expected achievements. The IF was initially conducted in
three pilot countries (Cambodia, Madagascar and Mauritania). Learning from the pilot
countries' experience, an adjusted IF sought deeper and more meaningful achieve-
ments, and was extended to another 11 LDCs.6 Still, only 14 out of 50 recognized
LDCs received aid under the second round of the IF.7 Interestingly, the report on the
IF only recommended the extension of the pilot phase to countries with a PRSP or I-
PRSP, or to countries which were in the process of implementation. Again, market-
driven considerations weighed heavily in determining IF eligibility, as opposed to
supply-side issues.
Currently, requests from an additional 12 countries are being considered. These
are Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Lao PDR, Maldives, Mozambique, Rwanda,
Sao Tome and Principe, Sudan, Togo, and Zambia. Of these, only Mozambique has
been recently admitted to the IF. The extension of IF to the other countries is ``. . .
subject to the outcome of the second evaluation of the IF, that is currently being
undertaken . . .'' as the WTO has clearly laid out in its Technical Assistance and
Training Plan for 2004 (WTO, 2004b: para. 95).
Agreements have been completed between the six IF agencies to make the IF
accessible to as many LDCs as possible prior the end of the Doha Round, (WTO,
2002d). However, only 20 countries8 have received or are receiving IF, leaving 30
LDCs still waiting for support.9 All these shortcomings call for the following questions:
Are the original objectives of TRTA/CB too ambitious in the light of what the
organizations and donors were willing or able to offer? Or has the ability of LDCs to
respond with a more enabling trade environment been overestimated by these
institutions?
The institutions of the IF extol the successes of TRTA/CB and assert that the
programme can remain effective with necessary reform (WTO Annual Report 2005).
Yet the final and most pessimistic scenario suggests that the conditionality and market-
6Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Lesotho, Mali, Malawi, Nepal, Senegal, and Yemen.
7For the complete listing of LDCs, see at <www.un.org/special-rep/ldc/lst.htm>.
8This includes Bangladesh, Gambia, Haiti, Tanzania, and Uganda, prior the restructuring of the IF
programme.
9 According to the condition and criteria of the IF, it is presumed that all LDCs in the official UN listing are
potential beneficiaries of the programme.
13. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 477
driven approach of the IF (rather than a supply-side approach to TRTA/CB) may be
simply inappropriate to reduce poverty in LDCs.
V. THE WTO/OECD JOINT TRADE CAPACITY BUILDING DATABASE (TCBDB)
A. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STANDING OF THE TCBDB
In another context, the OECD has been working in close relation with the WTO
on TRTA/CB. Both organizations have developed the Trade Capacity Building
Database (TCBDB), conducive to fulfilling the DDR mandate. The database contains
important data on TRTA and TRCB collected through surveys, as well as other
information-gathering tools and techniques (WTO/OECD, 2003). Many of these
findings reflect important trends of Official Development Assistance (ODA) in the
context of TRTA/CB, since OECD members represent 95 percent of the international
donor community. This allows for a comparison of the importance given to TRTA/CB
in relation to other fields of development assistance.
For instance, TRTA/CB receives 4.8 percent of the total ODA, which only
amounts to US$ 2.1 billion. Although it may seem small, the sum originally allocated
to the multi-donor TRTA/CB programmes increased by over 40 during 2001±2002,
thus indicating a still too modest but positive shift in absolute terms (Carey, 2004).
The increased emphasis on TRTA/CB is part of an effort to reactivate the DDR
by the OECD membership, following the failure of the Trade Ministerial at Cancun. It
reflects some recognition of the concerns of developing countries and LDCs in the
members' trade agendas, in order to prevent a repetition of the Cancun disaster.
Despite these efforts, the current OECD/WTO database illuminates the
qualitative aspects of TRTA/CB delivery. For instance, there is no data or survey
reporting whether TRTA/CB delivery is commensurate with the needs of the
recipients, nor whether it has had an effect on LDCs' trade, and on their participation in
the WTO (Carey, 2004). As a consequence, the current standing of TRTA/CB
delivered so far does not allow for a clear assessment in terms of its effectiveness for
improving LDCs' conditions.
B. UNDERSTANDING THE PERCEPTUAL DIVIDE OF TRTA/CB DELIVERY BETWEEN
THE WTO/OECD AND BENEFICIARIES
Timely and adequate delivery of TRTA/CB is an important starting position for
any advances in the multilateral trading system. Both developed and developing States
recognize the importance of TRTA/CB, yet they have disagreed as to its place in trade
negotiations.
