1) The document summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics. It describes Mendel's experimental methods and how he used controlled crosses to discover the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
2) Mendel found that traits separate, or segregate, during the formation of gametes, so offspring have a random chance of inheriting one trait or another. He also found that different traits assort, or separate, independently during gamete formation.
3) The document explains how Mendel's laws form the basis for predicting inheritance through probabilities and how they apply even when inheritance is more complex, involving multiple genes or non-dominant traits.
1) The document summarizes a lecture on Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns based on Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It describes Mendel's experiments, the laws of segregation and independent assortment that he discovered, and how these laws establish the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) It explains key genetic concepts like dominant and recessive traits, genotypes and phenotypes, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. It also discusses how Mendel's laws relate to modern understanding of genes and chromosomes.
3) The document notes that while Mendel's work formed the basis of genetics, inheritance patterns are sometimes more complex than predicted by his simple models, such as when genes have multiple
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants that varied in traits like flower color. By carefully tracking the inheritance of traits over generations, he discovered two laws of heredity: segregation and independent assortment. Mendel found that traits separate, or segregate, so offspring receive one allele for each trait from each parent. He also found that different traits assort independently, resulting in unpredictable combinations in offspring. Mendel's laws explained the patterns of inheritance he observed, like the 3:1 ratio of dominant to recessive traits in the second filial generation. His work established the foundations of classical genetics.
KEY CONCEPTS
14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance
14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics
14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of
inheritance
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experimental methods and key findings, including his laws of segregation and independent assortment. It explains how Mendel used controlled crosses and statistical analysis to determine that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently. Finally, it notes that inheritance patterns are sometimes more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics.
1) Gregor Mendel studied inheritance through experiments breeding pea plants. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors that he later called genes.
2) Mendel discovered that for many traits, one gene variant (allele) is dominant and masks the presence of the other, recessive allele. In the next generation, the recessive trait reappears in approximately a 1:4 ratio.
3) Mendel also showed that inheritance of different traits follows patterns of independent assortment, with alleles for one trait sorting independently from those of another during gamete formation. This allowed him to predict inheritance probabilities through Punnett square analysis.
- Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants that differed in traits like flower color and seed texture. He discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently.
- Mendel identified two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these segregate so offspring receive only one; the Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
- Mendel's experiments supported the particulate hypothesis of heredity over the blending hypothesis. His work established genetics as a scientific discipline and laid the groundwork for modern understanding of inheritance based on genes and chromosomes
Ch 12 gene linkage groups and practice problemsStephanie Beck
1. The document discusses genetics concepts like linkage groups, chromosome mapping, parental and recombinant types. It provides examples of genetic crosses in pea plants and fruit flies to demonstrate these concepts.
2. Recombinant types result from crossovers during meiosis, where alleles switch positions on homologous chromosomes. The frequency of recombinants allows calculation of distance between genes.
3. A sample genetics problem is presented, asking the reader to analyze a dihybrid cross in pea plants and determine the chromosome arrangement and distance between genes.
1) The document summarizes a lecture on Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns based on Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It describes Mendel's experiments, the laws of segregation and independent assortment that he discovered, and how these laws establish the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) It explains key genetic concepts like dominant and recessive traits, genotypes and phenotypes, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. It also discusses how Mendel's laws relate to modern understanding of genes and chromosomes.
3) The document notes that while Mendel's work formed the basis of genetics, inheritance patterns are sometimes more complex than predicted by his simple models, such as when genes have multiple
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants that varied in traits like flower color. By carefully tracking the inheritance of traits over generations, he discovered two laws of heredity: segregation and independent assortment. Mendel found that traits separate, or segregate, so offspring receive one allele for each trait from each parent. He also found that different traits assort independently, resulting in unpredictable combinations in offspring. Mendel's laws explained the patterns of inheritance he observed, like the 3:1 ratio of dominant to recessive traits in the second filial generation. His work established the foundations of classical genetics.
KEY CONCEPTS
14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance
14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics
14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of
inheritance
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experimental methods and key findings, including his laws of segregation and independent assortment. It explains how Mendel used controlled crosses and statistical analysis to determine that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently. Finally, it notes that inheritance patterns are sometimes more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics.
1) Gregor Mendel studied inheritance through experiments breeding pea plants. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors that he later called genes.
