This chapter discusses qualitative research methods for understanding communication in depth. It covers key concepts in qualitative research like a primary interest in subjective viewpoints and reporting using participants' own language. Observational methods discussed include interviews, focus groups, ethnography, case studies, and conversation analysis. The chapter contrasts qualitative and quantitative research and covers analyzing qualitative data through coding approaches. Overall, qualitative research aims to understand people's idiosyncratic views in their own words through observation and eliciting subjective perspectives.

1. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications
Chapter Eleven
Watching And Listening:
Qualitative Research For In-depth
Understanding

2. Key Concepts
• Primary interest is in people’s subjectivity.
• Emphasis on capturing participant viewpoints.
• Reporting often uses participant’s language.
• Qualitative more than quantitative.
• Theories about human communication may
emerge from research rather than being a
starting point.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

3. Observational Methods
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
In-depth exploration of attitudes and
behavior.
May be difficult to access
participants.
Validity. Reliability.
Access to participants’ views of
phenomena.
Research outcomes affected by
researcher-participant relationships.
Provide insight and explanation. May be time-consuming.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

4. Qualitative & Quantitative Research
• Similarities
▫ Begin with qualitative observations
▫ Emphasis on precise reporting.
• Differences
▫ Qualitative: reporting in words, understanding
in depth, emphasis on participant perspectives,
judgmental sampling.
▫ Quantitative: reporting in numbers,
understanding in breadth, statistical sampling,
generalizing from samples.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

5. Watching and Listening Methods
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Ethnography
• Observational studies
• Unobtrusive measures
• Conversation analysis
• Case studies
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

6. Observational Methods:
Basic Assumptions
• Individuality and subjectivity of each
participant is important.
• Participants are assumed to have insights and
perspectives the researcher is unaware of.
• Interpretation and meaning are more
important than information.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

7. Ethnography: Key Ideas
• Focus on meaning and interpretation.
• Conduct research in participants’ own
settings.
• Engage directly with participants.
• Focus on local, individual, subjective
knowledge.
• Record participants’ own language, concepts
and logic.
• Report results as detailed description.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

8. Basic Researcher-Participant
Relationships
• Complete observer.
• Observer as participant.
• Participant as observer.
• Complete participant.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

9. Terminology
• Participant
▫ volunteer in a research project.
• Informant
▫ can speak about others as well as themselves.
• Respondent
▫ speaks only for himself or herself.
• Interviewee
▫ anyone interviewed.
• Subject
▫ participant in experimental research.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

10. Interview
A series of questions designed to elicit
information a researcher is interested in.
Questions may be –
• Predetermined and specific
▫ for example, a survey questionnaire
or
• Flexible and open-ended
▫ for example, “Tell me about . . .?”
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

11. Interview: Strategy & Decisions
Strategy:
▫ Generally a “master” question and then specific
questions to “check it out.”
Decisions:
▫ Setting
▫ Sensitivities
▫ Structure
▫ Sequence
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

12. Interview: Decisions - cont.
Setting
▫ Participants’ or researcher’s location.
Sensitivities
▫ Dress, language, gender, status.
Structure
▫ Fully, partially, or unstructured.
Sequence
▫ Funnel or inverted funnel.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

13. Interview: Types of Questions
• Descriptive
▫ Ask participants to describe.
e.g. “What is a typical ____ like, for you?
• Structural
▫ Ask participants to explain relationships.
e.g. Would you describe X as part of Y?
• Contrast
▫ Ask participants to describe similarities, differences or
relative importance.
e.g. “What is the difference between X and Y?
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

14. Focus Group: Assumptions
Group discussion can generate -
 More information than interviewing individuals.
 Different information than interviewing
individuals
 A “2+2 = 5” effect
 Ideas the researcher may not have considered.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

15. Focus Group: Success
• Members - recruited for similar knowledge but
divergent views of the topic.
• Objectives - clear.
• Atmosphere - relaxed.
• Discussion - free-wheeling.
• Moderator:
▫ listens
▫ maintains focus
▫ refrains from discussion
▫ ensures every member participates.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

16. Analyzing Qualitative Data
Most analyses use categorization.
• Fixed Coding
▫ Assigns units of information to
theoretically-determined categories.
• Flexible Coding
▫ Allows additional categories to emerge
during analysis.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

17. Analyzing Qualitative Data – cont.
The Grounded Theory Approach –
• Assumes theory will emerge as data analysis
proceeds.
• Uses the “constant comparative method.”
▫ Test each new statement or idea against initial
categories.
▫ Rework categories as data analysis proceeds.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

18. Unobtrusive Measures
Observing people without them being aware
of the observation.
• Why?
▫ To assess differences between what people tell us and
what they actually do.
• Examples –
▫ Observing crowd behavior at sports events.
▫ Observing social behavior at parties.
▫ Observing group problem solving.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

19. Conversation Analysis
• Studies the processes that enable people to
converse successfully.
• Analyzes transcripts of conversations to
determine how people negotiate
understanding.
• Focuses on social acts more than language.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

20. Case Study
Brings all relevant information into a story to help
readers learn how organizations or individuals
managed a project, problem or crisis.
Usually –
• uses multiple sources of evidence
• focuses on a specific issue
• provides in-depth understanding more than
generalization or prediction.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

21. Chapter Summary
Watching and Listening Methods –
• General interest in people’s idiosyncratic,
subjective views.
• Begin with theory, or allow theory to emerge.
• Preference for eliciting people’s views in their
own words.
• Typically reported in participants’ language.
• Observation provides a check on whether
people’s words match their behavior.
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

22. Vocabulary Review
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

23. Web Resources
• Forum: Qualitative Social Research -
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs
• Qualitative Research Consultants Association
http://www.qrca.org
• University of Surrey, social research update -
http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/
Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications