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14 mendel and the gene idea

This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, 9th Edition which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the traits he studied, his development of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. It also discusses terminology used in genetics like genes, alleles, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and how Mendel's principles can explain more complex inheritance patterns.

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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Chapter 14 Mendel and the Gene Idea Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: Drawing from the Deck of Genes • What genetic principles account for the passing of traits from parents to offspring? • The “blending” hypothesis is the idea that genetic material from the two parents blends together (like blue and yellow paint blend to make green) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The “particulate” hypothesis is the idea that parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes) • This hypothesis can explain the reappearance of traits after several generations • Mendel documented a particulate mechanism through his experiments with garden peas © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.1
Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance • Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach • Advantages of pea plants for genetic study – There are many varieties with distinct heritable features, or characters (such as flower color); character variants (such as purple or white flowers) are called traits – Mating can be controlled – Each flower has sperm-producing organs (stamens) and egg-producing organ (carpel) – Cross-pollination (fertilization between different plants) involves dusting one plant with pollen from another © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE 14-2 Removed stamens from purple flower Transferred sperm- bearing pollen from stamens of white flower to egg- bearing carpel of purple flower Parental generation (P) Stamens Carpel Pollinated carpel matured into pod Planted seeds from pod Examined offspring: First all purple generation flowers offspring (F1)
• Mendel chose to track only those characters that occurred in two distinct alternative forms • He also used varieties that were true-breeding (plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• In a typical experiment, Mendel mated two contrasting, true-breeding varieties, a process called hybridization • The true-breeding parents are the P generation • The hybrid offspring of the P generation are called the F1 generation • When F1 individuals self-pollinate or cross- pollinate with other F1 hybrids, the F2 generation is produced © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Law of Segregation • When Mendel crossed contrasting, true- breeding white- and purple-flowered pea plants, all of the F1 hybrids were purple • When Mendel crossed the F1 hybrids, many of the F2 plants had purple flowers, but some had white • Mendel discovered a ratio of about three to one, purple to white flowers, in the F2 generation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.3-3 EXPERIMENT P Generation (true-breeding parents) Purple White flowers flowers F1 Generation (hybrids) All plants had purple flowers Self- or cross-pollination F2 Generation 705 purple- 224 white flowered flowered plants plants
• Mendel reasoned that only the purple flower factor was affecting flower color in the F1 hybrids • Mendel called the purple flower color a dominant trait and the white flower color a recessive trait • The factor for white flowers was not diluted or destroyed because it reappeared in the F2 generation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Mendel observed the same pattern of inheritance in six other pea plant characters, each represented by two traits • What Mendel called a “heritable factor” is what we now call a gene © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 14.1
Mendel’s Model • Mendel developed a hypothesis to explain the 3:1 inheritance pattern he observed in F 2 offspring • Four related concepts make up this model • These concepts can be related to what we now know about genes and chromosomes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• First: alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters • For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two versions, one for purple flowers and the other for white flowers • These alternative versions of a gene are now called alleles • Each gene resides at a specific locus on a specific chromosome © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.4 Allele for purple flowers Pair of Locus for flower-color gene homologous chromosomes Allele for white flowers
• Second: for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent • Mendel made this deduction without knowing about the role of chromosomes • The two alleles at a particular locus may be identical, as in the true-breeding plants of Mendel’s P generation • Alternatively, the two alleles at a locus may differ, as in the F1 hybrids © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Third: if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance • In the flower-color example, the F1 plants had purple flowers because the allele for that trait is dominant © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Fourth: (now known as the law of segregation): the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes • Thus, an egg or a sperm gets only one of the two alleles that are present in the organism • This segregation of alleles corresponds to the distribution of homologous chromosomes to different gametes in meiosis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Mendel’s segregation model accounts for the 3:1 ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his numerous crosses • The possible combinations of sperm and egg can be shown using a Punnett square, a diagram for predicting the results of a genetic cross between individuals of known genetic makeup • A capital letter represents a dominant allele, and a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.5-3 P Generation Appearance: Purple flowers White flowers Genetic makeup: PP pp Gametes: P p F1 Generation Appearance: Purple flowers Genetic makeup: Pp Gametes: 1 /2 P 1 /2 p Sperm from F1 (Pp) plant F2 Generation P p P Eggs from PP Pp F1 (Pp) plant p Pp pp 3 :1
