This presentation will give an introduction to operon and to its history. And gives a detailed or brief explanation about lac operon, its gene composition , their functions, its working mechanism and the use of lac operon in molecular biology.
This presentation will give an introduction to operon and to its history. And gives a detailed or brief explanation about lac operon, its gene composition , their functions, its working mechanism and the use of lac operon in molecular biology.
This worksheet is part of the Grade 10 lesson in third Quarter. Quarter 3, Module 4. It talks about how protein is synthesized and the different steps.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription with their clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA transcription with their clinical applications for Medical, dental, Pharma & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
Gene expressionGene expression is the process by which the genetic.pdfANSAPPARELS
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which the genetic code - the nucleotide sequence - of a gene is
used to direct protein synthesis and produce the structures of the cell. Genes that code for amino
acid sequences are known as \'structural genes\'.
The process of gene expression involves two main stages:
Transcription: the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase, and
the processing of the resulting mRNA molecule.
Translation: the use of mRNA to direct protein synthesis, and the subsequent post-translational
processing of the protein molecule.
Some genes are responsible for the production of other forms of RNA that play a role in
translation, including transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
A structural gene involves a number of different components:
· Exons. Exons code for amino acids and collectively determine the amino acid sequence of
the protein product. It is these portions of the gene that are represented in final mature mRNA
molecule.
· Introns. Introns are portions of the gene that do not code for amino acids, and are removed
(spliced) from the mRNA molecule before translation.
Gene control regions
· Start site. A start site for transcription.
· A promoter. A region a few hundred nucleotides \'upstream\' of the gene (toward the 5\'
end). It is not transcribed into mRNA, but plays a role in controlling the transcription of the gene.
Transcription factors bind to specific nucleotide sequences in the promoter region and assist in
the binding of RNA polymerases.
· Enhancers. Some transcription factors (called activators) bind to regions called
\'enhancers\' that increase the rate of transcription. These sites may be thousands of nucleotides
from the coding sequences or within an intron. Some enhancers are conditional and only work in
the presence of other factors as well as transcription factors.
· Silencers. Some transcription factors (called repressors) bind to regions called \'silencers\'
that depress the rate of transcription.
Transcription
Transcription involves four steps:
Transcription is the process of RNA synthesis, controlled by the interaction of promoters and
enhancers. Several different types of RNA are produced, including messenger RNA(mRNA),
which specifies the sequence of amino acids in the protein product, plus transfer RNA (tRNA)
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which play a role in the translation process.
1. Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a small open complex. RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter of the template strand.
2. Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesising an mRNA
molecule. In prokaryotes RNA polymerase is a holoenzyme consisting of a number of subunits,
including a sigma factor (transcription factor) that recognises the promoter. In eukaryotes there
are three RNA polymerases: I, II and III. The process includes a proofreading mechanism.
3. Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which transcription is ter.
DNA- Transcription and Tranlation, RNA, Ribosomes and membrane proteins.pptxLaibaSaher
Detailed presentation on the topic of DNA, transcription and translation, RNA, Ribosomes and Membrane proteins. Along with their structure and functions. Detailed Diagram and complete description of the processes. Along with references and Gifs that makes the presentation look more creative.
• Define transcription• Define translation• What are the 3 steps.pdfarihantelehyb
• Define transcription
• Define translation
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
• Define the “genetic dogma”
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
• What is the function of RNA polymerase?
• What is the function of DNA polymerase?
• Define “splicing of RNA”
• What is an exon?
• What component of the cell does the translation?
• What molecule in the cell does transcription?
• What are the functions of: operon, promotor?
• What is the difference between inducible operon and repressible operon?
Solution
• Define transcription
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. This copy, called a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it
directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. Here is a more complete definition of
transcription.
• Define translation
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to
a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship
between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it
encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three
bases to assemble the protein. Here is a more complete definition of translation:
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
Step # 1. Initiation:
Initiation of translation in E .coli involves the small ribosome subunit, a mRNA molecule, a
specific charge initiator tRNA, GTP, Mg++ and number of proteinaceous initiation factors (IFs).
These are initially part of the small subunit and are required to enhance binding affinity of the
various translational components (Table 8.1). Unlike ribosomal proteins, IFs are released from
the ribosome once initiation is completed.
Step # 2. Elongation:
Once both subunits of the ribosome are assembled with the mRNA, binding site for two charged
tRNA molecules are formed. These are designated as the ‘P’ or peptidyl and the ‘A’ or
aminoacyl sites. The charged initiator tRNA binds to the P site, provided that the AUG triplet of
mRNA is in the corresponding position of the small subunit. The increase of the growing
polypeptide chain by one amino acid is called elongation.