2) Mendel discovered that for many traits, one gene variant (allele) is dominant and masks the presence of the other, recessive allele. In the next generation, the recessive trait reappears in approximately a 1:4 ratio.
3) Mendel also showed that inheritance of different traits follows patterns of independent assortment, with alleles for one trait sorting independently from those of another during gamete formation. This allowed him to predict inheritance probabilities through Punnett square analysis.
- Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants that differed in traits like flower color and seed texture. He discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently.
- Mendel identified two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these segregate so offspring receive only one; the Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
- Mendel's experiments supported the particulate hypothesis of heredity over the blending hypothesis. His work established genetics as a scientific discipline and laid the groundwork for modern understanding of inheritance based on genes and chromosomes
Ch 12 gene linkage groups and practice problemsStephanie Beck
1. The document discusses genetics concepts like linkage groups, chromosome mapping, parental and recombinant types. It provides examples of genetic crosses in pea plants and fruit flies to demonstrate these concepts.
2. Recombinant types result from crossovers during meiosis, where alleles switch positions on homologous chromosomes. The frequency of recombinants allows calculation of distance between genes.
3. A sample genetics problem is presented, asking the reader to analyze a dihybrid cross in pea plants and determine the chromosome arrangement and distance between genes.
Genes are located on DNA and code for characteristics. Traits depend on both genes and environment. Mendel discovered genes through experiments with pea plants, showing traits are inherited as discrete units that assort and recombine independently. He found traits are dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate and assort independently according to predictable statistical patterns. This laid the foundations for genetics.
1. Mendel proposed three laws of inheritance: the law of dominance and recessive, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment.
2. The law of segregation states that when hybrids form gametes, the alleles separate and only one enters each gamete, maintaining the purity of gametes.
3. The law of independent assortment describes inheritance of more than one trait, with the alleles for each trait assorting independently of other traits during gamete formation.
1. Genetic linkage occurs when two genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together during meiosis.
2. Early theories of linkage proposed by Sutton, Boveri, Bateson and Punnett failed to fully explain observed inheritance patterns.
3. Morgan's chromosomal theory of linkage established that genes are linearly arranged on chromosomes and that the closer two genes are, the stronger the tendency for them to be inherited together. This provided an explanation for linkage patterns and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that (1) when he crossed plants with contrasting traits, the hybrid offspring only showed traits of one parent, (2) in the next generation, the traits separated and were expressed in a 3:1 ratio, with the dominant trait appearing more often. His findings supported that inheritance is determined by discrete units (genes and alleles) that are transmitted from parents to offspring and can be dominant or recessive.
This document provides an overview of chromosomal theory of inheritance and genetic mapping. It discusses key discoveries such as Morgan's work showing the eye color gene in fruit flies resides on the X chromosome. The document also summarizes genetic mapping techniques including calculating recombination frequency and constructing linkage maps. It briefly discusses human conditions related to nondisjunction and genomic imprinting.
This document discusses several genetics concepts including:
1) Traits can be physical characteristics visible on the outside (phenotype) or genetic characteristics on the inside (genotype). Genes determine traits through dominance relationships.
2) Mendel studied inheritance of traits in pea plants and discovered the laws of segregation and independent assortment using patterns from genetic crosses and Punnett squares.
3) Genetic disorders can be passed from parent to offspring, with some offspring getting the disorder, some being carriers, and some being normal depending on their genotype.
This document discusses several genetics concepts:
1) It defines traits, heredity, inheritance and how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
2) It explains DNA structure and its role in protein synthesis and mutations.
3) It describes Mendel's experiments with pea plants and inheritance patterns such as dominance, co-dominance, and incomplete dominance.
4) It discusses blood typing, sex-linked traits like hemophilia, and carrier status.
The document discusses several key concepts regarding genetics:
1) It compares purebred and mutt dogs, noting that purebreds experience less genetic variation due to selective breeding while mutts have more variation.
2) It discusses Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants which formed the basis of modern genetics and led to his laws of inheritance.
3) It explains Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment, how alleles segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization.
4) It discusses how many traits are influenced not just by genetics but also the environment, and that inheritance follows probabilistic rules.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who studied heredity through experiments with pea plants in his garden. He discovered the basic rules of genetics, including that traits are passed from parents to offspring and certain traits are dominant over recessive traits. Mendel studied seven observable traits in pea plants and used cross-pollination to determine which traits were dominant. His laws of segregation and independent assortment established that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and that genes assort independently during reproduction.