10 The ``Singapore issues'' were four broad issues of interest first brought into the WTO trade agenda during
the Singapore Ministerial Conference of 1996. These issues were government procurement, investment, trade
facilitation and competition.
14. 478 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
In the context of the WTO, developing countries have refused to link the
accomplishment of TRTA/CB delivery to the start of trade negotiations on new issues.
An example is the failure of developed States to advance on the Singapore issues10
during Cancun. Developed States perceived to have fulfilled TRTA/CB commitments
in good faith, and expected concessions on the Singapore issues. The failure of the
Cancun ministerial because of the refusal of Members such as the United States and the
EU to provide significant commitments in sectors such as agriculture and non-
agricultural market access, illustrated the vital importance of these to developing
countries and LDCs,11 and also the divide between developed and developing States in
linking TRTA/CB to negotiating concessions.
Advances have been made in last year's negotiations in Geneva, in an effort to
resolve the stalemate prevailing since Cancun. The main results of the negotiations
contained in the so-called ``July Package'' were modalities for the abolishment of all
agricultural subsidies, significant progress in non-agricultural market access and in
cotton trade. In relation to TRTA/CB, there was a general reaffirmation of the
obligations of TRTA in the DDR and of programmes such as JITAP and the IF
(WTO, 2004a).
The July Package sets modalities for the negotiations on trade facilitation in its
Annex D, while stating that the remaining Singapore issues will be left on the Work
Programme of the DDR. The most important breakthrough in the modalities is the
establishment of a link between trade facilitation and TRTA/CB. Paragraph 5 of Annex
D of the July Package states:
``It is recognized that the provision of technical assistance and support for capacity building is
vital for developing and least-developed countries to enable them to fully participate in and
benefit from the negotiations. Members, in particular developed countries, therefore commit
themselves to adequately ensure such support and assistance during the negotiations . . .'' (WTO,
2004a: Annex D)
The July Package contains several significant implications for LDCs. First, TRTA/
CB has to be effective in order to negotiate on new issues. Effectiveness in turn means
that TRTA/CB must address the shortcomings vital to LDCs, and not those perceived
as important by donors or agencies involved. These July Package concessions indicate
that a greater commitment to TRTA/CB is recognized as necessary by developed States
prior to advancing on new trade issues.
The July Package is one of the most optimistic developments in rekindling the
DDA, and yet substantial hurdles remain. For the first time since the DDR, a link has
been achieved between one of the Singapore issues and TRTA/CB, in favour of
developing countries and LDCs. However, despite this breakthrough in negotiations,
much of the official information of the WTO and the OECD corroborate the divide in
perceptions of TRTA/CB delivery.
11 For an overview of the country positions, negotiating priorities and coalitions see: ICTSD, 2003, The Doha
Round Still on Life Support, WTO Members Cast for a Way Forward, Bridges, No. 7.
15. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 479
C. PERCEPTUAL DIVIDE REGARDING THE EFFECTIVENESS AND FOCUS OF TRTA/CB
Not surprisingly, a report issued by the WTO Director-General on the fulfilment
of the mandate of paragraph 41 of the DDR Declaration reflects a positive evaluation of
progress towards TRTA/CB. The Director-General concludes:
``. . . the Secretariat, in collaboration with its institutional partners have made considerable efforts
to fulfil the Doha mandates on training and technical assistance . . . Some 700 distinct activities
have been conducted since Doha, involving thousands of man/hours and mission/days by WTO
officials, covering all geographical regions and subjects on the negotiating agenda . . . I am
confident in reporting that the mandate entrusted to the WTO Secretariat under the Doha
Ministerial Declaration has been fully implemented.''
Taking a closer look into the data in the joint TCBDB of the WTO/OECD, the
statistical information seems to underscore a quantitative rather than qualitative
results-oriented perception of TRTA/CB delivery. This can be appreciated in the
simplistic representation of tables listing funding amounts and activities (see Tables 2
and 3).
The TRTA/CB activities are classified into two core areas, namely ``trade policy
and regulations'' and ``trade development''. ``Trade policy and regulations'' activities
address issues such as effective participation in the multilateral trade negotiations,
implementation of trade agreements, support of regional trade arrangements, policy
mainstreaming, trade facilitation, etc. ``Trade development'' activities concentrate on
the development of business, improving the business climate, access to trade finance
and trade promotion (WTO/OECD, 2003).