Useful Genetic Vocabulary • An organism with two identical alleles for a character is said to be homozygous for the gene controlling that character • An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be heterozygous for the gene controlling that character • Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not true-breeding © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Because of the different effects of dominant and recessive alleles, an organism’s traits do not always reveal its genetic composition • Therefore, we distinguish between an organism’s phenotype, or physical appearance, and its genotype, or genetic makeup • In the example of flower color in pea plants, PP and Pp plants have the same phenotype (purple) but different genotypes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.6 Phenotype Genotype Purple PP 1 (homozygous) 3 Purple Pp (heterozygous) 2 Purple Pp (heterozygous) White pp 1 1 (homozygous) Ratio 3:1 Ratio 1:2:1
The Testcross • How can we tell the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype? • Such an individual could be either homozygous dominant or heterozygous • The answer is to carry out a testcross: breeding the mystery individual with a homozygous recessive individual • If any offspring display the recessive phenotype, the mystery parent must be heterozygous © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.7 TECHNIQUE Dominant phenotype, Recessive phenotype, unknown genotype: known genotype: PP or Pp? pp Predictions If purple-flowered or If purple-flowered parent is PP parent is Pp Sperm Sperm p p p p P P Pp Pp Pp Pp Eggs Eggs P p Pp Pp pp pp RESULTS or All offspring purple /2 offspring purple and 1 1 /2 offspring white
The Law of Independent Assortment • Mendel derived the law of segregation by following a single character • The F1 offspring produced in this cross were monohybrids, individuals that are heterozygous for one character • A cross between such heterozygotes is called a monohybrid cross © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Mendel identified his second law of inheritance by following two characters at the same time • Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters • A dihybrid cross, a cross between F1 dihybrids, can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.8 EXPERIMENT P Generation YYRR yyrr Gametes YR yr F1 Generation YyRr Predictions Hypothesis of Hypothesis of dependent assortment independent assortment Sperm Predicted or offspring of /4 YR 1 /4 Yr 1 1 /4 yR 1 /4 yr Sperm F2 generation 1 /2 YR /2 yr 1 1 /4 YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr 1 /2 YR YYRR YyRr 1 /4 Yr Eggs YYRr YYrr Yyrr YyRr 1 /2 yr Eggs YyRr yyrr 1 /4 yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr /4 3 /4 1 1 /4 yr Phenotypic ratio 3:1 YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr 9 /16 /16 3 3 /16 /16 1 Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 RESULTS 315 108 101 32 Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:1
• Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed the law of independent assortment • The law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation • Strictly speaking, this law applies only to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes or those far apart on the same chromosome • Genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics • The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely as simple as in the pea plant characters Mendel studied • Many heritable characters are not determined by only one gene with two alleles • However, the basic principles of segregation and independent assortment apply even to more complex patterns of inheritance © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene • Inheritance of characters by a single gene may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns in the following situations: – When alleles are not completely dominant or recessive – When a gene has more than two alleles – When a gene produces multiple phenotypes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Degrees of Dominance • Complete dominance occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical • In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties • In codominance, two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.10-3 P Generation Red White CRCR CWCW Gametes CR CW F1 Generation Pink CRCW Gametes 1/2 CR /2 CW 1 Sperm F2 Generation /2 CR 1 /2 CW 1 /2 CR 1 Eggs CRCR CRCW /2 CW 1 CRCW CWCW
The Relation Between Dominance and Phenotype • A dominant allele does not subdue a recessive allele; alleles don’t interact that way • Alleles are simply variations in a gene’s nucleotide sequence • For any character, dominance/recessiveness relationships of alleles depend on the level at which we examine the phenotype © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Tay-Sachs disease is fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain – At the organismal level, the allele is recessive – At the biochemical level, the phenotype (i.e., the enzyme activity level) is incompletely dominant – At the molecular level, the alleles are codominant © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Multiple Alleles • Most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms • For example, the four phenotypes of the ABO blood group in humans are determined by three alleles for the enzyme (I) that attaches A or B carbohydrates to red blood cells: IA, IB, and i. • The enzyme encoded by the IA allele adds the A carbohydrate, whereas the enzyme encoded by the IB allele adds the B carbohydrate; the enzyme encoded by the i allele adds neither © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.11 (a) The three alleles for the ABO blood groups and their carbohydrates Allele IA IB i Carbohydrate A B none (b) Blood group genotypes and phenotypes Genotype IAIA or IAi IBIB or IBi IAIB ii Red blood cell appearance Phenotype A B AB O (blood group)
Pleiotropy • Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called pleiotropy • For example, pleiotropic alleles are responsible for the multiple symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Genes • Some traits may be determined by two or more genes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Epistasis • In epistasis, a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus • For example, in Labrador retrievers and many other mammals, coat color depends on two genes • One gene determines the pigment color (with alleles B for black and b for brown) • The other gene (with alleles C for color and c for no color) determines whether the pigment will be deposited in the hair © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.12 BbEe BbEe Sperm 1 /4 BE 1 /4 bE 1 /4 Be /4 1 be Eggs 1 /4 BE BBEE BbEE BBEe BbEe 1 /4 bE BbEE bbEE BbEe bbEe 1 /4 Be BBEe BbEe BBee Bbee 1 /4 be BbEe bbEe Bbee bbee 9 : 3 : 4
Polygenic Inheritance • Quantitative characters are those that vary in the population along a continuum • Quantitative variation usually indicates polygenic inheritance, an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype • Skin color in humans is an example of polygenic inheritance © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.13 AaBbCc AaBbCc Sperm 1 /8 1/8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 Eggs 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 Phenotypes: /64 1 6 /64 15 /64 20 /64 15 /64 6 /64 1 /64 Number of dark-skin alleles: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype • Another departure from Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as genotype • The norm of reaction is the phenotypic range of a genotype influenced by the environment • For example, hydrangea flowers of the same genotype range from blue-violet to pink, depending on soil acidity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.14
• Norms of reaction are generally broadest for polygenic characters • Such characters are called multifactorial because genetic and environmental factors collectively influence phenotype © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Integrating a Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation • An organism’s phenotype includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior • An organism’s phenotype reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pedigree Analysis • A pedigree is a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations • Inheritance patterns of particular traits can be traced and described using pedigrees © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.15 Key Male Female Affected Affected Mating Offspring male female 1st generation Ff Ff ff Ff 1st generation ww ww Ww Ww 2nd generation 2nd generation FF or Ff ff ff Ff Ff ff Ww ww ww Ww Ww ww 3rd generation 3rd generation ff FF or WW ww Ff or Ww Widow’s No widow’s Attached Free peak peak earlobe earlobe (a) Is a widow’s peak a dominant or b) Is an attached earlobe a dominant recessive trait? or recessive trait?
Recessively Inherited Disorders • Many genetic disorders are inherited in a recessive manner • These range from relatively mild to life- threatening © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Behavior of Recessive Alleles • Recessively inherited disorders show up only in individuals homozygous for the allele • Carriers are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal; most individuals with recessive disorders are born to carrier parents • Albinism is a recessive condition characterized by a lack of pigmentation in skin and hair © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.16 Parents Normal Normal Aa Aa Sperm A a Eggs Aa AA A Normal Normal (carrier) Aa Normal aa a Albino (carrier)
• If a recessive allele that causes a disease is rare, then the chance of two carriers meeting and mating is low • Consanguineous matings (i.e., matings between close relatives) increase the chance of mating between two carriers of the same rare allele • Most societies and cultures have laws or taboos against marriages between close relatives © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cystic Fibrosis • Cystic fibrosis is the most common lethal genetic disease in the United States,striking one out of every 2,500 people of European descent • The cystic fibrosis allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma membranes leading to a buildup of chloride ions outside the cell • Symptoms include mucus buildup in some internal organs and abnormal absorption of nutrients in the small intestine © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sickle-Cell Disease: A Genetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications • Sickle-cell disease affects one out of 400 African-Americans • The disease is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells • In homozygous individuals, all hemoglobin is abnormal (sickle-cell) • Symptoms include physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and even paralysis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fig. 14-UN1 • Heterozygotes (said to have sickle-cell trait) are usually healthy but may suffer some symptoms • About one out of ten African Americans has sickle cell trait, an unusually high frequency of an allele with detrimental effects in homozygotes • Heterozygotes are less susceptible to the malaria parasite, so there is an advantage to being heterozygous © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dominantly Inherited Disorders • Some human disorders are caused by dominant alleles • Dominant alleles that cause a lethal disease are rare and arise by mutation • Achondroplasia is a form of dwarfism caused by a rare dominant allele © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 14.17 Parents Dwarf Normal Dd dd Sperm D d Eggs Dd dd d Dwarf Normal Dd dd d Dwarf Normal
Huntington’s Disease: A Late-Onset Lethal Disease • The timing of onset of a disease significantly affects its inheritance • Huntington’s disease is a degenerative disease of the nervous system • The disease has no obvious phenotypic effects until the individual is about 35 to 40 years of age • Once the deterioration of the nervous system begins the condition is irreversible and fatal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Multifactorial Disorders • Many diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, alcoholism, mental illnesses, and cancer have both genetic and environmental components • Little is understood about the genetic contribution to most multifactorial diseases © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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14 mendel and the gene idea

  • 1.
    LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Chapter 14 Mendel and the Gene Idea Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 2.
    Overview: Drawing fromthe Deck of Genes • What genetic principles account for the passing of traits from parents to offspring? • The “blending” hypothesis is the idea that genetic material from the two parents blends together (like blue and yellow paint blend to make green) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 3.
    • The “particulate”hypothesis is the idea that parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes) • This hypothesis can explain the reappearance of traits after several generations • Mendel documented a particulate mechanism through his experiments with garden peas © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 4.
  • 5.
    Mendel used thescientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance • Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 6.
    Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach • Advantages of pea plants for genetic study – There are many varieties with distinct heritable features, or characters (such as flower color); character variants (such as purple or white flowers) are called traits – Mating can be controlled – Each flower has sperm-producing organs (stamens) and egg-producing organ (carpel) – Cross-pollination (fertilization between different plants) involves dusting one plant with pollen from another © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 7.
    LE 14-2 Removed stamens from purple flower Transferred sperm- bearing pollen from stamens of white flower to egg- bearing carpel of purple flower Parental generation (P) Stamens Carpel Pollinated carpel matured into pod Planted seeds from pod Examined offspring: First all purple generation flowers offspring (F1)
  • 8.
    • Mendel choseto track only those characters that occurred in two distinct alternative forms • He also used varieties that were true-breeding (plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 9.
    • In atypical experiment, Mendel mated two contrasting, true-breeding varieties, a process called hybridization • The true-breeding parents are the P generation • The hybrid offspring of the P generation are called the F1 generation • When F1 individuals self-pollinate or cross- pollinate with other F1 hybrids, the F2 generation is produced © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 10.
    The Law ofSegregation • When Mendel crossed contrasting, true- breeding white- and purple-flowered pea plants, all of the F1 hybrids were purple • When Mendel crossed the F1 hybrids, many of the F2 plants had purple flowers, but some had white • Mendel discovered a ratio of about three to one, purple to white flowers, in the F2 generation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 11.
    Figure 14.3-3 EXPERIMENT P Generation (true-breeding parents) Purple White flowers flowers F1 Generation (hybrids) All plants had purple flowers Self- or cross-pollination F2 Generation 705 purple- 224 white flowered flowered plants plants
  • 12.
    • Mendel reasonedthat only the purple flower factor was affecting flower color in the F1 hybrids • Mendel called the purple flower color a dominant trait and the white flower color a recessive trait • The factor for white flowers was not diluted or destroyed because it reappeared in the F2 generation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 13.
    • Mendel observedthe same pattern of inheritance in six other pea plant characters, each represented by two traits • What Mendel called a “heritable factor” is what we now call a gene © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 14.
  • 15.
    Mendel’s Model • Mendel developed a hypothesis to explain the 3:1 inheritance pattern he observed in F 2 offspring • Four related concepts make up this model • These concepts can be related to what we now know about genes and chromosomes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 16.
    • First: alternativeversions of genes account for variations in inherited characters • For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two versions, one for purple flowers and the other for white flowers • These alternative versions of a gene are now called alleles • Each gene resides at a specific locus on a specific chromosome © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 17.
    Figure 14.4 Allele for purple flowers Pair of Locus for flower-color gene homologous chromosomes Allele for white flowers
  • 18.
    • Second: foreach character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent • Mendel made this deduction without knowing about the role of chromosomes • The two alleles at a particular locus may be identical, as in the true-breeding plants of Mendel’s P generation • Alternatively, the two alleles at a locus may differ, as in the F1 hybrids © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 19.