This document provides an overview of genetics and summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It discusses key genetics concepts like heredity, variation, factors/genes, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and segregation. It describes Mendel's monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and how they led to his laws of inheritance - the law of dominance and the law of independent assortment. Mendel's work established genetics as a field and provided the foundation for modern understanding of heredity.
Codominance is when both alleles of a gene are fully expressed in a heterozygote. For example, individuals with one curly hair allele and one straight hair allele have wavy hair, which is a blend of both traits. Codominance results in a third phenotype that expresses both parental traits together. Mendel's law of independent assortment states that alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation such that all combinations of alleles are possible.
This document summarizes key concepts in heredity and genetics. It explains that heredity is the passing of traits from parents to offspring, and genetics is the study of inheritance. It describes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations of genetics. His principles of heredity established that traits are controlled by alleles, which can be dominant or recessive. The document also explains concepts like genotypes, phenotypes, homozygous and heterozygous traits, and how Punnett squares are used to predict inheritance patterns. It covers incomplete dominance, polygenic traits, and environmental influences on genes. Other topics include mutations, genetic disorders, sex-linked traits, and the use of pedigrees to study
1) The document summarizes a chapter from a biology textbook about Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) Mendel conducted controlled crosses of pea plants with distinct, heritable traits and found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, such as a 3:1 ratio for some traits.
3) Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which showed that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently during reproduction.
1) Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants and discovered the basic principles of heredity through his observations of inherited traits over multiple generations.
2) He found that traits are inherited in discrete units (now called genes) and that these units segregate and assort independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance.
3) Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and provided evidence against the prevailing "blending inheritance" hypothesis by demonstrating that inherited factors are particulate in nature.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. He found that traits were inherited in discrete units, which we now know as genes.
- In his experiments, Mendel identified two laws of inheritance. The Law of Segregation states that genes separate during gamete formation so offspring receive only one allele for each gene from each parent. The Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
- Mendel's discoveries demonstrated that inheritance has a particulate, rather than blending, nature. His work established the foundations of classical genetics and heralded the particulate theory of inheritance.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, 9th Edition which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the traits he studied, his development of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. It also discusses terminology used in genetics like genes, alleles, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and how Mendel's principles can explain more complex inheritance patterns.
Mendel discovered three laws of inheritance through experiments breeding pea plants:
1) The Law of Segregation states that alleles for a gene separate during gamete formation such that each gamete carries one allele.
2) The Law of Dominance describes how some alleles are dominant and others recessive, with dominant alleles determining the phenotype.
3) The Law of Independent Assortment explains that genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio for two gene traits.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and was the first to deduce the fundamental principles of genetics and heredity. Through his work with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel discovered that traits are transmitted from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) which segregate and assort independently during reproduction. His findings established the basic principles of inheritance and provided the foundation for modern genetics.
This document provides an overview of Mendelian genetics and patterns of inheritance. It discusses key topics such as:
1) Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the 1860s which discovered the fundamental principles of genetics and heredity.
2) Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment which explain inheritance patterns for single traits and two traits, respectively.
3) How chromosome behavior during meiosis accounts for Mendel's laws, with homologous chromosomes separating during meiosis I relating to the law of segregation, and independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I relating to the law of independent assortment.
Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment govern inheritance. When crossing two heterozygotes with different alleles at the same locus, DaDb and DcDd, the alleles will segregate and assort independently. This results in offspring genotypes in a 1:2:1:2:1:2:1:1 ratio.
Genes are located on DNA and code for characteristics. Traits depend on both genes and environment. Mendel discovered genes through experiments with pea plants, showing traits are inherited as discrete units that assort and recombine independently. He found traits are dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate and assort independently according to predictable statistical patterns. This laid the foundations for genetics.
1. Mendel proposed three laws of inheritance: the law of dominance and recessive, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment.
2. The law of segregation states that when hybrids form gametes, the alleles separate and only one enters each gamete, maintaining the purity of gametes.
3. The law of independent assortment describes inheritance of more than one trait, with the alleles for each trait assorting independently of other traits during gamete formation.