Current TRTA/CB activities have mainly focused on trade facilitation procedures,
regional trade agreements, trade mainstreaming and trade education within the category
of trade policy and regulations (see Table 2).
Sectors of particular interest to developing countries, as voiced during the
Cancun Ministerial, such as agriculture and non-agricultural market access, have
received much less attention both in terms of funding and number of TRTA/CB
activities. Instead, sectors such as environment, investment, and competition, which
are of priority to developed countries, have concentrated considerable more
resources.
Looking at trade development activities, it becomes apparent that the focus has
been on business support services and institutions, trade finance, trade promotion
and implementation, and market analysis and development. Less funds and activities
have been committed for public±private sector networking and E-commerce (see
Table 3).
From a critical perspective, trade development activities respond to commercial-
ization concerns and, as such, address barriers that might negatively affect a finished
good or service while it reaches its end destination in a foreign market. They do not
encompass activities which may trigger backward linkages in the production chain of
economic activities, or create positive spillovers to other sectors and industries of an
16. 480 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
TABLE 2: TRADE POLICY AND REGULATIONS IN 2001 AND 2002 (US$ MILLIONS AND NUMBER OF
ACTIVITIES)
Trade policy and regulations US$ millions Number of activities
2001 2002 2001 2002
3311 ± Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development 94 73 201 233
33112 ± Technical barriers to trade (TBT) and sanitary
and phytosanitary measures (SPS) 127 58 143 237
33121 ± Trade facilitation procedures 214 194 202 267
33122 ± Customs valuation 4 17 43 57
33123 ± Tariff reforms 0 0 6 7
33130 ± Regional trade agreements (RTAs) 57 163 37 66
33141 ± Accession 12 25 61 41
33142 ± Dispute settlement 1 1 23 26
33143 ± Trade-related intellectual property rights
(TRIPs) 13 9 53 99
33144 ± Agriculture 10 6 38 49
33145 ± Services 5 18 34 76
33146 ± Tariff negotiationsÐnon-agricultural
market access 6 3 85 78
33147 ± Rules 9 2 24 38
33148 ± Training in trade negotiation techniques 6 8 20 32
33151 ± Trade and environment 80 34 69 88
33152 ± Trade and competition 41 31 47 69
33153 ± Trade and investment 9 11 24 35
33154 ± Transparency and government procurement 2 2 5 18
33181 ± Trade education/training 37 56 300 338
Total 727 712 1,415 1,855
Source: WTO/OECD (2003).
TABLE 3: TRADE DEVELOPMENT IN 2001 AND 2002 (US$ MILLIONS AND NUMBER OF ACTIVITIES)
Trade development US$ millions Number of activities
2001 2002 2001 2002
Business support services and institutions 575 449 872 764
Public±private sector networking 27 28 38 58
E-commerce 2 37 29 64
Trade finance 410 334 158 195
Trade promotion strategy and implementation 229 287 360 473
Market analysis and development 189 248 274 438
Total 1,432 1,383 1,732 1,992
Source: WTO/OECD (2003).
17. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 481
economy. As such, these activities do not address supply side constraints identified in
LDCs, such as lack of export diversification in African countries12 (OECD, 2003).
What also stands out is that almost twice as much funding for TRTA/CB has been
channelled to activities falling under trade development rather than to trade policy and
regulations. However, in both categories, there is not much difference in terms of the
number of activities undertaken, given that trade development reported 1,992 activities
and trade policy and regulations registered 1,855 for 2002. This may suggest that almost
double the money is allocated to an activity in the field of trade development against
what is made available for trade policy and regulations. A possible explanation is that the
inherent characteristics of trade development activities are more capital intensive than
those of trade policy and regulations. However, the information does not provide other
measures that could allow determining the intensity of allocation and the relative
importance of particular activities, such as a registry of resources or man-hours.
In addition, it is necessary to assess whether adequate TRTA/CB is being delivered
efficiently and effectively. If multi-agency aid is badly allocated and there is lack of
coordination between the bilateral and multilateral donors, the effects of financial
assistance in TRTA/CB may be a wasteful use of resources and poor efficiency and
effectiveness in TRTA/CB implementation.