    • Third: ifthe two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance • In the flower-color example, the F1 plants had purple flowers because the allele for that trait is dominant © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 20.
    • Fourth: (nowknown as the law of segregation): the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes • Thus, an egg or a sperm gets only one of the two alleles that are present in the organism • This segregation of alleles corresponds to the distribution of homologous chromosomes to different gametes in meiosis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 21.
    • Mendel’s segregationmodel accounts for the 3:1 ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his numerous crosses • The possible combinations of sperm and egg can be shown using a Punnett square, a diagram for predicting the results of a genetic cross between individuals of known genetic makeup • A capital letter represents a dominant allele, and a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 22.
    Figure 14.5-3 P Generation Appearance: Purple flowers White flowers Genetic makeup: PP pp Gametes: P p F1 Generation Appearance: Purple flowers Genetic makeup: Pp Gametes: 1 /2 P 1 /2 p Sperm from F1 (Pp) plant F2 Generation P p P Eggs from PP Pp F1 (Pp) plant p Pp pp 3 :1
  • 23.
    Useful Genetic Vocabulary • An organism with two identical alleles for a character is said to be homozygous for the gene controlling that character • An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be heterozygous for the gene controlling that character • Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not true-breeding © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 24.
    • Because ofthe different effects of dominant and recessive alleles, an organism’s traits do not always reveal its genetic composition • Therefore, we distinguish between an organism’s phenotype, or physical appearance, and its genotype, or genetic makeup • In the example of flower color in pea plants, PP and Pp plants have the same phenotype (purple) but different genotypes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 25.
    Figure 14.6 Phenotype Genotype Purple PP 1 (homozygous) 3 Purple Pp (heterozygous) 2 Purple Pp (heterozygous) White pp 1 1 (homozygous) Ratio 3:1 Ratio 1:2:1
  • 26.
    The Testcross • How can we tell the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype? • Such an individual could be either homozygous dominant or heterozygous • The answer is to carry out a testcross: breeding the mystery individual with a homozygous recessive individual • If any offspring display the recessive phenotype, the mystery parent must be heterozygous © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 27.
    Figure 14.7 TECHNIQUE Dominant phenotype, Recessive phenotype, unknown genotype: known genotype: PP or Pp? pp Predictions If purple-flowered or If purple-flowered parent is PP parent is Pp Sperm Sperm p p p p P P Pp Pp Pp Pp Eggs Eggs P p Pp Pp pp pp RESULTS or All offspring purple /2 offspring purple and 1 1 /2 offspring white
  • 28.
    The Law ofIndependent Assortment • Mendel derived the law of segregation by following a single character • The F1 offspring produced in this cross were monohybrids, individuals that are heterozygous for one character • A cross between such heterozygotes is called a monohybrid cross © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 29.
    • Mendel identifiedhis second law of inheritance by following two characters at the same time • Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters • A dihybrid cross, a cross between F1 dihybrids, can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 30.
    Figure 14.8 EXPERIMENT P Generation YYRR yyrr Gametes YR yr F1 Generation YyRr Predictions Hypothesis of Hypothesis of dependent assortment independent assortment Sperm Predicted or offspring of /4 YR 1 /4 Yr 1 1 /4 yR 1 /4 yr Sperm F2 generation 1 /2 YR /2 yr 1 1 /4 YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr 1 /2 YR YYRR YyRr 1 /4 Yr Eggs YYRr YYrr Yyrr YyRr 1 /2 yr Eggs YyRr yyrr 1 /4 yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr /4 3 /4 1 1 /4 yr Phenotypic ratio 3:1 YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr 9 /16 /16 3 3 /16 /16 1 Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 RESULTS 315 108 101 32 Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:1
  • 31.
    • Using adihybrid cross, Mendel developed the law of independent assortment • The law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation • Strictly speaking, this law applies only to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes or those far apart on the same chromosome • Genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 32.
    Inheritance patterns areoften more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics • The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely as simple as in the pea plant characters Mendel studied • Many heritable characters are not determined by only one gene with two alleles • However, the basic principles of segregation and independent assortment apply even to more complex patterns of inheritance © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 33.
    Extending Mendelian Geneticsfor a Single Gene • Inheritance of characters by a single gene may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns in the following situations: – When alleles are not completely dominant or recessive – When a gene has more than two alleles – When a gene produces multiple phenotypes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 34.
    Degrees of Dominance • Complete dominance occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical • In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties • In codominance, two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 35.
    Figure 14.10-3 P Generation Red White CRCR CWCW Gametes CR CW F1 Generation Pink CRCW Gametes 1/2 CR /2 CW 1 Sperm F2 Generation /2 CR 1 /2 CW 1 /2 CR 1 Eggs CRCR CRCW /2 CW 1 CRCW CWCW
  • 36.
    The Relation BetweenDominance and Phenotype • A dominant allele does not subdue a recessive allele; alleles don’t interact that way • Alleles are simply variations in a gene’s nucleotide sequence • For any character, dominance/recessiveness relationships of alleles depend on the level at which we examine the phenotype © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 37.
    • Tay-Sachs diseaseis fatal; a dysfunctional enzyme causes an accumulation of lipids in the brain – At the organismal level, the allele is recessive – At the biochemical level, the phenotype (i.e., the enzyme activity level) is incompletely dominant – At the molecular level, the alleles are codominant © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 38.
    Multiple Alleles • Most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms • For example, the four phenotypes of the ABO blood group in humans are determined by three alleles for the enzyme (I) that attaches A or B carbohydrates to red blood cells: IA, IB, and i. • The enzyme encoded by the IA allele adds the A carbohydrate, whereas the enzyme encoded by the IB allele adds the B carbohydrate; the enzyme encoded by the i allele adds neither © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 39.
    Figure 14.11 (a) The three alleles for the ABO blood groups and their carbohydrates Allele IA IB i Carbohydrate A B none (b) Blood group genotypes and phenotypes Genotype IAIA or IAi IBIB or IBi IAIB ii Red blood cell appearance Phenotype A B AB O (blood group)
  • 40.
    Pleiotropy • Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called pleiotropy • For example, pleiotropic alleles are responsible for the multiple symptoms of certain hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 41.
    Extending Mendelian Geneticsfor Two or More Genes • Some traits may be determined by two or more genes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 42.
    Epistasis • In epistasis, a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus • For example, in Labrador retrievers and many other mammals, coat color depends on two genes • One gene determines the pigment color (with alleles B for black and b for brown) • The other gene (with alleles C for color and c for no color) determines whether the pigment will be deposited in the hair © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 43.
    Figure 14.12 BbEe BbEe Sperm 1 /4 BE 1 /4 bE 1 /4 Be /4 1 be Eggs 1 /4 BE BBEE BbEE BBEe BbEe 1 /4 bE BbEE bbEE BbEe bbEe 1 /4 Be BBEe BbEe BBee Bbee 1 /4 be BbEe bbEe Bbee bbee 9 : 3 : 4
  • 44.
    Polygenic Inheritance • Quantitative characters are those that vary in the population along a continuum • Quantitative variation usually indicates polygenic inheritance, an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype • Skin color in humans is an example of polygenic inheritance © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 45.
    Figure 14.13 AaBbCc AaBbCc Sperm 1 /8 1/8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 Eggs 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 1 /8 Phenotypes: /64 1 6 /64 15 /64 20 /64 15 /64 6 /64 1 /64 Number of dark-skin alleles: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
  • 46.
    Nature and Nurture:The Environmental Impact on Phenotype • Another departure from Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as genotype • The norm of reaction is the phenotypic range of a genotype influenced by the environment • For example, hydrangea flowers of the same genotype range from blue-violet to pink, depending on soil acidity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 47.
  • 48.
    • Norms ofreaction are generally broadest for polygenic characters • Such characters are called multifactorial because genetic and environmental factors collectively influence phenotype © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 49.
    Integrating a MendelianView of Heredity and Variation • An organism’s phenotype includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior • An organism’s phenotype reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 50.
    Pedigree Analysis • A pedigree is a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations • Inheritance patterns of particular traits can be traced and described using pedigrees © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 51.
    Figure 14.15 Key Male Female Affected Affected Mating Offspring male female 1st generation Ff Ff ff Ff 1st generation ww ww Ww Ww 2nd generation 2nd generation FF or Ff ff ff Ff Ff ff Ww ww ww Ww Ww ww 3rd generation 3rd generation ff FF or WW ww Ff or Ww Widow’s No widow’s Attached Free peak peak earlobe earlobe (a) Is a widow’s peak a dominant or b) Is an attached earlobe a dominant recessive trait? or recessive trait?