1. Genetic linkage occurs when two genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together during meiosis.
2. Early theories of linkage proposed by Sutton, Boveri, Bateson and Punnett failed to fully explain observed inheritance patterns.
3. Morgan's chromosomal theory of linkage established that genes are linearly arranged on chromosomes and that the closer two genes are, the stronger the tendency for them to be inherited together. This provided an explanation for linkage patterns and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that (1) when he crossed plants with contrasting traits, the hybrid offspring only showed traits of one parent, (2) in the next generation, the traits separated and were expressed in a 3:1 ratio, with the dominant trait appearing more often. His findings supported that inheritance is determined by discrete units (genes and alleles) that are transmitted from parents to offspring and can be dominant or recessive.
This document provides an overview of chromosomal theory of inheritance and genetic mapping. It discusses key discoveries such as Morgan's work showing the eye color gene in fruit flies resides on the X chromosome. The document also summarizes genetic mapping techniques including calculating recombination frequency and constructing linkage maps. It briefly discusses human conditions related to nondisjunction and genomic imprinting.
This document discusses several genetics concepts including:
1) Traits can be physical characteristics visible on the outside (phenotype) or genetic characteristics on the inside (genotype). Genes determine traits through dominance relationships.
2) Mendel studied inheritance of traits in pea plants and discovered the laws of segregation and independent assortment using patterns from genetic crosses and Punnett squares.
3) Genetic disorders can be passed from parent to offspring, with some offspring getting the disorder, some being carriers, and some being normal depending on their genotype.
This document discusses several genetics concepts:
1) It defines traits, heredity, inheritance and how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
2) It explains DNA structure and its role in protein synthesis and mutations.
3) It describes Mendel's experiments with pea plants and inheritance patterns such as dominance, co-dominance, and incomplete dominance.
4) It discusses blood typing, sex-linked traits like hemophilia, and carrier status.
The document discusses several key concepts regarding genetics:
1) It compares purebred and mutt dogs, noting that purebreds experience less genetic variation due to selective breeding while mutts have more variation.
2) It discusses Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants which formed the basis of modern genetics and led to his laws of inheritance.
3) It explains Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment, how alleles segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization.
4) It discusses how many traits are influenced not just by genetics but also the environment, and that inheritance follows probabilistic rules.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who studied heredity through experiments with pea plants in his garden. He discovered the basic rules of genetics, including that traits are passed from parents to offspring and certain traits are dominant over recessive traits. Mendel studied seven observable traits in pea plants and used cross-pollination to determine which traits were dominant. His laws of segregation and independent assortment established that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and that genes assort independently during reproduction.
This document provides an overview of genetics and summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It discusses key genetics concepts like heredity, variation, factors/genes, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and segregation. It describes Mendel's monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and how they led to his laws of inheritance - the law of dominance and the law of independent assortment. Mendel's work established genetics as a field and provided the foundation for modern understanding of heredity.
Codominance is when both alleles of a gene are fully expressed in a heterozygote. For example, individuals with one curly hair allele and one straight hair allele have wavy hair, which is a blend of both traits. Codominance results in a third phenotype that expresses both parental traits together. Mendel's law of independent assortment states that alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation such that all combinations of alleles are possible.
This document summarizes key concepts in heredity and genetics. It explains that heredity is the passing of traits from parents to offspring, and genetics is the study of inheritance. It describes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations of genetics. His principles of heredity established that traits are controlled by alleles, which can be dominant or recessive. The document also explains concepts like genotypes, phenotypes, homozygous and heterozygous traits, and how Punnett squares are used to predict inheritance patterns. It covers incomplete dominance, polygenic traits, and environmental influences on genes. Other topics include mutations, genetic disorders, sex-linked traits, and the use of pedigrees to study
1) The document summarizes a chapter from a biology textbook about Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) Mendel conducted controlled crosses of pea plants with distinct, heritable traits and found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, such as a 3:1 ratio for some traits.
3) Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which showed that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently during reproduction.
1) Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants and discovered the basic principles of heredity through his observations of inherited traits over multiple generations.
2) He found that traits are inherited in discrete units (now called genes) and that these units segregate and assort independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance.
3) Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and provided evidence against the prevailing "blending inheritance" hypothesis by demonstrating that inherited factors are particulate in nature.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. He found that traits were inherited in discrete units, which we now know as genes.