VI. SHORTCOMINGS OF CURRENT TRTA/CB AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES
The scope of TRTA/CB varies substantially in the eyes of the different donors and
agencies. The differences in interpretation of TRTA/CB among donors and
international organizations in the context of the OECD survey, as discussed earlier,
create ambiguity as to the actual scope of TRTA/CB activities. As it stands, the OECD
donor community is focused on multiple priorities ranging from mainstreaming trade,
private sector and SME development, investment-related assistance, to trade facilitation
and import promotion (OECD, 2003b).
The second IF evaluation has identified this multi-issue focus as counter-
productive. The evaluation makes two recommendations regarding the scope of the IF.
First, the IFSC should pursue the development of a guideline in order to clarify the IF
scope in terms of TRTA/CB delivery, and second, the LDCs should evaluate their
expectations of resolving supply-side constraints through TRTA/CB on the basis of
their other trade and development interests. In other words, the IF evaluation
recommends a tit-for-tat solution to eliminate the difference in perceptions between
LDCs on the one hand, and donors and agencies on the other. Although plausible, the
recommendation does not contemplate an equitable solution among the differing
parties. Rather, it asks LDCs to give up their other trade interests, such as agriculture or
market access in return for a relaxation of supply side constraints on TRTA/CB in
future trade negotiations (WTO, 2003a).
12 For an exhaustive description of supply and demand side constraints, see CUTS (2001).
18. 482 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
TABLE 4: STATUS OF IF TRUST FUND (AS OF 3 JULY 2003).
Contributor Total pledges (US$) Disbursements
2001 2002 2003
Belgium 692,942 0 692,942 0
Canada 1,331,405 660,264 0 671,141
Denmark 3,281,168 281,168 0 0
Finland 154,497 154,497 0 0
France 538,213 0 0 538,213
Ireland 535,521 299,950 0 0
Italy* 900,000 0 0 0
Japan 500,000 0 500,000 0
Netherlands 330,000 330,000 0 0
Norway 3,815,155 511,946 0 1,303,209
Sweden 1,510,780 328,558 0 982,222
Switzerland** 500,000 200,000 0 300,000
United Kingdom 3,428,572 500,000 1,428,572 0
United States 200,000 0 0 200,000
European Commission 467,176 0 138,168 0
UNDP 300,000 0 300,000 0
World Bank 1,800,000 0 500,000 500,000
Total 19,385,429 3,266,383 3,559,682 4,494,785
Of which:
Window I 9,156,767 3,266,383 2,366,740 3,523,644
Window II 9,694,118 0 1,192,942 971,141
Source: IF Financial Report prepared by the UNDP.
Notes: * The Italian pledge was removed from the IFTF and transferred to ITC. ** Once the TOR for
Window II has been finalized, Switzerland will decide on the use of their pledge of
US$ 300,000 to either Window I or II. However, based on previous discussions and until
then, the amount is being placed under Window I. See <www.integratedframework.org/
status.htm>.
These recommendations once again elucidate the perceptual gap between the
different IF parties. Furthermore, solely donors and agencies rather than the
beneficiaries have applauded the achievements and approach of TRTA/CB. This
perceptual divide threatens the IF framework in two ways.
First, a lack of transparency in the IF selection process has undermined the view of
the IF in the developing world. The unmet needs of LDCs in terms of TRTA/CB raise
the existing incentives for poor countries to maintain LDC status in the context of the
WTO. However, the selection process for IF beneficiaries has been complex, and has
lacked consistency, given the distinct differences among beneficiary countries in
fulfilling the IF requirements. The IF evaluation identifies the arbitrary nature of the
selection process as a source of conflict that negatively impacts the IF. In this regard, the
document states:
``The second broad programmatic area requiring fine-tuning, relates to country selection. From
the perspective of the LDCs, the predominant concern appears to be the perception that country
selection is not sufficiently objective and transparent. To address this issue, the Evaluators
19. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 483
recommend that the IFSC develop, and widely publicize, an objective and transparent country
selection process.'' (WTO, 2003a: p. 7)
Transparency in procedures and clear priority setting is necessary in order to
ensure accountability of the IF process and equitable access for LDC candidate
countries. To ignore such reforms will undermine IF credibility as an altruistic
development framework and paint it as a politicized instrument of the developed States.