Step # 3. Termination:
Termination of protein synthesis is carried out by triplet codes (UAG, UAA, UGA; stop codons)
present at site A. These codons do not specify an amino acid, nor do they call for a tRNA in the
A site. These codons are called stop codons, termination codons or nonsense codons. The
finished polypeptide is still attached to the terminal tRNA at the P site, and the A site is empty.
• Define the “genetic dogma”
A theory in genetics and molecular biology subject to several exceptions that genetic information
is coded in self-replicating DNA and undergoes unidirectional transfer to messenger RNAs in
transcription which act as templates for protein synthesis in translation
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
The tRNA molecule, or tr.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
3. TRANSCRIPTION (p. 242)
1. The DNA molecule unzips and the enzyme _______________
attaches to one side of the DNA (______________________),
attracted to a particular section of DNA by a special DNA base
sequence called a _________________________
2. A complimentary daughter strand is assembled using RNA
nucleotides
3. Once the RNA polymerase reaches a ____________________,
the new RNA strand, called the ________________________,
separates from the DNA strand, and the DNA zips back up
5. TRANSCRIPTION (cont’d)
4. Modifications are done to this primary transcript before it can leave
the nucleus:
5. The RNA strand, now called mRNA transcript , migrates out of
6. TRANSLATION (p. 250)
1. Once the mRNA strand is in the cytoplasm it
attaches onto the smaller subunit of the ribosome
2. A______, with the appropriate _________ binds to the
mRNA and the larger subunit of the ribosome attaches
to the smaller part, putting the tRNA in the _________
• the first ________ (group of 3 bases on the
mRNA) is always _______, which codes for the
amino acid _____________________
• the first _______________ (3 exposed bases of
the middle loop of tRNA) is ________
• there are _____________different codons
7.
8. TRANSLATION (cont’d)
3. A second _______ binds to the mRNA at the ______
of the ribosome, starting the __________________.
4. An enzyme, _______________________, attaches the
methionine to the amino acid of the tRNA in the A site,
forming a ____________________, and releases the
tRNA from the P site.
5. The ___________________three bases down the mRNA
strand, __________________________________, leaving
the A site for the next tRNA with the appropriate
anticodon.
9. TRANSLATION (cont’d)
6. Once the appropriate amino acid sequence
(________________) is made, the last codon on
the mRNA molecule codes for a _______________
• there are 3 _________________that code for
a _______________instead of an amino acid:
7. The release factor causes an _______ group to bind
to the last amino acid, completing the carboxyl
end, and causes the ________________________,
the ____________________and the ___________
to all come apart
6. The mRNA strand then finds another ribosome to
begin the sequence
13. Regulation of Protein Synthesis
Eukaryotic Cells: there are 4 levels of control of gene expression
a)Transcriptional: regulates which genes are transcribed
(housekeeping genes)
b)Post-transcriptional: capping and tailing, and excising
of introns
c)Translational: controls how often and how rapidly
mRNA transcripts will be translated
into proteins
d)Post-translational a number of control mechanisms
affect the rate at which a protein
becomes active and the time it
remains functional
14. Regulation of Protein Synthesis (cont’d)
Prokaryotic Cells: there are two types of control mechanisms
that these cells use: enzyme inducers and
enzyme repressors
• Operon is the general name of these control mechanisms
•Lac operon is an example of an inducer operon
•Trp operon is an example of a repressor operon
• Operons are made up of a cluster of genes under the
control of a promoter and an operator
15. LAC OPERON
– in bacteria, the LacZ, LacY, and LacA genes code for enzymes that
break down lactose
No lactose present
-The repressor molecule (Lacl protein) is
active and binds onto the operator site
-RNA polymerase cannot bind to the
operator
-The genes are not transcribed
(no lactose present, no need for protein that
breaks it down!)
Lactose present:
-Lactose binds to the lactose site on the
repressor, deactivating it
-mRNA polymerase can bind to the operator
-the genes are transcribed
The presence of lactose ACTIVATES it;
therefore, promoter operon
16. TRP OPERON
– in bacteria, there are 5 genes that code for enzymes necessary to
make the amino acid tryptophan
*Inhibitor; presence of the thing (trp) inhibits it
No tryptophan present:
-the repressor is inactive, and nRNA polymerase
can bind to the operator
-the genes that code for the making of more
trytophan are transcribed
Trytophan present
Tryptophan binds to the site on the repressor
molecule, activating it, causing it to bind to the
operator
-mRNA polymerase cannot bind to the operator
-the genes are not transcribed
Questions: Page 258
REALLY GOOD QUESTIONS!! Do them, faggot~