- In his experiments, Mendel identified two laws of inheritance. The Law of Segregation states that genes separate during gamete formation so offspring receive only one allele for each gene from each parent. The Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
- Mendel's discoveries demonstrated that inheritance has a particulate, rather than blending, nature. His work established the foundations of classical genetics and heralded the particulate theory of inheritance.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, 9th Edition which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the traits he studied, his development of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. It also discusses terminology used in genetics like genes, alleles, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and how Mendel's principles can explain more complex inheritance patterns.
Mendel discovered three laws of inheritance through experiments breeding pea plants:
1) The Law of Segregation states that alleles for a gene separate during gamete formation such that each gamete carries one allele.
2) The Law of Dominance describes how some alleles are dominant and others recessive, with dominant alleles determining the phenotype.
3) The Law of Independent Assortment explains that genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio for two gene traits.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and was the first to deduce the fundamental principles of genetics and heredity. Through his work with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel discovered that traits are transmitted from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) which segregate and assort independently during reproduction. His findings established the basic principles of inheritance and provided the foundation for modern genetics.
This document provides an overview of Mendelian genetics and patterns of inheritance. It discusses key topics such as:
1) Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the 1860s which discovered the fundamental principles of genetics and heredity.
2) Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment which explain inheritance patterns for single traits and two traits, respectively.
3) How chromosome behavior during meiosis accounts for Mendel's laws, with homologous chromosomes separating during meiosis I relating to the law of segregation, and independent assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I relating to the law of independent assortment.
Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment govern inheritance. When crossing two heterozygotes with different alleles at the same locus, DaDb and DcDd, the alleles will segregate and assort independently. This results in offspring genotypes in a 1:2:1:2:1:2:1:1 ratio.
Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment govern inheritance patterns. When Mendel crossed two heterozygotes with different alleles at the same locus (DaDb x DcDd), he would expect the following genotype proportions in the offspring:
1) 9% DaDa, DbDb, DcDc, DdDd (homozygotes)
2) 24% DaDb, DaDc, DaDd, DbDc, DbDd, DcDd (heterozygotes)
3) 43% DaDc, DaDd, DbDc, DbDd (other heterozygotes)
The alleles assort independently during gamete formation, allowing for all possible combinations in a 9:
The idea of chromosomal Linkage. It starts with understanding the Mendel's law of segregation and Independent assortment and later discusses why certain traits does not follows 9:3:3:1 ratio as in Mendel's law of Independent assortment. Also briefly covers the Genetic mapping and phenotypic mapping unit.
Gregor Mendel discovered the principles of genetics through experiments breeding pea plants. He found that heritable factors (now called genes) are passed from parents to offspring, and that these factors segregate and assort independently during gamete formation. This results in a predictable pattern of inheritance for single traits (Mendel's law of segregation) and combinations of traits (Mendel's law of independent assortment), which can be explained using rules of probability. Mendel's discoveries established the foundations of classical genetics.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to discover the principles of heredity. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel deduced two laws of inheritance: 1) The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate and are passed to gametes independently, resulting in a 1:2:1 genotypic ratio. 2) The Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio for dihybrid crosses. Mendel's laws demonstrated that heredity follows predictable statistical patterns and established the foundations of classical genetics.
The document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the fundamental principles of heredity and genetics. Through breeding and tracking inherited traits in pea plants over multiple generations, Mendel discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (genes) that segregate and assort independently. Mendel's work formed the basis of classical genetics and established the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundation for genetics. It summarizes Mendel's key findings: (1) When he crossed true-breeding pea plants with different traits, such as purple vs white flowers, the offspring (F1) all exhibited the dominant trait. (2) When he allowed the F1 hybrids to self-pollinate, the F2 offspring showed a 3:1 ratio of the dominant to recessive traits. From this, Mendel inferred that inherited factors (genes) behave according to principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. His work established the fundamental laws of inheritance.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and the principles of heredity and genetics that he discovered. It discusses Mendel's work crossing pea plants with different traits, such as flower color, and recording the results in subsequent generations. His experiments showed that traits are inherited in discrete units (now known as genes) and follow predictable patterns, such as the 3:1 ratio he observed for dominant and recessive traits in the F2 generation of a monohybrid cross. The document also covers Mendel's principle of independent assortment observed in dihybrid crosses.