Second, the IF is a source of potential conflict between LDC recipients and
developing States that do not qualify for IF aid. The IF evaluation report considers the
possibility of expanding current TRTA/CB beyond LDCs as undesirable, given the
limitations of capacity and financial constraints:
``In the context of country selection, the question arose whether the IF approach in general and
the DTIS process in particular, should be extended beyond LDCs. This is essentially a resource
issue, as well as one of focus. While it could be done, especially as some low income countries
are probably better positioned to benefit more quickly from the IF, it would require a
substantially larger financial contribution from the international community, and a much
strengthened and enlarged Secretariat. Given the number of potentially eligible countries, much
stricter adherence to selection criteria would be required, which could even lead to the exclusion
of LDCs for whom the IF was created in the first place. The Evaluators would consider such an
outcome undesirable.'' (WTO 2003a: p. 6)
In conjunction with the lack of transparency in the selection process, the
recommended ``strict adherence'' to the exclusivity of the IF (dealing only with LDCs)
may lead to disputes between developing States. The same may be true for JITAP, but
on a regional level, since it targets African LDCs in need of TRTA/CB. Recent
evidence has already drawn attention on the widening gap between different developing
countries, both in terms of wealth and also in terms of trade.13 The discrimination of IF
beneficiaries could foster capacity discrepancies between developing countries in the
different international forae, such as the multilateral trading system. The Cancun
Ministerial saw a higher participation of developing countries, but on separate fronts.
Disparate objectives, in the light of individual needs, accounted for these differences.
The same may happen in future negotiations rounds, but it is still uncertain how and to
what extent the current TRTA/CB practices and IF conditionalities might result in
competitive tensions between developing countries.
VII. TOWARDS A MORE ADEQUATE TRTA/CB DELIVERY
The extent to which TRTA/CB may be facilitated in the WTO, depends very
much on the current financial resources, capacity and mandates of the WTO
Secretariat. The Technical Assistance and Training Plan 2004 states:
``The findings that were presented to the Members in the Technical cooperation Audit
Report for 2002 (WT/COMTD/W/111, 28 March 2003) have been taken on board. For
13 See ILO (2004); Banchetta and Bora (2003); and Mattoo and Subramanian (2003).
20. 484 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
example, the report notes that the very short duration of many TA activities, and the often
great number of participants, allow more for dissemination of information, sensitization or
awareness creation rather than real skill development and capacity building.'' (WTO, 2004b:
para. 8)
The role of the WTO, perceived by the Secretariat in the context of TRTA/CB,
appears to be determined by the need for a greater rationalization of TRTA/CB, given
the existing constraints. There is a clear preference for generating awareness of trade
issues through TRTA/CB, rather than generating actual capacity. The role the WTO
should exercise does not appear to be determined by the needs of developing countries
and LDCs, as is further clarified in the document:
``The report states that the WTO TA activities could more effectively contribute to building
lasting capacity if they were planned and designed on the basis of a thorough assessment of the
Members' needs and problems. Assessing needs is generally recognized as an essential element
in designing a Technical Assistance and Training Programme. The Secretariat has, however,
never been requested to undertake country by country needs assessment.'' (WTO, 2004b:
para. 9)
The final sentence of the previous quote cannot be overemphasized: ``The
Secretariat has, however, never been requested to undertake country by country needs
assessment.'' LDCs are distinct units. It should be obvious that programmes cannot be
applied indiscriminately to States as widely disparate as Chad, Yemen, and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.
An important challenge for the future of TRTA/CB is achieving convergence of
the widely dissenting opinions of the parties involved. At present, there is consensus on
its shortcomings, namely lack of coordination, the scope of TRTA/CB, and task
sharing and role division among the agencies, donors and beneficiaries. Further, though
there is agreement on the need for more funds, and the value of concepts such as
``partnership'' and ``country ownership'' in programmes of TRTA/CB, such as the IF,
countries will be wary of partnerships with the IMF and WB given the relativeness of
ownership under the present situation.
A. TRADE POLICY ADVICE
It may be useful to understand the shortcomings of current TRTA/CB from a
trade policy perspective. Striking a balance between increasingly free trade and fair
trade may better be examined under the global public good (GPG) optic.14 In their
research, the authors find the current system malprovides trade as a GPG, since the
benefits of greater trade concentrate in the developed countries. Efforts towards
TRTA/CB must be geared not only to opening markets to free competition, but also
towards increasing the competitiveness of developing States. If developing States and
14 See Mendoza and Bahadur (2002). Such an approach has been undertaken by the Global Network on
Public Goods (gpgNet). GpgNet is hosted by the Office of Development Studies in the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). For further information, see <www.gpgnet.net>.
21. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 485
LDCs are provided with the means to compete internationally, then indeed trade may
become a GPG.
It is evident that a one size fits all formula is not desirable. Trade liberalization that
is development friendly should consider the needs of the developing countries. This
process should first and foremost include a country specific needs assessment that is so
far absent from WTO proceedings. The marginalization of LDCs will also have direct
implications on how and whether their technical capacities allow them to design and
implement trade policy. TRTA/CB plays a crucial role in improving those capacities, as
a means to secure the interest of both developing countries (improved production
capacity, market access, and participation in the international trade regime) and
developed States (liberalized trade).
Efforts toward bridging the perception gap in IF and JITAP began in UNCTAD,
one of the agencies involved in TRTA/CB:
``. . .the trade-related technical cooperation provided through the IF will support development
best if it promotes a form of integration of LDCs into the world economy which is more
conducive for sustained growth and poverty reduction. The current ``disconnect'' between the
accumulated knowledge in providing technical assistance for commodity-dependent economies
and the work of the IF needs to be speedily bridged.'' (Gore, 2002a: p. 6)
The TRTA/CB financing and delivery can substantially help countries to develop
a more sound trade policy design, but it cannot do the job alone. On the contrary, if
conflicting policies remain in place, much of the positive effects of TRTA/CB are offset
by individual developed country practices and policies. The most evident example is
the agricultural subsidies of the OECD that amount to more than $300 billion.
Development assistance in the form of TRTA/CB cannot fully bear the
responsibility of integrating LDCs to the multilateral trading system. What is needed,
in addition to TRTA/CB geared toward trade policy through frameworks such as
``trade mainstreaming'', is a matching and coherent trade policy by all participants to
allow for TRTA/CB to work toward development and poverty reduction (Center for
Global Development, 2003).
Policy coherence must not be underestimated. It must not be seen as the sole
responsibility of beneficiary countries. Policy coherence must ensure the set of actions
of donors, beneficiaries and agencies are aligned and conduce to the same objectives of
effective and meaningful TRTA/CB delivery.
B. HUMAN AND INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
``There is little doubt that sector programme support must give much more emphasis to
institutional development and capacity strengthening in the large majority of recipient countries.
What these countries need is not only more resources but also institutions, procedures, and
incentive structures that can help them utilize the resources more effectively and efficiently. This
implies a shift of attention in aid strategies from transferring resources to building capabilities and
capacities.'' (Dengbol-Martinussen, 2002: p. 276)
22. 486 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
The above statement coincides with the necessity of revamping foreign aid in
order to raise its effectiveness. Part of the failure of development aid in the past has been
attributed to the disconnect between the provision of assistance and local institutions
and human development.
One study on the evolution and evidence of aid effectiveness in the last four
decades, highlights the emphasis which should be put on allocating financial
resources to countries that have a track record in policy design and institutional
development:
``The international community can be more effective in fostering development provided that (i)
foreign aid helps the process of institution building and (ii) foreign aid is targeted to those
countries which are willing to implement good policies and institutions. In these circumstances,
development has been shown to be highly effective.'' (Weder, 2000: p. 17)
However, given that developing countries in need of foreign assistance often lack
the required expertise and physical framework for policy-making and implementation,
they are unable to undertake the necessary reforms and changes. Institutional and
human development must lie at the heart of any relevant TRTA/CB strategy, in order
to enhance development strategies and guarantee their success.
``The basic idea embodied in institutional development assistance is to strengthen institutional
capabilities (in a qualitative sense) and capacities (in a quantitative sense) to perform the functions
assigned to them. What this means in detail varies considerably, depending on the functions
assigned, the development objectives, and the strengths and weaknesses of the institutions and
organizations concerned. Certain basic differences relate to the two main stages of policy
formulation and implementation.'' (Dengbol-Martinussen, 2002: p. 276)
Given its competitive approach to trade, UNCTAD has contributed to TRTA/
CB in two ways. First, it has pointed out how capacity building can be provided
optimally by mapping different agencies with TRTA/CB activities (see Figure 5).
This is the first step in the right direction for delimiting the spheres of action,
correcting the lack of coordination and wasteful duplication of efforts among actors.