  • 52.
    Recessively Inherited Disorders • Many genetic disorders are inherited in a recessive manner • These range from relatively mild to life- threatening © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 53.
    The Behavior ofRecessive Alleles • Recessively inherited disorders show up only in individuals homozygous for the allele • Carriers are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal; most individuals with recessive disorders are born to carrier parents • Albinism is a recessive condition characterized by a lack of pigmentation in skin and hair © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 54.
    Figure 14.16 Parents Normal Normal Aa Aa Sperm A a Eggs Aa AA A Normal Normal (carrier) Aa Normal aa a Albino (carrier)
  • 55.
    • If arecessive allele that causes a disease is rare, then the chance of two carriers meeting and mating is low • Consanguineous matings (i.e., matings between close relatives) increase the chance of mating between two carriers of the same rare allele • Most societies and cultures have laws or taboos against marriages between close relatives © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 56.
    Cystic Fibrosis • Cystic fibrosis is the most common lethal genetic disease in the United States,striking one out of every 2,500 people of European descent • The cystic fibrosis allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma membranes leading to a buildup of chloride ions outside the cell • Symptoms include mucus buildup in some internal organs and abnormal absorption of nutrients in the small intestine © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 57.
    Sickle-Cell Disease: AGenetic Disorder with Evolutionary Implications • Sickle-cell disease affects one out of 400 African-Americans • The disease is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells • In homozygous individuals, all hemoglobin is abnormal (sickle-cell) • Symptoms include physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and even paralysis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 58.
    Fig. 14-UN1 • Heterozygotes (said to have sickle-cell trait) are usually healthy but may suffer some symptoms • About one out of ten African Americans has sickle cell trait, an unusually high frequency of an allele with detrimental effects in homozygotes • Heterozygotes are less susceptible to the malaria parasite, so there is an advantage to being heterozygous © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 59.
    Dominantly Inherited Disorders • Some human disorders are caused by dominant alleles • Dominant alleles that cause a lethal disease are rare and arise by mutation • Achondroplasia is a form of dwarfism caused by a rare dominant allele © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 60.
    Figure 14.17 Parents Dwarf Normal Dd dd Sperm D d Eggs Dd dd d Dwarf Normal Dd dd d Dwarf Normal
  • 61.
    Huntington’s Disease: ALate-Onset Lethal Disease • The timing of onset of a disease significantly affects its inheritance • Huntington’s disease is a degenerative disease of the nervous system • The disease has no obvious phenotypic effects until the individual is about 35 to 40 years of age • Once the deterioration of the nervous system begins the condition is irreversible and fatal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 62.
    Multifactorial Disorders • Many diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, alcoholism, mental illnesses, and cancer have both genetic and environmental components • Little is understood about the genetic contribution to most multifactorial diseases © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Editor's Notes

  • #5 Figure 14.1 What principles of inheritance did Gregor Mendel discover by breeding garden pea plants?
  • #12 Figure 14.3 Inquiry: When F 1 hybrid pea plants self- or cross-pollinate, which traits appear in the F 2 generation?
  • #15 Table 14.1 The Results of Mendel ’s F 1 Crosses for Seven Characters in Pea Plants
  • #18 Figure 14.4 Alleles, alternative versions of a gene.
  • #23 Figure 14.5 Mendel ’s law of segregation.
  • #26 Figure 14.6 Phenotype versus genotype.
  • #28 Figure 14.7 Research Method: The Testcross
  • #31 Figure 14.8 Inquiry: Do the alleles for one character assort into gametes dependently or independently of the alleles for a different character?
  • #36 Figure 14.10 Incomplete dominance in snapdragon color.
  • #40 Figure 14.11 Multiple alleles for the ABO blood groups.
  • #44 Figure 14.12 An example of epistasis.
  • #46 Figure 14.13 A simplified model for polygenic inheritance of skin color.
  • #48 Figure 14.14 The effect of environment on phenotype.
  • #52 Figure 14.15 Pedigree analysis.
  • #55 Figure 14.16 Albinism: a recessive trait.
  • #61 Figure 14.17 Achondroplasia: a dominant trait.