This document provides information about Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that formed the basis of genetics. It discusses key terms like genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains how Mendel used controlled breeding experiments and statistical analysis to discover that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently. It also explains how his findings differed from and eventually replaced the earlier blending hypothesis of heredity.
Morgan's experiments with fruit flies provided evidence that genes are located on chromosomes. By tracking inheritance of traits like eye color, Morgan showed that genes assort and recombine during meiosis according to Mendel's laws. He discovered that genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together due to infrequent genetic recombination through chromosome crossover. This established chromosomes as the physical basis of inheritance.
DNA is copied when mitosis or meiosis begins, forming new cells with identical or varying chromosomes. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the mid-1800s and discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units called factors, now known as genes, which segregate independently during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance. His work established the foundations of classical genetics.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
26. Figure 14.5-2
P Generation
F1 Generation
Appearance:
Genetic makeup:
Gametes:
Appearance:
Genetic makeup:
Gametes:
Purple flowers White flowers
Purple flowers
Pp
PP pp
P
P
p
p1/2
1/2
27. Figure 14.5-3
P Generation
F1 Generation
F2 Generation
Appearance:
Genetic makeup:
Gametes:
Appearance:
Genetic makeup:
Gametes:
Purple flowers White flowers
Purple flowers
Sperm from F1 (Pp) plant
Pp
PP pp
P
P
P
P
p
p
p
p
Eggs from
F1 (Pp) plant
PP
ppPp
Pp
1/2
1/2
3 : 1
32. Figure 14.7
Dominant phenotype,
unknown genotype:
PP or Pp?
Recessive phenotype,
known genotype:
pp
Predictions
If purple-flowered
parent is PP
If purple-flowered
parent is Pp
or
Sperm Sperm
Eggs Eggs
or
All offspring purple 1/2 offspring purple and
1/2 offspring white
Pp Pp
Pp Pp
Pp Pp
pp pp
p p p p
P
P
P
p
TECHNIQUE
RESULTS
35. Figure 14.8
P Generation
F1 Generation
Predictions
Gametes
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
YYRR yyrr
yrYR
YyRr
Hypothesis of
dependent assortment
Hypothesis of
independent assortment
Predicted
offspring of
F2 generation
Sperm
Sperm
or
Eggs
Eggs
Phenotypic ratio 3:1
Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1
Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:1315 108 101 32
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
9/16
3/16
3/16
1/16
YR
YR
YR
YR
yr
yr
yr
yr
1/4
3/4
Yr
Yr
yR
yR
YYRR YyRr
YyRr yyrr
YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
36. How to determine the gametes’ alleles to do a dihybrid
cross:
F1 Parents: YyRr and YyRr
Do the “FOIL” method on one parent genotype at a time to
show the gametes’ alleles
First terms: YR
Outer: Yr
Inner: yR
Last: yr
Each genotype that a parent would donate to an offspring
need to contain only one of each kind of letter. In this
example it needs to contain one Y and one R only. This
shows the Law of Segregation (Y’s segregated and R’s
segregated) and the Law of Independent Assortment
54. Figure 14.11
Carbohydrate
Allele
(a) The three alleles for the ABO blood groups and their
carbohydrates
(b) Blood group genotypes and phenotypes
Genotype
Red blood cell
appearance
Phenotype
(blood group)
A
A
B
B AB
none
O
IA IB i
iiIAIBIAIA or IAi IBIB or IBi
89. Figure 14.UN03
Complete dominance
of one allele
Relationship among
alleles of a single gene
Description Example
Incomplete dominance
of either allele
Codominance
Multiple alleles
Pleiotropy
Heterozygous phenotype
same as that of homo-
zygous dominant
Heterozygous phenotype
intermediate between
the two homozygous
phenotypes
Both phenotypes
expressed in
heterozygotes
In the whole population,
some genes have more
than two alleles
One gene is able to affect
multiple phenotypic
characters
ABO blood group alleles
Sickle-cell disease
PP Pp
CRCR CRCW CWCW
IAIB
IA, IB, i
90. Figure 14.UN04
Epistasis
Polygenic inheritance
Relationship among
two or more genes
Description Example
The phenotypic
expression of one
gene affects that
of another
A single phenotypic
character is affected
by two or more genes
9 : 3 : 4
BbEe BbEe
BE
BE
bE
bE
Be
Be
be
be
AaBbCc AaBbCc