Further, consensus on delimiting the TRTA/CB scope and its delivery is vital for
institutional development, since it will allow for the construction of networks within
beneficiary countries, and also between beneficiaries, donors and agencies. Identifying
the actors in an institutional partnership is therefore a necessary step (UNCTAD,
2003a).
Second, UNCTAD has elaborated a technical cooperation strategy focusing on
the development of human, institutional, productive and export capacities. Concretely,
institutional capacity building from UNCTAD's perspective would seek to:
``(a) Enhance and make full use of national expertise and institutions, so as to ensure that national
stakeholders are active partners . . .;
(b) Promote networking, including twinning arrangements, among the institutions working in
similar or related fields . . .; and
(c) Draw upon institutions and expertise in other developing countries . . .'' (UNCTAD, 2003b:
p. 4)
23. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 487
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT:
Bilateral dimension
Regional/subregional dimension (North/South and South/South)
Multilateral dimension
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Macroeconomic policies:
Fiscal and monetary policies
Financing for development policies
(IMF, World Bank, WTO, UNCTAD) (1)
SUPPLY-SIDE CORE TRADE TRADE SUPPORT
PRODUCTIVE POLICY, RULES SERVICES AND
CAPACITY AND RULES:
POLICIES: NEGOTIATIONS: trade facilitation
competitiveness, trade regime, tariff policies,
diversification, structure, diversification,
export capacity, implementation of export promotion,
entrepreneurship trade rules and trade customs
development, etc. in commitments, management,
all productive utilization of dispute transport services,
sectors (agriculture, settlement, cargo management,
manufactures, negotiation trade-related
services) (2) World strategies, infrastructure,
Bank, FAO, participation in rules electronic commerce
UNIDO, UNCTAD making (2) WTO, (2) UNCTAD, ITC,
(1) UNCTAD, World WTO (1)
Bank (1)
RELATED POLICIES, RULES AND NEGOTIATIONS (3):
(1) Main agencies involved in the capacity development in this area.
(2) These lists are not exhaustive: they only provide some examples of UNCTAD’s areas of work
and technical cooperation. TECHNOLOGY AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY,
INVESTMENT,
(3) This category is called here TRADE AND ENVIRONMENT
Source: UNCTAD (2003a).
FIGURE 5: MAP OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT ON UNCTAD-RELATED ISSUES
UNCTAD further envisages ongoing monitoring in order to assess the impact of
capacity building, which is to be results oriented, based on ``benchmarks and indicators
of achievements'' at project formulation level. This is important for two reasons. First,
it allows for a quick assessment of progress, and second it allows correcting possible
24. 488 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
failures that may arise during the development and operation of a monitoring system in
the beneficiary country. This is particularly relevant, given the evidence on the weak
monitoring systems in countries with PRSPs experience.
UNCTAD also foresees the importance of a balanced partnership during project
implementation, where donors and beneficiary countries have to agree on independent
evaluations. This is particularly important, since existing assessments of TRTA/CB so
far have been conducted by independent evaluators hired by agencies under evaluation
(e.g. WTO, IMF and World Bank), and have not considered or included the issue of
needs assessment.
UNCTAD's commitment to the delivery of effective TRTA/CB has materialized
in institutional development projects. For example:
``Other institutional development activities undertaken by UNCTAD concern small- and
medium-sized enterprises (EMPRETEC), customs authorities (ASYCUDA) and or transport
operations (ACIS), all implying different methods of institutional support. Some programmes
integrate various dimensions of institutional development as in the project on Building Issues,
encompassing policy coordination, negotiating capacity, legal and economic policy initiatives,
and regional cooperation. The Climate Change Programme also has an integrated approach
targeting various institutional needs. One of the programmes that is particularly ``institutional-
intensive'' is Competition Law and Policy and Consumer Protection, since it also includes
assistance in the drafting of national competition legislation . . ..'' (UNCTAD, 2003a: p. 12)
The other central element of UNCTAD's TRTA/CB has been human
development. Activities have mostly focused on training of trainers, and on generating
human resources apt for trade through its TRAINFORTRADE programme. Both of
these activities, though limited, could help ensure a more proactive participation in the
multilateral trading system.
C. STRENGTHENING NEGOTIATION COMPETENCE
The complexity of the international trade regime has dramatically increased since
the inception of the GATT in 1947, resulting in multiple challenges for developing
countries and especially for LDCs. Developing countries amount to three-quarters of
WTO's 147-State membership, including 30 LDCs. Just to follow the topics of the
various WTO bodies and attend meetings requires a staff of 4±5 people. Since mid-
1997, the overwhelming majority of developing countries have not been able to meet
those requirements (Michaelopoulos, 1999: p. 121).
In addition to understaffing, there is a lack of continuity at the developing State's
missions in Geneva, as well as in the other diplomatic posts. These shortages stem from
job rotation, sudden change of government, and the subsequent abrupt removal of
WTO representatives, or the personal decision by the trade official to shift from the
civil servant position to a better remunerated job in the private sector. The WTO
specifically cites the high turnover of officials as a major challenge to effective TRTA/
CB (WTO, Annual Report 2005, p. 157).
25. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LDCS 489
Another damaging element to professional competence deals with traditional
bureaucracy. Some WTO-based trade officials tend to monopolize meetings and
information to accumulate power and defend themselves against possible replacement
by other officials from their countries. Either way, if crucial WTO information and
know-how is not shared nor passed on to the relevant ministries, adequate decision-
making is very difficult and each departure of an experienced trade official results in a
sudden expertise vacuum, requiring the instant support from the already thinly staffed
WTO experts. In the long run, such behaviour impedes institutional development, as
know-how is not vested in the institutions.
Many OECD programmes of TRTA/CB attempt to address the difficulties related
to inadequate logistical support and insufficient trade negotiators in Geneva and the
their respective capitals. Several OECD donors have joined forces to cover the living
costs and provide office infrastructure for LDCs' negotiators in Geneva. Others have
developed or financed training programmes for trade negotiations offered to trade
officials from developing countries and LDCs. Funding and activities have been
channelled either through multilateral vehicles (e.g. through the WTO's training and
TPC programmes), or through bilateral programmes.
Some of the TRTA/CB in the field of trade negotiations includes components of
institutional development. For instance, by encouraging the participation of other
ministries, apart from the traditional ``trade ministry'', such programmes seek to
strengthen inter-ministerial coordination. They also may include a selection of
participants from the private sector (e.g. chambers of commerce), as well as trade
officers, in order to strengthen public±private sector trade consultation.15
D. BUILDING TECHNICAL CAPACITIES
The International Trade Centre (ITC)16 plays a leading role in the field of trade
support services, an important sphere of TRTA/CB. It is the technical cooperation
agency of UNCTAD and WTO dealing with business oriented TRTA/CB.
The ITC focuses mainly on supporting the business sector by generating and
disseminating trade-relevant information. This is of particular importance in developing
countries since acquiring comprehensive material and capacity is often too costly for
many businesses. Documents such as The Business Guide to the World Trading System and
The Business Management System: A Guide for Managers on International Competitiveness
(ITC, 2002), offer companies the necessary insights on how to cope with the
complexities and rules of the multilateral trading system.
The ITC is also very active in promoting the business networks, and has developed
a programme called World Tr@de Net (WTN), which addresses the specific concerns
of the business community. In the context of WTN, ITC contributes to correcting the
15 For an example of inter-ministerial trade-related capacity building, see Saner (2001), pp. 23±33.
16 For detailed information on ITC, see at <www.intracen.org/index.htm>.
26. 490 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE
lack of advocacy of the business sector in trade negotiations, partly due to the weak
dialogue that may exist between government representatives and entrepreneurs.
VIII.CONCLUSIONS
Since the Uruguay Round, LDCs have become a central part of trade negotiations.
The current trade round, labelled ``Doha Development Round'', thus implies that
special attention must be given to the needs of the developing countries and LDCs.
Taking into account that poverty has only marginally been reduced and the socio-
economic conditions of most LDCs worsened, it is imperative that OECD members
and large developing countries make special efforts to strengthen the supply of
assistance to LDCs. Otherwise, poverty in LDCs will deepen resulting in secondary
problems such as increase of armed conflicts, flows of refugees, possible increase of
terrorism and environmental and social degradations.
Technical assistance in all forms discussed in this article is needed to ensure
minimal conditions for the positive integration of LDCs to the multilateral trading
system. Many promises were made at the outset of this negotiation round, and quite a
number of bilateral and multilateral efforts to provide TRTA/CB have been initiated.
However, it seems that neither the quantity nor the quality of the different initiatives is
sufficient to help LDCs grasp the benefits of trade liberalization, and reduce poverty.
Further efforts are necessary in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of
TRTA/CB for LDCs.
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